Communication, Society and Media 
ISSN 2576-5388 (Print) ISSN 2576-5396 (Online) 

Vol. 3, No. 3, 2020 
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1 
 

Original Paper 

Policy Responses to Addressing the Issues of Environmental 

Health Impacts of Charcoal Factory in Nigeria: Necessity Today; 

Essentiality Tomorrow 
Ajayi Folajimi Ajibola1, Raimi Morufu Olalekan2*, Steve-Awogbami Oluseyi Catherine3, Adeniji 

Anthony Olusola4 & Adebayo Patrick Adekunle4 
1 Primary Health Care Department, Kwara State College of Nursing and Midwifery, Ilorin, Kwara State, 

Nigeria 
2 Department of Community Medicine, Environmental Health Unit, Faculty of Clinical Sciences, Niger 

Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria 
3 Department of General Studies, College of Health Sciences and Technology, Ijero-Ekiti 
4 Department of Environmental Health Technology, College of Health Sciences and Technology, 

Ijero-Ekiti 
* Raimi Morufu Olalekan, Department of Community Medicine, Environmental Health Unit, Faculty of 

Clinical Sciences, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria 
 
Received: May 7, 2020         Accepted: May 28, 2020          Online Published: June 9, 2020 

doi:10.22158/csm.v3n3p1                        URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/csm.v3n3p1 

 
Abstract 

Worldwide trebled of wood charcoal production over the last 50 years from 17.3 million tons in 1964 to 

53.1 million tons in 2014 with sixty-one percent of current global production occurring in Africa, 

primarily to satisfy the demand for cooking fuel from urban and rural households with 2.7 billion 

people relying on wood fuels in the global south, while, the rural populace in Nigeria use about 80 

million cubic meters of wood fuel annually for household energy. The furnaces of the world are now 

burning about 2, 000, 000, 000 tons of charcoal a year. When this is burned, uniting with oxygen, it 

adds about 7, 000, 000, 000 tons of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere yearly. This tends to make the air 

a more effective blanket for the earth and to raise its temperature. The effect may be considerable in a 

few countries. With Nigeria’s population projected to hit 410.6 million by 2050 and 550million by 2070 

and consequently, becoming the third most populous country on our planet, and with an increased 

population growth rate in this part of the global village is alarming and worrisome, couple with 

rural-urban migration in key producing states, including Kwara, Ogun, Osun, Ondo, Ekiti, Kogi, etc. 



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Whilst demand for charcoal is projected to increase in Nigeria, the availability of woody biomass is 

declining due to widespread net deforestation and biomass being the only energy source of choice due 

to large scale poverty and unaffordable prices of other alternatives like gas and electricity. While the 

human population naturally increases geometrically, the power of the improvements in resources goes 

up arithmetically leading to disequilibrium. This disequilibrium promotes a lot of crises bordering on 

economy, security, health, and politics among others. It is a fact that human populations tend to 

increase much more rapidly than the means of subsistence. Given the increasing demand for charcoal, 

and decreasing availability of biomass, policies are urgently needed that ensure secure energy supplies 

for urban and rural households and reduce deforestation. There is potential for charcoal to be 

produced sustainably in natural woodlands, but this requires supportive policies, economic 

diversification, and investment in improved eco-stoves. New advocacy and public health movement are 

needed urgently to bring together governments, international agencies, development partners, 

communities, and academics from all disciplines to address the effects of charcoal factories on health. 

Keywords 

supportive policies, charcoal production, human populations, household energy, economic 

diversification, COVID-19, Nigeria 

 

1. Introduction 

Nigeria, a geographic space currently in the throes and stranglehold of unprecedented inequality where 

wealth and suffering both co-exist in abundance. With so much wealth, many Nigerians also suffer so 

much on a range of issues, including high risk concerning food security, poverty, energy production, 

massive use of charcoal. and most importantly, unsatisfactory infrastructure and economic development 

(FGN, 2008; Raimi et al., 2019). The snag, however, is that Nigerian and indeed, much of the 

developing world, rely on the use of biomass as the only energy source of choice due to unaffordable 

prices of other alternatives like gas and electricity which negatively affects nearly a third of humanity 

globally. Schematically, massive demographic changes underway in Nigeria and has place urban and 

peri-urban areas at the crossroads of a range of resource demands and threats to public health and 

ecosystem stability. As the population increases, so does the demand for energy. For example, 

population growth as experienced in Nigeria in recent decades is significant, coupled with a high rate 

of urbanization. Although little is known about the process of urbanization across the various states. 

The pace of urbanization is remarkable and managing the challenges of this rapid transformation is a 

key policy challenge, and yet the evidence base, predominantly in the Nigeria context, remains limited. 

One central question for policy makers is to what degree this process can be managed by policy as 

opposed to being determined by fundamentals alone. To illustrate this problem, Nigerian relies 

overwhelmingly on solid fuels for household energy needs, causing deforestation and environmental 



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degradation in many places. Less than 10% of the population has access to modern fuels, such as 

electricity, natural gas, or liquid fuels (UNDP & WHO, 2009; Gift & Olalekan, 2020). This need has 

led to unsustainable levels of deforestation and associated detrimental impacts, including erosion, net 

releases of GHGs, and loss of biodiversity (Olalekan et al., 2019). Traditional options to wood-based 

fuels have also been problematic. Livestock waste and agricultural residues, the most common 

replacement for wood and charcoal, are better suited to fertilise and stabilise agricultural fields. 

Without it, lower fertility, soil erosion, and poor water retention affect agricultural production. In the 

meantime, premature deaths from household air pollution will likely increase from 3.5 million to 5 

million by 2040, although they continue to be heavily linked to poverty and an inability to access 

modern energy. According to the IEA’s World Energy Outlook (WEO), the special report highlights the 

links between energy, air pollution and health and identifies the energy sector contributions to curb 

poor air quality, the fourth-largest threat to human health, after high blood pressure, poor diets, and 

smoking. At the start of 2020, the global energy investment program was on track with the largest 

annual growth rate in six years. But the Covid-19 crisis has halted large swathes of the world economy 

to a standstill in a matter of months, with investment forecasts expected to plummet by 20%, or almost 

$400 billion, compared with last year, according to the latest edition of World Energy Investment 

report. Despite accelerated progress of the past decade, the world will fall short of ensuring universal 

access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy come 2030 unless efforts are scaled up 

remarkably, according to the latest tracking of SDG 7 energy progress report. 

Energy production and utilisation, mostly from unregulated, poorly regulated or inefficient fuel 

combustion are the most significant man-made sources of key air pollutant emissions. Almost 85% of 

particulate matter and all of the sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides. Millions of tonnes of these pollutants 

are released into the atmosphere each year, from factories, power plants, cars, trucks, as well as the 2.7 

billion people still relying on polluting stoves and fuels for cooking (mainly wood, charcoal and other 

biomass). World Health Organization (2004) projected that more than two billion people utilise solid 

fuels for cooking by twigs, agricultural residues, dung, coal, etc. The burning of these fuels in very 

poor combustion efficiency leads to high levels of indoor air pollution. Due to poor efficiency of fuel 

resulting in wastage of resources may cause high fuel demand and in turn, leading to deforestation and 

desertification, thereby leading to heavy workload on women and children for collecting cooking fuel, 

while charcoal remains an important source of energy for various applications in the domestic sector as 

well as other sectors. Nigeria appears to be worse hit. For instance, charcoal use range from domestic 

fuel for cooking, heating, firing of boilers (e.g., in laundry facilities), heating of water in tea shops, and 

cooking in small restaurants in many emerging countries. It is the world most popular barbecue fuel 

and it is widely used as a domestic fuel because it produces less smoke while burning, requires little or 

no preparation before actual use, has a higher energy content per unit mass, while leftover after cooking 



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can easily be transported, stored and reused. Charcoal is a more affordable option as fuel for domestic 

use for many households in developing countries. The use of charcoal has also been on the increase in 

communities and countries especially those that have been ravaged by the economic depression which 

has transcended to higher demand for charcoal. Nigeria is not spared in this situation, the country has 

experienced an increase in demand and production of charcoal in recent times as many households are 

turning to it as their option of domestic fuel for cooking and heating. These have led to increase in the 

number of local charcoal factories; increased production has been experienced in old sites of 

production and new sites of production have sprung up within short periods (Hosier, 1993; Chidumayo 

& Gumbo, 2013). Such an increase has impacts on the environment and health of people in such areas 

and one of the ways of examining such impacts and providing measures to control negative impacts is 

through Environmental Health Impact Assessment (EHIA) (Raimi et al., 2019; Omidiji & Raimi, 2019; 

Olalekan et al., 2020). 

Health Impact Assessment looks at policies, programs, projects, that are not intended to impact health 

but that have the potential to have negative and/or positive effects on health and health equity (WHO, 

2000; Raimi et al., 2019; Omidiji & Raimi, 2019; Olalekan et al., 2020). It is also referred to as a 

combination of procedures, methods and tools by which a policy, program or project may be judged as 

to its potential health effects on a population, and the distribution of those effects within the population 

and the distribution of those effects within the population (Louise & Julie, 2014; Raimi et al., 2019; 

Olalekan et al., 2020). However, environmental impact assessment usually denotes the attempt to 

predict and assess the impact of development projects on the environment (Omidiji & Raimi, 2019). 

Within the context of this, EHIA considers how these identified environmental impacts will affect the 

health of the population. EHIA is usually considered as a component of EIA dealing specifically with 

human health with the view of offering unique opportunities for protecting and promoting human 

health (Jadav et al., 2002; Raimi et al., 2019). An EHIA must be considered for the proliferation of 

local charcoal factories since it has been established that charcoal production affects the environment. 

This has the potential of maximizing and controlling the effects of these local factories especially on 

the people and communities in and around the site of these local factories. 

Besides, in the global south, biomass is the main source of energy, with 2.7 billion people worldwide 

using traditional biomass as their primary cooking fuel (IEA 2010). The reliance on biomass essentially 

wood and charcoal is particularly high in Sub-Saharan Africa. About 81 percent, the proportion of 

people relying on these fuels is higher than in any other region (UNDP/WHO, 2009). Wood fuel usage 

for cooking purposes is associated with various negative effects on people’s living conditions. The 

emitted smoke is a major health threat: According to WHO (2009a), 2 million people die every year as 

a consequence of so called household air pollution, more deaths than malaria have caused (Martin et al., 

2011). In Senegal alone, some estimated 6,300 people die every year because of household air pollution 



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(WHO, 2009b). In rural areas, firewood often has to be collected posing a burden of workload, 

especially for women. In urban areas, wood fuels are by and large purchased, incurring substantial 

costs for households. Likewise, in arid countries with relatively low production of biomass such as 

Senegal, this reliance may additionally cause wood to be extracted in an unsustainable manner. The 

resulting deforestation not only affects the global climate due to a loss of carbon sinks but also leads to 

more immediate regional and local environmental impacts, including land degradation and loss of 

biodiversity. The deforestation effect of charcoal, the primary wood fuel in urban centers, is even worse 

than that of firewood: First, the charcoal production process is intensive and puts more pressure on 

forest resources than does fuelwood collection, which is carried out by the rural population in a rather 

extensive way (Kammen & Lew, 2005). Secondly, the production of charcoal in a traditional form 

tends to be inefficient inferring that charcoal cooking requires roughly twice as much raw wood as does 

cooking with firewood. Not least, due to an increasingly urban usage of charcoal, a result of ongoing 

urbanization processes, the total consumption of wood fuel in Sub-Saharan Africa is steadily growing 

(FAO, 2008; IEA, 2006). Besides policy interventions on the supply side, like improved forestry 

management systems or reforestation initiatives, two approaches can reduce deforestation pressure on 

the demand side: the usage of more efficient, so-referred to as improved cooking stoves (ICS), or 

switching to non-wood fuels for example Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) or kerosene. In other African 

countries such as Senegal, both strategies have been pursued for decades of years, leading to a situation 

in which LPG is dominantly used in urban areas. Although, charcoal is still used widely. Therefore, 

since the 1990’s the development partners including international donor community and national 

governments through the Ministry of Environment have put much effort into disseminating ICS in 

Nigeria and other emerging countries. Currently, the detrimental effects of biomass usage for cooking 

purposes and the distribution of ICS have received lots of public attention in the wake of the creation of 

the Global Alliance for Clean Cook stoves. As part of the United Nations Foundation and promoted by 

the US Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton, the Global Alliance intends to bring ICS or improved fuels 

like LPG to 100 million homes in emerging countries by 2020. In general, ICS is designed to reduce 

fuel consumption per meal and to curb smoke emissions. The meaning of ICS varies from more 

sophisticated bricked stoves with chimneys leading the smoke out of the kitchen to very meek 

transportable clay or metal stoves that had just improve the heating process. Even though the 

assumptions surrounding the positive impacts of distributing such cooking devices in decreasing 

fuelwood consumption and thereby workload and health burdens as well as deforestation pressures 

seem to be straightforward, rigorous impact evaluations of these development interventions are rare. 

For health impacts, some evidence exists from Latin America and Asia. (Smith-Sivertsen et al., 2009), 

for example, find a substantial reduction in exposure to indoor air pollution and a reduction in risk for 

respiratory symptoms in the course of a field experiment for which chimney stoves were randomly 



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assigned to replace traditional open fires in rural Guatemala (see as well Smith-Sivertsen et al., 2004). 

Masera et al., (2007) unearths similar outcomes in rural Mexico, and Diaz et al. (2007) notice a 

substantial reduction in headaches and eye infections in Guatemala, equally likewise after the 

introduction of chimney stoves. YU (2011) observes the effects of the behavioural intervention in 

combination with ICS measures in rural China and unearths that this double treatment slows down 

respiratory diseases amongst children below five. This effect seems to be mainly triggered by the 

behavioural part, though. Besides, rigorous research is at present being performed by J-Pal in India and 

Bangladesh (see Duflo, Greenstone, & Hanna, 2008a, 2008b). For Africa, Bensch and Peters (2011) 

evaluate the impacts of ICS usage in rural Senegal through a field experiment for which ICS were 

randomly assigned to households. They find a substantial reduction of firewood consumption and 

self-reported respiratory disease and eye infection symptoms. Cooking time is likewise 

drastically reduced, while we no longer find a substantial impact on the collection time of firewood. 

Beyond this study, evidence for Africa, in particular for urban areas, is completely lacking. The impacts 

of ICS utilisation in urban centers may be expected to vary significantly from ICS impacts in rural 

areas since different fuels and stoves are used here. 

 

2. Charcoal 

Charcoal is a porous carbon material, with a heterogeneous surface and a disorganized pore structure 

susceptible to change by adequate thermal treatments to be used as adsorbent (Pehlivan et al., 2011). 

Charcoal typically is derived from wood. Wood is a polymeric structure consisting of carbohydrates 

(cellulose and hemicellulose) and lignin, with small amounts of extraneous organic chemicals (Pehlivan 

et al., 2011). Charcoal, an age antique refined form of wood fuel, nevertheless remains an essential 

source of energy for domestic cooking and a huge variety of industrial and processing applications 

which include manufacturing of activated carbon and calcium carbide, reduction of iron ore in the steel 

industry, black smithies, cloth ironing, heavy-clay soil conditioner, orchid planting medium, etc. 

Charcoal is cheap, has the thermal capacity and a good absorbent for impurities removal in water. The 

addition of charcoal leads to a significant increase in the temperature of the seawater that resulted to 

increase in the evaporation rate. Since biomass is the main and indeed traditional source of energy for 

many households in emerging countries. It is the principal energy-producing fuel commonly used in 

both urban and rural households and institutions for cooking and heating. Charcoal is the black carbon 

lightweight and ash residue hydrocarbon produced with the aid of getting rid of water and other 

unstable constituents from animal and regularly vegetation substances (Chidumayo & Gumbo, 2013; 

Zulu & Richardson, 2013). Though charcoal could be made from peat, coal, wood, coconut shell, or 

petroleum but wood is the commonest raw materials used especially in the sub-Saharan Africa. It is 

produced usually by using gradual pyrolysis; the heating of wood or other materials in the absence of 



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oxygen. The benefit of using charcoal rather than just burning wood is to remove water and other 

components, which permits charcoal to burn at a higher temperature and the fact that the product of its 

combustion is mostly carbon dioxide, resulting in very little smoke (regular wood offers a good amount 

of steam and unburnt carbon particles-soot-in its smoke) (Hosier, 1993; Jones, 2015). Charcoal is 

classified in several categories as lump charcoal, briquette charcoal, and extruded charcoal, charcoal 

having heating vale of 28-30 MJ/kg equal to 70% heating value of kerosene 44 MJ/kg (UN High 

Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)), due to good heating vale charcoal can be used in various 

application as cooking fuel, industrial fuel, automotive fuel, purification/filtration of wastewater, 

horticulture and drawing, making rough sketches in painting. Because of various application packages 

that may be making good opportunities for charcoal as livelihoods option for local people in rural 

villages. Charcoal making from the wooded or different waste call as carbonization because of carbon 

comprises approximately more than 80%. The stage of carbonization may be pivotal in charcoal 

production even though it is not one of the most costly. Unless it is carried out as efficiently as viable, it 

places the whole process of charcoal production at risk because low yields carbonization reflects via 

the entire production chain as increased costs and resource waste. Wood comprises three major 

components namely cellulose, lignin, and water. The cellulose and lignin and a few other materials are 

composed firmly together and make up the substances we call wood. The adsorbed water is held as 

molecules of water on the cellulose/lignin structure. Air dry or “seasoned” wood still contains 12-18% 

of adsorbed water. Growing, freshly cut or “unseasoned” wood contains, furthermore, liquid water to 

offer a total water content of about 40 to 100% expressed as a proportion of the oven-dry weight of the 

wood. The wood containing water has to be driven off as vapour before carbonization can take effect. 

To evaporate water entails a lot of energy so that using the sun to pre-dry the wood as considerably as 

possible before carbonization critically improves efficiency. The remaining water in the carbonized 

wood need be evaporated in the kiln or pit and this power must be provided by way of burning some 

wood itself which otherwise might be converted into useful charcoal. When firewood is heated in air 

absence, it loses unpredictable components and gets converted into charcoal as shown in the below 

equation. Its calorific value is higher (33 kjg-1) than wood (17kjg-1). Charcoal is blackish residue 

comprising of impure carbon obtained by eliminating water and other unstable constituents from 

substances such as animal and vegetation. Sugar charcoal, bone charcoal (which comprises a great 

amount of calcium phosphate), and others may be produced as well. The conversion of wood into 

charcoal is described by following chemical equation: 

Heat strongly in absence of Air  

Wood                       Charcoal   +   Volatile matter   +    Moisture   

(Black residue) 



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The use of charcoal dates back to centuries ago and has always been considered cheap compared to 

other domestic fuel options. Also, the production of wood charcoal in locations where there is an 

abundance of wood dates back to a very ancient period, and generally consists of piling billets of 

conical pile forms a wood at their ends, bottom openings being left to admit air, with a dominant shaft 

to function as a flue. The entire pile is shielded with turf or moistened clay. The firing began at the 

bottom of the flue, and gradually spreads outwards and upwards (Jones, 2015). The accomplishment of 

the process hinges upon the degree of the combustion. Below average situations, 100 wood parts yield 

about 60 portions by volume, or 25 portions by weight, of charcoal; limited production on the spot 

often yields about 50%, while large-scale became efficient to about 90%. The process is so subtle that it 

was generally left to colliers (professional charcoal burners) who frequently lived alone in small huts to 

tend their woodpiles. However, increasing demands have brought about the proliferation of colliers and 

many more people going into the production and trade as large-scale production of charcoal to be on 

the increase (Adam, 2009). Charcoal production on a large-scale, principally in sub-Saharan Africa, has 

been a rising concern due to its deforestation threat, land degradation and impacts on climate change. 

The Climate Change Risk Index, which measure the capacity of the country to anticipate, cope with, 

resist, and recover from the impact of climate change, in 2018 was 68.33, meaning countries faces a 

high level of exposure and vulnerability to climate related events. Citing it as the most environmentally 

devastating period of this traditional energy supply chain, and notwithstanding it increasing per capita 

income, higher electrification rates, and important renewable energy potential, charcoal remains the 

dominant source of cooking and heating energy for eighty percent of households in Sub Saharan Africa 

(Zulu & Richardson, 2013). Apart from the common charcoal found in most communities, there other 

types of charcoal;  

i. Sugar charcoal is obtained from the carbonization of sugar and is particularly pure. It is 

decontaminated by acids boiling to expel any mineral substance and is then burned for quite a while in 

a chlorine current to evacuate the last traces of hydrogen. It was utilized by Henri Moissan in his initial 

endeavour to construct synthetic diamonds. Activated charcoal is akin to regular charcoal yet is made 

particularly for medical use. To create activated charcoal, producers heat regular charcoal in the gas 

presence that makes the charcoal to develop numerous internal spaces or "pores". These pores help 

activated charcoal trap chemicals. Lump charcoal is traditional charcoal prepared straightforwardly 

from hardwood material. 

ii. It usually produces far less ash. Japanese charcoal has had pyroligneous acid removed during the 

charcoal making; it, therefore, produces almost no smell or smoke when burned (Hosier, 1993; Jones, 

2015).  

iii. Pillow shaped briquettes are made by compressing charcoal, typically made from sawdust and 

other wood by-products, with a binder and other additives. The binder is usually starch. Briquettes may 



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likewise comprise mineral carbon (heat source), brown coal (heat source), borax, sodium nitrate 

(ignition aid), limestone (ash-whitening agent), raw sawdust (ignition aid), and other added additives 

substances. Briquette sawdust charcoal is created by compacting sawdust without additives substances 

or binders. It is the desired charcoal in Taiwan, Korea, Greece, and the Middle East. It has a round gap 

through the epicenter, with a hexagonal connection. It is utilized basically for barbecue as it produces 

no scent, little ash, no smoke, high heat, and long burning hours (surpassing 4 hours). 

iv. Extruded charcoal is made by extruding either raw ground wood or carbonized wood into logs 

without the use of a binder. The heat and pressure of the expelling procedure grip the charcoal together. 

If the extrusion is produced using raw wood material, the logs expelled are subsequently carbonized 

(Jones, 2015). 

 

3. Charcoal Production 

Charcoal is generally unadulterated carbon, termed char, made by cooking wood in a low oxygen 

condition, a procedure that can take days and burns off unpredictable compounds, for example, 

methane, water, hydrogen, and tar. Charcoal making is a traditional and honourable occupation. Its 

roots are lost in ancient times and the traditional techniques for causing it to have transformed 

surprisingly little from prehistoric times till nowadays. The only new factors are that the basic 

approaches have been streamlined and that science has confirmed the fundamental procedures which 

happen during carbonisation and predicted the quantitative and qualitative laws which govern the 

process. Conversely, in commercial processing, the burning takes place in huge cement or steel silos 

with next to no oxygen and stops before everything turns to debris. The process leaves black lumps and 

powder, about 25% of the original weight (Zulu & Richardson, 2013; Evans, 2002). Generally, 

common charcoal is produced through a method called pyrolysis of biomass. Pyrolysis is an 

irreversible chemical change brought about by heating the biomass without oxygen. During pyrolysis, 

biomass experiences a system of changes and typically yields a black carbonaceous solid, called 

charcoal, alongside a blend of gases and fumes. By and large, the production of charcoal through 

pyrolysis is amplified in a procedure of low temperatures and gentle heating rates, the supposed 

carbonisation (Senelwa et al., 2008). There are five product kinds and results from the production of 

charcoal operations: charcoal, Non-condensible gases (carbon monoxide [CO], carbon dioxide [CO2], 

methane, and ethane), pyroacids (primarily acetic acid and methanol), tars and heavy oils, and water. 

Except for charcoal, these emitted materials with the furnace exhaust. Constituents differ, depending 

upon raw materials and carbonization parameters. Organics and CO are normally CO2 combusted and 

water before leaving the retort. Since the extent of this burning differs from plant to plant, emission 

levels are relatively variable. Some portion of the particular organic compounds that might be found in 

charcoal oven emissions includes methane, ethane, ethanol, and Polycyclic Organic Matter (POM). 



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Particulate matter emissions from briquetting activities may be controlled with a centrifugal collector 

(65 percent control) or textile filter (99 percent control). Hardwood charcoal is produced abundantly in 

Nigeria during the dry season (from October to early June of every year) in; Ogun, Oyo, Ondo, Osun, 

Ekiti, Enugu, Rivers, Cross River, Kwara, Kogi, Abuja and Benue States. Here, there are two methods 

of making charcoal (direct and indirect); the direct method uses heat from incomplete combustion of 

the organic matter, which is to become charcoal. The ignition rate is constrained by regulating oxygen 

amount permitted into the burn and is halted by excluding oxygen before the charcoal itself starts to 

burn; the indirect technique utilizes an outward heat source to “cook” organic matter contained in a 

locked yet vented airless chamber. This is usually carried out in a metal or masonry chamber (furnace) 

(Chidumayo & Gumbo, 2013). Furthermore, charcoal has been made by various methods. The 

traditional method essentially arranges the logs in a pile leaning against a chimney (logs are placed in a 

circle). The chimney consists of four (4) wooden stakes held up by some rope. The logs are entirely 

secured with soil and straw permitting no entrance of air. It must be lit by bringing some burning fuel 

into the stack; the logs burn gradually and change into charcoal in a time of 5 days' burning. If the 

covering of soil gets torn (cracked) by the fire, additional soil is set on the cracks. As soon as the burn 

is finished, the smokestack is plugged to prevent the entrance of air. The genuine art of this production 

technique is in managing the adequate heat generation (by combusting portion of the wood material), 

and its transfer to parts of the wood during the process of being carbonised. A tough disadvantage of 

this production strategy is the tremendous emissions amount that is detrimental to human health and the 

milieu (emissions of unburnt methane) (Hosier, 1993).  

The recent technique employs retorting technology, in which heat procedure is recovered from and 

exclusively provided by, the gas combustion is discharged during carbonisation. Retorting yields are 

significantly greater than those of kilning, and may stretch 35%-40%. Recent approaches which have 

been presented in certain parts of the developed world have replaced the old technology. Their 

originality does not dwell in the carbonisation principle itself however in the justification of the 

utilization of heat, handling of materials and labour and in certain cases the recovery of by-products 

from the smoke given off during carbonisation (Climate Tech Wiki, 2012). There exist industrial 

technologies about 90% of the process from the growing and harvesting of the wood to the distribution 

and sale of the finished charcoal is still the same as with the traditional methods. The newness of these 

industrial technologies resides in the carbonisation step and the replacement of labour intensive 

methods of materials handling with capital intensive methods (Evans, 2002). However, the properties 

of the charcoal produced depend on the material charred and the charring temperature is also important. 

Charcoal comprises variable hydrogen amounts and oxygen just as ash and different impurities that, 

together with the structure, decide the properties. Good stocks for hardwood charcoal contain 

considerable low moisture contents, low ash contents and very minimum volatile matter contents 



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(Senelwa et al., 2008). Another good quality of charcoal hardwood is to be in sizes that are good for the 

most part between 20-120mm and moderately high carbon contents to suit any utilization. The 

constituents of good charcoal are Percentage Moisture contents (8%), max Volatile matter (5-10%) max, 

Ash contents (4%) max, Wood matter (2-4%), Charcoal Size: 20-120mm, Colour: Black or Dark grey, 

Carbon contents: 70% min, Packaging Bulk 30kg PP Bags (Chidumayo & Gumbo, 2013). However, 

Figure 1 below, indicates that the rate of charcoal production has been increasing at a high rate which is 

over 10% hence demonstrating an increase in the production. Implying that the percentage change or 

increase average is 16.5% (Figure 1). 

 

 
Figure 1. Shows the Percentage Change of Charcoal Production over 50 Years (1961-2010) 

Adapted from FAO, 2017 

 

4. Uses of Charcoal 

Growth in charcoal demand will probably continue over the coming 25 years, particularly in 

lower-middle and low-income economic regions, where most citizens lack access to safe and affordable 

energy. The growth in global per capita energy demand is allied to developments in the standard of 

living in the global south and directly supports development goals. As energy is a key enabler and 

central to sustainable and economic development and social wellbeing and lack of access to modern 



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energy services negatively affects nearly a third of humanity. In acknowledgment of energy being an 

important economic and social development determinant, and of health and wellbeing, the UN has 

declared the UN Decade of Sustainable Energy for All. The world’s population must be ready to access 

clean sorts of energy which will offer these basic needs, which may reduce the health burden from both 

direct and indirect exposure from future climate change risks. The Sustainable Development Goals 

(SDGs) have emphasized the role that energy plays in securing a sustainable future for a global nine 

billion population come 2050 and have outlined four goals to support, which may act as improvement 

metrics. The indicators assessing improvement on the SDGs for safeguarding sustainable energy for all 

by 2030 include: ensuring worldwide access to affordable, sustainable, reliable energy services; 

doubling the share of renewable energy within the global energy mix; doubling the worldwide rate of 

improvement in energy efficiency; phasing out fossil-fuel production and consumption subsidies that 

encourage wasteful utilisation, while ensuring secure affordable energy for the poor (Open Working 

Group proposal for Sustainable Development Goals, 2014). While poor people remain in darkness and 

ill health, there is often no escape from the vicious cycle of poverty 

(https://www.reeep.org/poor-peoples-energy-outlook-2012). A lot of Nigerians suffer so greatly on an 

array of poverty issues in the country (see Figure 2 below). Considering this fact, the United Nations 

report that people are multidimensionally poor when they are poor in many respects including 

education, health, access to potable water, nutrition, electricity, their assets, among other indices. 

Besides, widespread poverty is directly linked to biodiversity loss. This is because rural livelihoods 

depend almost entirely on biodiversity. The problem must be addressed by providing alternative 

livelihood options to rural communities. 

 

https://www.reeep.org/poor-peoples-energy-outlook-2012).%20A%20lot


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Figure 2. United Nations Global Multidimensional Poverty Index for Nigeria on Poverty Rates 

Adapted from Olalekan et al., 2020 

 

About 69% of Nigeria’s or about 2.7 billion people (almost half of the world’s population) live in 

poverty which is expected to cost $2/day. Thus far, poverty reduction determinations efforts tend to 

affects all development traits (Ebuete et al., 2019; Olalekan et al., 2020). It touches all aspects of 

human advances such as social, economic, and environmental aspects including access to water, 

agricultural productivity, population levels, and gender-related issues (Raimi et al., 2019; Olalekan et 

al., 2019). None of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can be met without major improvement 

in the quality and quantity of energy services in emerging countries (Ebuete et al., 2019). Equally noted 

that Nigeria has significant ways to go in achieving improvement in sustainable energy for everyone 

and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) target 7 by 2030, stating to ensure access to 

affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all, as was put forward by the United Nations. 



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There is, therefore, a need to advance and harness renewable energy potential to meet the country’s 

energy needs (Raimi et al., 2018; Ebuete et al., 2019; Suleiman et al., 2019). Although, there is still an 

increase in the use of forest wood and charcoal by the majority of rural households and some 

processing industries. The majority of rural households in Nigeria rely on wood products i.e. firewood 

and charcoal for every day local cooking and likewise projects, for example, bricklaying and tea 

factories. Series of studies have shown that firewood and charcoal production is the reason for 

increased deforestation followed by other land use such as agriculture and settlement. It is evident in 

the rural areas of Nigeria use firewood and charcoal for cooking their meals and boiling water for 

family use. Charcoal is also used by both rural, semi-urban and urban sources of energy for cooking 

and other domestic or commercial significance. With this, the widest usage of charcoal as fuel for 

domestic cooking and heating. In Nigeria, the popular “coal pot” is usually a small metal structure in 

which charcoal is put, lit and the cooking utensil (pot, kettle, frying pan) is put on the burning charcoal 

for cooking and heating. Also, it used as fuel in some industries and for powering locomotives. In time 

past, train engines and some industrial machines have been powered using coal (charcoal) which serves 

as fuel for such machines. Furthermore, activated charcoal is used for filtration. This type of charcoal 

purifies by absorbing organic compounds, odours, and toxins in gases. Charcoal is also used to makes 

charcoal sticks and pencils specifically for artworks. Moreover, medically, charcoal is consumed by 

some people believing that it aids digestion and also used to clean the teeth (Evans, 2002; Ministry of 

Pastoral Development and Environment, 2004). 

 

5. Environmental Impacts of Charcoal Production 

The charcoal production industry is a source of employment and livelihoods for millions all over the 

world. There are thousands of people who depend on the charcoal business as their sources of 

livelihoods from the producers, merchants, wholesalers to retailers. Most of the producers are found in 

the rural areas from where merchants purchase the charcoals to be sold in urban centers (a process 

associated with the development of civilization, it is estimated that 93% of urban growth will occur in 

developing nations, with 80% of urban growth occurring in Asia and Africa and up to 600 million 

people in urban areas in developing regions, nearly 28% of the developing world’s urban population 

cannot meet their basic needs for shelter, water, and health from their resources. Up to half the 

population of cities in some of the world’s poorest countries are either homeless or living below official 

poverty levels/life-threatening poverty, women and children being among the poorest people in the 

world). A recent observation has revealed that charcoal is becoming increasingly exported to countries 

with low temperatures and used in house warmers thereby expanding the business and making it more 

lucrative than viewed in previous times. Exported charcoal are usually reshaped and packaged in 

rubber nylons and cartons to preserve it during the long-distance transportation either by air or sea and 



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also make it more appealing to potential buyers. This new development has increased the demand for 

charcoal and also brought more people in the charcoal business due to better financial yield from export 

(Chidumayo & Gumbo, 2013). 

Physical observation of areas of Kwara State, particularly in Ilorin West, parts of Ifelodun Local 

Governments and other Northern areas of the state which has experienced increased charcoal 

production in recent years. The business in these areas has expanded to the level of large shipper 

containers being used to load and transport bagged of charcoal usually for export. Also, on the road 

from Ilorin township through Oke-Oyi, towards Share junction, there have been observed, numerous 

charcoal production and packaging sites which reveal the spread of production and business in recent 

times. Indeed, it can be ascertained that more people are earning from the charcoal industry and it has 

generated employment and source of livelihoods for more people in the country. Furthermore, in areas 

where charcoal production has either increased or become a new trade, there has been increased 

economic activities which usually transcends to economic growth. This brings about the improvement 

of standard of living, more jobs and general development in such communities. Communities get to 

enjoy these dividends of increased economic activities (Chidumayo & Gumbo, 2013). Similarly, 

regarding the Ebira ethnic minority group, residing in the peri-urban areas of Ado Ekiti, Nigeria, who 

contributes towards the economic growth of the area, mainly uses biomass fuel to cook. The peri-urban 

zone is an interface of rural and urban areas characterised by mixed land uses (Oluwakemi, 2012), 

though close to the urban areas, the communities yet lack basic facilities such as safe drinking water, 

electricity, hospitals, and roads. These groups of individuals enjoy better market information and lower 

transaction costs (Lynch, 2005), still, disparities in living conditions (s) characterise their milieu as 

compared to the metropolitan areas. Their constructed houses are mainly with mud blocks and wood 

which don't meet minimum housing requirements which are durable, safe, dry and well ventilated 

(Egunjobi, 1998). Also, being an ethnic minority, they are more likely to be poorer than their 

counterparts in the cities (De Sonza et al., 2003). Moreover, their living milieu could make them 

vulnerable to environmental health hazards (Lin & Kelsey, 2000), particularly when biomass fuels are 

required to meet energy needs, hence, creating indoor air pollution problem. At the same time, when 

cooking places are indoors without proper ventilation, the air quality indoor is lower than that outdoor 

(Oluwakemi, 2012). Also, charcoal is known to be one of the cheapest fuel known to man from time 

immemorial and today over two billion people cook badly on slow, inefficient wood stoves that lead to 

wood waste, cause health challenges and cripple our forests. Economic recession and increasing price 

of fuel from crude oil such as petrol, kerosene, and the popular cooking gas have made a lot of 

households turn to the use of charcoal which is a more affordable and economical option. A bag of 

charcoal in the urban centers range from N1,500 - N2,000 as it can last a household for a month and 

beyond depending on factors such as household size, cooking frequency and quantity among other 



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factors. In comparison, the price of kerosene has been fluctuating between N200 - N350 per liter in 

recent times. A liter of kerosene can hardly suffice for cooking in any household a day which makes an 

expensive fuel for many households in Nigeria. The option of using electricity to power cookers have 

been an abandoned option for many households simply because of the poor power supply in most of 

the country. Also, privatisation of the electricity distribution companies has made power supply more 

expensive as electricity bills are being strictly calculated based on the amount of power consumed and 

it is known that electrical appliances for cooking consume a high level of power. This has made this 

option not viable for many households in Nigeria. Moreover, popular cooking gas is being widely used 

in many households but it is still considered the next cheaper option after charcoal. Charcoal use offers 

more economical domestic fuel option which can be used both indoors and outdoors. This significantly 

reduces the cost of living because food is an essential need which must be satisfied, hence having a 

cheaper fuel for cooking reduces the cost of meeting such essential needs. 

The most obvious environmental problems of charcoal production and utilization activities are the level 

and extent of tree felling, forest clearing and therefore deforestation risks, which tend to rise as 

coronavirus hinders protection. Production of charcoal is linked with vegetation and forest clearing 

projected to range from 0.087 to 1.33 million hectares yearly because of the low charcoal recoveries of 

earth furnaces (silos used for charcoal production). Low process efficiencies, combined with 

unregulated actions of many producers, cause large volumes of wood to be harvested from nearby 

forests (Sedano et al., 2016; Minten et al., 2013). These zones are frequently segments of 

collectively-owned land, yet can likewise make up huge parts of federally secured forests. Because of 

weak, unenforced or incoherent forest policies, several countries are experiencing expanded 

deforestation rates from production of charcoal in protected areas. Unlike the fuelwood utilization for 

cooking and heating, which is frequently provided from ground harvesting and has no significant 

environmental degradation impact (Chidumayo & Gumbo, 2013; Minten et al., 2013; Msuya et al., 

2011; Odubo & Raimi et al., 2019; Suleiman et al., 2019; Olalekan et al., 2019; Raimi et al., 2019), 

current methods of charcoal production necessitate vast resources amounts for moderately little return.  

Deforestation is the long-lasting obliteration of forests to make the land accessible for other uses and 

make utilisation of the wood logs as raw materials as in the case of charcoal production. According to 

the United Nations and FAO, an estimated 18 million acres (7.3 million hectares) of forest are lost 

yearly. It is also affirmed that deforestation has increased over the last 50 years (Hosier, 1993). The 

effect of climate change is being felt all around the world and one of the major contributory factors to 

climate change is deforestation. This affects the global carbon cycle; greenhouse gases absorb 

radiations and their abundance can trigger climate change. When trees die, they release carbon dioxide 

(CO2) which also adds to the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere as a result of the processes 

involved in charcoal production. People and communities around sites of production of charcoal are 



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usually saturated with CO2 (Msuya et al., 2011). Also, the water cycle is affected when trees are lost to 

human activities such as charcoal production. A lot of water is held in plants and it is also known that 

trees lessen pollution in water (Raimi et al., 2018; Raimi, 2019). In addition, trees can play such roles 

as surface cover for our land, erosion mitigants, carbon sequesters, temperature regulators, they are 

catchment area for underground water, they serve as upland water shed, advance transpiration and offer 

shade, they are vital piece in keeping an equilibrium in our ecological systems, offer refuge for many 

species of mammals that are endangered, birds and reptiles, save the milieu through pollutants filtering 

from the water, create a barrier that shields coastal areas from storms and tides, they are recognised as 

salt excluders, have sieves that thwart the entrance of salt through the root surface, they are otherwise 

called salt secreters, letting the salt access to the plant then rapidly secreting it, frequently through 

exceptional salt glands on the leaves, their latex has properties that are medicinal in nature and has been 

utilized to treat sores and stings, they form the source of a complex food web, leaf litter and 

decomposing vegetation are a basis of food for micro-organisms, many living things makes the tree 

their habitat, their feeding ground, their breeding habitat, or their nursery, trees are extremely useful 

ecosystem/regulators of micro climate and forestall surgent wind, they function as nostril for birds and 

ecosystems, there are many mineral resources been deposited, they are a big lungs of the ecosystems, 

they are particularly considered to be efficient in reducing concentrations of pollutants, although the 

capacity can vary by up to 15 times between species (Raimi et al., 2018; Raimi, 2019). Other 

environmental effects of deforestations include soil erosion which is one of the most striking features of 

the land surface of South-Eastern Nigeria which has impacted negatively on overall land use in the 

region (Ayuba & Dami, 2011) and has lessened the land quality and reduce the yield of use especially 

planting yield (Raimi et al., 2019; Suleiman et al., 2019). 

Desertification is seen as a process by which productive arid and semi-arid land is rendered 

unproductive economically. It is desert expansion, desert creeps and usually ends up in aridity. It 

involves interaction among human beings, land, and climate. It is caused by the increase in the human 

and livestock population, over-grazing, the expansion of agricultural land and demand for fuelwood. It 

is noticeable that the desert creeps into the land area at the rate of six million hectares per year. More 

than 11 million hectares of tropical forests are destroyed per year in Africa (Raimi et al., 2019; 

Olalekan et al., 2019; Suleiman et al., 2019; Raimi et al., 2019). Desertification is another problem that 

results from deforestation, this brings about so many social and environmental problems including 

migration and loss of species (plants and animals) among other problems (Msuya et al., 2011). 

Similarly, the urban heat island has become a growing concern and is increasing over the years. The 

urban heat island is formed from industries, charcoal factory inclusive when industrial and urban areas 

are developed and heat becomes more abundant. In rural areas, a huge part of the approaching solar 

energy is utilized to dissipate water from vegetation and soil. In urban communities, where less 



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vegetation and bare soil exist, the majority of the sun’s energy is enthralled by asphalt and urban 

structures. Thus, throughout warm sunlight hours, less evaporative cooling in urban areas permits 

surface temperatures to ascend higher than the local areas. Additional city heat is radiated by factories 

and vehicles, just as industrial and domestic heating and cooling units. This effect causes the city to 

become 2 to 10o F (1 TO 6oC) warmer than surrounding landscapes. Impacts also include reducing soil 

moisture and intensification of carbon dioxide emissions (Suleiman et al., 2019). 

Moreover, foreseeable dependence on charcoal, despite drastic attempts to establish reliable electricity 

and fuel infrastructure, should raise some concerns regarding the sustainability of this essential industry 

in regards not only to its economic value but the proper management of forest resources as well as 

livelihoods of those most responsible for producing this fuel. The common situation is that there is a 

lack of regulation and the use of conventional methods for production permeates the industry (Jones, 

2005; Ministry of Pastoral Development and Environment, 2004; Suleiman et al., 2019). The use of 

traditional earth-mound kilns is commonplace. These “ovens” vary significantly in size and are made 

completely of organic materials. The time amount necessary to simply set up the kiln for production 

can be as long as about fourteen days; producers first dig an opening in the ground, saving the soil for 

later use. 

The extraction of wood from the surrounding forests is typically the most labour intensive phase in the 

entire production process. Producers go to different sites to cut, collect and haul wood to the production 

site. Once they have reverted to the site, producers arrange the wood in a particular way to guarantee 

that the wood is uniformly ‘cooked’; this procedure has been refined over generations. When the wood 

is configured in this way, it is topped with grasses and brush; the soil is added last to permit the wood 

to experience combustion in the absence of oxygen, this is the same as an aforementioned process 

called pyrolysis (Evans, 2002). These processes bring about a lot of risks and problems such as highly 

demanding physical stress on the body structure, high consumption of natural resources (trees), high 

risk of physical injuries, exposure to attacks from animals in the wildlife among other negative 

outcomes which have direct linkages to negative social health outcomes. Notwithstanding the unsafe 

work conditions linked with the wood extraction, fabricating the furnace and the charcoal packing, 

doing so frequently establishes a remarkable individual time investment. Not including time spent 

during extraction and packaging, producers will often spend over two weeks vigilantly monitoring the 

kiln to ensure that the process of carbonization in the absence of oxygen, or pyrolysis, is properly 

conducted. Extreme temperatures combined with volatile chemical compounds, including carbon 

monoxide and sulfur dioxide, create an extremely dangerous environment for any human, especially 

those without adequate safety protection (Chidumayo & Gumbo, 2013). Producers are frequently 

known to go through the night inside a few feet of a burning furnace to guarantee that any gaps are 

swiftly sealed. For instance, it is recognised that pyrolysis, the procedure used for charcoal production, 



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releases remarkable amounts of gaseous by-products, as well as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and 

others, identified to be deadly to humans in moderate concentrations (Adams, 2009; Jones, 2015). 

Producers from the rural area are recognised to work inside proximity to high-temperature furnaces that 

off-gas these extremely toxic compounds, generating potential high threat for poisoning. 

Exposure to toxic gases and extreme temperatures pose a great health risk to these producers. The 

communities around sites of production are also exposed to these toxic gases which usually result in 

various respiratory illnesses such as lung irritations, inflammation of the airways and fluid 

accumulation in the lungs among other conditions. Also, the use of primitive tools can potentially lead 

to moderate or severe injuries, which can prove fatal in rural areas that lack access to adequate medical 

care. Lack of modern tools most often results in the use of human labour throughout the entire 

production process. Authorities have usually referred to the working conditions of charcoal producers 

as unsafe (Sedano et al., 2016; Ministry of Pastoral Development and Environment, 2004); however, 

little attention is paid to these “hazards”. It is important to add that the use of charcoal in poorly 

designed appliances and houses exposed residents to high levels of carbon monoxide emissions 

(4166-6147 mg/m3) and other products of incomplete combustion. A study tested charcoal samples 

from common tree species for Carbon monoxide (CO), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 

and hydrocarbon emissions using a Flue gas analyzer. It is known that these gases at high or 

accumulated levels do have detrimental effects on health and wellbeing (Msuya et al., 2011). A 

working report featured the perils linked with the industrial production of charcoal in the emerging 

world as well as the precautionary measures that ought to be taken by producers. The thirty years’ sheer 

volume of guidelines published, proposes the seriousness and potential risk of these working conditions. 

In any case, inadequate proper knowledge, institutional capacity, and financial resources forestall these 

safety measures from being taken in many areas that produce charcoal for residential use, adding to the 

prevalence of moderate to severe injury and illness. Many of the producers have little or no education 

and are found mostly in rural areas. Though there have been publications that have identified the 

dangers/risks that come with charcoal production and some safety measure that can prevent and control 

these risks, many of the producers do not have access to these publications either are they sensitized 

about the subject’s prevention and control of risks associated with their work. 

 

6. Control Measures for Negative Impacts of Charcoal Production 

The adoption of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 is an 

unprecedented revolutionary step for the international community. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable 

Development is a one-of-a-kind roadmap that tackle wide-ranging issues from the eradication of 

poverty to fostering partnerships to achieve the goals. With virtually all of the SDGs relying in one way 

or another on environmental resources, thus does not only equip us to recognise the interlinkages 



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between the SDGs, but also to supporting the development of strategies that are more effective and 

socially acceptable. While the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) strive to achieve the three 

pillars of sustainable development: environmental, social, and economic. Of the 17 SDGs, water, waste, 

and energy cut across all (see Figure 3 below), but Goal 7 ensure access to affordable and clean energy. 

However, ensuring access to energy services and increasing substantially the share of renewable energy 

[7.1, 7.2] may impair water quality or otherwise introduce pollution into the environment (see Figure 3 

below) (Morufu & Clinton, 2017; Raimi & Sabinus, 2017; Raimi et al., 2017; Raimi & Sabinus, 2017; 

Olalekan et al., 2018; Premoboere & Raimi, 2018; Olalekan et al., 2018; Raimi et al., 2019; Olalekan 

et al., 2019; Henry et al., 2019; Raimi et al., 2019). As COVID 19 lockdowns are lifted, policies will 

be crucial in determining whether mobility changes triggered by the current pandemic are positive or 

negative in terms of their impacts on energy use, safety and long-term environmental and health 

outcomes. “Even before today’s unprecedented crisis, the world was not on track to meet key 

sustainable energy goals”, said Dr Birol. “Now, it is likely to become even harder to achieve. This 

means we must redouble our efforts to bring affordable, reliable and cleaner energy to all especially in 

the global south, where the need is greatest in order to build more prosperous and resilient economies”. 

 



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Figure 3. Applying the Water-Waste-Energy Nexus Improves Sanitation, Reduces Energy 

Dependence on Forests, and Improves Food Security (Design: UNU-FLORES/Claudia Matthias) 
Adapted from United Nations University Institute for Integrated Management of Material Fluxes and of 

Resources. 

 

“Clean air is a basic human right that most of the world’s population lacks”, “No country, rich or poor 

can claim the task of tackling air pollution is complete. But governments are far from powerless to act 

and need to act now. Proven energy policies and technologies can deliver major cuts in air pollution 

around the world and bring health benefits, provide broader access to energy and improve 

sustainability”. However, the total reliance on biomass fuels freely collected from the forests has been 

the major means of meeting household energy demands in emerging countries. Fuels wood burning 

including charcoal, sawdust, crop residues, and animal dung frequently compromise indoor air quality, 

particularly during periods of cooking in open fires. The rural areas in the Least Economically 



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Developed Countries (LEDCs) are faced with problems of indoor air pollution (Bruce et al., 2000). 

About 80% of the rural populace in Sub-Saharan Africa rely on biomass fuels (wood, charcoal, animal 

dung, agricultural residues, sawdust) and coal for household energy (Dasgupta et al., 2009; Ezzati, 

2005). A huge amount of those fuels are burnt on open fires in poorly ventilated spaces, thus revealing 

the householders to health hazards. Regular exposure to indoor air pollution from the incomplete 

combustion of biomass fuels and kerosene results in major health concerns, leading to an estimated 

36% mortality from respiratory diseases in developing countries (Fullerton et al., 2008; WHO, 2002). 

Of the pollutants, particulate matter and carbon monoxide increase susceptibility to adverse health risks 

amongst the rural people, especially to women and children (Rehfuess et al., 2011; Ezzati & Kammen, 

2002). Therefore, understanding the factors that expose the rural poor in developing countries to indoor 

air pollution would allow for more appropriate interventions to be provided. The complex interactions 

between technology, economy, behaviour, and infrastructure have often been neglected in the past (Jin 

et al., 2006). However, an important area of consideration for control measures is policy formulation. 

The risks and negative impacts of increased charcoal production call for well-structured policies which 

will cover tree planting and preserving the forests which serve as a source of raw materials for the 

production of charcoal (Mugo & Ong, 2006; Olalekan et al., 2019; Suleman et al., 2019). Policies 

should also focus on addressing control of the sites and areas where the charcoal production process 

will be allowed. Areas that are already burdened with the provision of wood for charcoal production 

should be protected and regulation should be provided on any land that will be allowed to be a source 

of wood for producers. For example, regulations can be made such that area, where trees have been fell 

for the purpose of charcoal production, are being allowed to get replenished by not replanting the fell 

trees but also staying off such areas as regards to the felling of trees for a while, long enough for such 

areas to recuperate. Furthermore, policies should also protect the communities and environment where 

charcoal production is taking place, including the health of the people that reside in such communities. 

It must be ensured that policies are not just made, they must be implemented and their efficiency is 

continuously evaluated to ensure that the issues and challenges of those policies addressed and are 

being solved. 

Until now, fuelwood has been the principal raw material for charcoal production and because supplies 

of wood are fast causing deforestation of so many areas, a variety of agricultural and forestry residues 

that often remain unused appear to be potentially important raw materials for charcoal production. 

Diversification is required at the level of domestic fuel and raw materials used for charcoal production. 

This will reduce the burden on the forest reserves due to the increasing demand and production of 

charcoal. In line with this, several successful projects in the efficient charcoal production have been 

reported so far. A classic example is the Mafia Pilot Project in Tanzania on the utilization of coconut 

industry waste for energy production which was started in 1985. It had its fund from the German 



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development agency GTZ and implemented by the Ministry of Water, Energy, and Minerals of 

Tanzania. This project focused on enhanced kilns and a swing in emphasis to on-farm production of 

wood with high biomass densities was part of the answer in heavily degraded charcoaling areas to (i) 

reduce pressure on natural forests and vegetation ecosystems; (ii) generate extra incomes through 

improved charcoal production with remnant trees for alternative uses and/or rehabilitation (Msuya et al., 

2013). Apart from coconut, another source can be gotten from coal mined from the earth. 

Diversification also applies to provide a cheap alternative source of domestic fuel for cooking and 

heating to reduce the demand for charcoal. Improved technology will significantly reduce toxic indoor 

air pollutants which will result in improved health conditions, in particular for women and children 

who majorly those who directly use charcoal and sawdust domestically (Raimi et al., 2018; Raimi, 

2019; Raimi et al., 2020). Acute respiratory infections rank fourth in the list of diseases in sub-Saharan 

Africa and cause reduced productivity and lower life expectancy (Raimi et al., 2018; Raimi et al., 

2020). A small scale charcoal production unit can emit quantities of Particulate Matter (PM), Carbon 

Monoxide (CO), Nitrate Oxides (NOx) and Sulphate Dioxide (SO2), Hydrogen Fluoride (HF), 

Hydrogen Chloride (HCl), formaldehyde, phenol, acetic acid, xylene, and toluene. There are still 

various technologies, which permit a cleaner production of charcoal, such as the Social for Profit 

project whose products can acquire Eco-label and Fair-trade labels (Adams, 2009; Evans, 2002; Raimi 

et al., 2018). Furthermore, Improved charcoal use will thus contribute to CO2 emission reduction and 

fuel saving. In calculating the GHG emission reductions (mainly methane), it is recommended to use 

the accepted methodology for methane emissions mitigation in the wood carbonization activity for 

production of charcoal project (large scale activities) which has been technologically advanced under 

the Clean Development Mechanism of the UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol (CDM). This methodology aids to 

work out a baseline for GHG emissions within the absence of the project (i.e., business-as-usual 

circumstances), how emission reductions below this baseline can be calculated, and how these 

reductions can be monitored (Climate Tech Wiki, 2012). Application of these methodologies will help 

reduce the level of CO2 emissions and also provides fuel conservation which will reduce the demand 

for charcoal and in turn the burden of negative impacts of increased charcoal production. 

Improved technologies also hold prospects in the modification of charcoal production processes such 

that processes that pose higher hazards are either eliminated or replaced with methods that pose lesser 

risks (Climate Teck Wiki, 2012). For instance, processes in the course of production which emit toxic 

gases at high volumes can be substituted with other processes which lesser risk. Also, technology can 

combat these environmental health challenges associated with charcoal production through 

well-developed machines and technologies. However, caution must be drawn here; the majority of the 

charcoal factories are local factories and fall under small scale industries, hence new technologies must 

be one that will be easily adopted and feasible with local factories. It has been noticed that some new 



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technologies are usually not adaptable by the people who need them. Therefore, adaptability and 

affordability must be considered when developing new technologies. 

Research is another key way of preventing and controlling the negative impacts of charcoal factories. 

The research provides ways of solving problems which in this case will be proffering solutions to the 

associated negative impacts of charcoal factories. It is through research that new technologies can be 

discovered, tested and affirmed to be applicable and usable for the purpose for which it is needed. 

Research also has the prospect of revealing ways of diversification, educating the concerned populace 

and developing protective devices among other prospects. “Education is the best ladder to essential 

success within the 21st century, and it’s the only most significant modifiable social determinant of 

health”. Thus, awareness and community sensitization may be a key tool for empowering the populace 

on taking necessary steps to promote their health. Awareness creation provides various techniques or 

knowledge aspects that could be applied to actions, which is effective in coping with the vulnerability 

and negative impacts of charcoal factories. For the awareness process to be efficient, the exercise should 

be given to appropriate people, through well-defined activities and assessed through efficient techniques. 

Also, information dissemination has been identified to be one of the vital facets of the negative impacts 

of charcoal factories and awareness actions towards the community’s readiness is vital. This information 

can either be with a nature of the emergency or of a casual nature. Depending upon the nature of the 

information, it is significant to establish various means of information dissemination that could enable 

communities with fast and/or reliable modes of communication. To sustain the community's livelihood of 

members, their resources most be maintained, distributed and monitored. This procedure strives for the 

institutionalisation of resource monitoring and implementation management along with an active 

information transfer on the status of resource availability and quality to regulate community activities 

and resource consumption (Islam & Walkerden, 2017). Similarly, members of communities housing or 

around the sites of charcoal factories must be empowered with information on how to protect 

themselves especially practical steps towards minimizing the proximity of the negative impact of 

charcoal factories to them. Public awareness should be expanded down to the local citizens and local 

government. The results and risk assessments cannot be restricted to high-level officials and a small 

selected group of educated people but should be a part of daily life. Every member of the local 

community should be aware of the risk due to charcoal production. Education should start at the 

elementary school and teachers particularly should be trained so that new generations will receive 

proper knowledge of the health risk that may occur in their locality. Also, the workers in the charcoal 

factories or producers in such factories are to be educated on occupational health and safety measures 

as regards the risks and hazards they are exposed to. They are also to be informed on the importance of 

protective equipment and wears which is expected to transcend to owning and utilization of such 

equipment and wears. Besides, there is a need to develop an environmentally literate citizenry. Formal 



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and informal environmental education would be an active means of creating suitable awareness of 

serious environmental concerns (Raimi et al., 2019). In particular, formal education is important to 

increase awareness, sensitize people on environmental issues and build institutional capacities. 

Non-formal environmental education benefits individuals outside the formal education system. 

Communication of environmental information to all stakeholders remains a challenge. Public 

awareness empowers the general public to develop a robust sense of accountability on environmental 

issues. In addition, actions to deliver access to clean cooking facilities to an additional 1.8 billion 

people by 2040 are essential to reducing household emissions in developing countries while emissions 

controls and fuel switching are crucial in the power sector, “there is need to revise our approach to 

energy development so that communities are not forced to sacrifice clean air in return for economic 

growth”. Similarly, the World Energy Outlook (WEO) special report highlights three key areas for 

government action in addressing environmental issues:  

i. Setting an ambitious long-term air quality goal, to which all stakeholders can subscribe and 

against which the efficacy of the various pollution mitigation options can be assessed. 

ii. Putting in place a package of clean air policies for the energy sector to achieve the long-term 

goal, drawing on a cost-effective mix of direct emissions controls, regulation and other measures, 

giving due weight to the co-benefits for other energy policy objectives. 

iii. Ensuring effective monitoring, enforcement, evaluation, and communication: keeping a 

strategy on course requires reliable data, a continuous focus on compliance and policy improvement, 

and timely and transparent public information. 

 

7. Summary 

Charcoal is one of the affordable domestic fuel and demand for it has been on the increase in recent 

years due to its affordability. This situation has been linked to the recent economic problems which 

have been faced by some developing countries including Nigeria. Increasing demand for charcoal has 

brought a sharp upturn of the number of charcoal factories in the country. Charcoal production has both 

positive and negative impacts not only on the people directly involved in the production but also on 

those who are residents of the communities housing or around such factories and the environment at 

large. These impacts range from the source of livelihood and economic development to physical stress 

and injuries, exposure to high temperature and toxic gases among other impacts. In addition, land 

degradation has reduced global crops productivity by 23% of the global land surface and as many as 

100-300 million people are at risk of floods because of loss of coastal habitat and protection (Odubo & 

Raimi, 2019). Pollution have become the bane of environmental issues in the global south including 

Nigeria. Approximately 300-400 million tons of heavy metals, solvents, toxic sludge and other wastes 

from industrial facilities are dumped annually into the worlds water. These among other negative trends 



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have been projected to continue to 2050 and beyond as long as human activity continue to impact on 

land use change, exploitation of organisms and climate change (Olalekan et al., 2018; Raimi et al., 

2018; Raimi, 2019). However, the serious environmental pollution that is being experienced today, 

would be a child’s play in the next two decades or thereabouts, if the government did not strike an 

equilibrium between the natural resources available and human population. As environmental 

protection is an expensive business, but finance should not be an excuse for not protecting the 

environment. Nevertheless, the cost of not defending the milieu is far higher due to the direct and 

multiplier effects on the Nigerian economy and socio-cultural life. 

Yet, the tools of human culture and civilisation destroy the ecological balance on which our very 

existence depends creating the ironic situation where humanity’s search for a better life, implants the 

seed for our own destruction. Human activities have intensified desertification in the Northern part of 

the country and have led to the shrinkage of the surface area of Lake Chad. The African continent is 

losing 10 million acres of forest yearly to climate change and Ghana alone losses about 65000 ha of 

forest annually, representing a 2.03% average annual loss. Globally, human activities not only cause 

climate change, but figures show that in 2018, CO2 emissions per capita was 0.68 metric tons compared 

to the 0.37 metric tons recorded in 1999 with an average annual rate of 4.08%, conversely, it has also 

lead to what scientists describe as the sixth extinction of life on earth. The sixth is artificially induced 

by human action. Human activity is effecting severe changes in biodiversity which is, in turn, induces 

the disappearance of plant and animal species at an alarming rate. If these trends continue the world 

could lose more than 20% of all existing species by 2030 and in 2018 about 12 million hectares (30 

million acres) of tropical tree cover equal to 30 football pitches a minute are lost according to 

monitoring service Global Forest Watch. All these could have a devastating consequence for the 

survival of the human species has been currently experienced with the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak 

and if it lasts for months, “we will certainly see weakened (forest) protection”. Without a doubt, the 

world is at the precipice of environmental collapse and crisis, COVID-19 will disrupt business-as-usual 

practices for forestry and industrial agribusiness companies. Across the continent, leaders in the public, 

private, and development sectors are already taking decisive action, both to save lives and to protect 

households, businesses and national economies from the fallout of the pandemic. But several leaders 

have told us that they need a clearer picture of the potential economic impact of the crisis. At the same 

time, many African countries are still in the early stages of organizing their responses into focused, 

prioritized efforts that make the most of the limited time and resources available.  

 

8. Conclusion 

Environmental problems are a threat to life on earth, and human continuous survival depend on our 

collective effort to protect nature, which supplies us with all the things we need; food, air, water and 



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other ecosystem services. Nevertheless, continuous destructive activities, which have been at an 

unprecedented rate, have put the planet under immense pressure, resulting in deep decline in the 

ecosystem services we enjoy from nature. The scale of the crisis requires partnerships and 

collaborations across sectors and levels. Before involving stakeholders to tackle real-world problems, 

researchers need to sit together to find an integrative way to break down communication barriers 

between scientists of different disciplines as well as among scientists and non-scientists. Governments, 

the private sector, and development institutions need to double down on their already proven 

responsibilities and expand their existing efforts to safeguard the economy and livelihoods across States 

in Nigeria. The government need to foster intense and closely aligned collaboration with the private 

sector and development partners. As World Health Organization estimated that over 1.6 million deaths 

a year is due to smoke burning from solid fuel in cooking and other domestic uses to meet the need for 

required energy. The drive for searching novel possibilities for energy is 3E viz: economic development, 

energy security, and environmental sustenance by charcoal. Biomass Charcoal technology should be 

permitted in the urban and rural area to enhance the conservation and optimization of the use of 

inefficient fuelwood, especially in the rural area, However, charcoal remains a neglected subject within 

the concerned government departments/ministries. What is needed is a bold policy statement making 

adequate financial, administrative, and extension provisions to encourage sustainable charcoal making 

as a vibrant activity. All the same, the problem of the negative poverty/environmental linkages will 

largely hinge on enhanced environmental management and profitable livelihoods, then again on an 

enabling framework that is supportive. Consequently, empowerment and capacity building, good 

governance, resources tenure, education, and awareness will be as important in changing the negative 

linkages into positive ones as will be access to improved soil conservation and tree planting techniques. 

Nigerians are poorly aware of their environment and the damages being done to it through various 

activities like charcoal factory production among others. Likewise, the patterns of changing climate and 

their increasingly dangerous consequences are little valued (Raimi et al., 2019). With this, efforts need 

to be made to minimize the negative impacts of charcoal factories which has been discovered to be on 

the increase, such efforts include formulation and implementation of good policies, research, 

developing new and better technologies and purposeful awareness to those involved in charcoal 

production and members of the surrounding communities. Furthermore, the Nigerian government, 

through the relevant authorities, implements existing forest and resource laws to ensure proper usage of 

the forest-related products. In addition, ensuring sustainability by meeting the livelihoods challenges 

and preserving the ability of ecosystems to perform long-term regulating and supporting functions 

requires adjustments and trade-offs. Individuals engaged in harvesting of wood for charcoal and 

fuelwood require trade-offs. There is a need for innovations to devise local solar heating devices that 

will be inexpensive and yet locally available, and communities are willing to engage in agroforestry or 



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silviculture and would provide land to government for mass silviculture. As the communities needs to 

change or modify some of their farming practices, especially the slash and burn system, but it also 

needs farming inputs such as herbicides, fertilizers, and modern implements such as tractors, which 

should be made available at highly subsidized rate (Fasona et al., 2014). Community members should 

be actively prepared and willing to adopt alternative livelihoods that will improve the quality of 

ecosystems in relation to forest conservation and food production. All Local Government Authorities 

(LGAs) should be willing to partner with communities and other stakeholders to drive the process of 

natural resources management. There are trends of functionality gaps and a dearth of management 

schemes and tools which according to Fasona et al. (2014), about 49% of the LGAs are not aware of 

methods for preserving their forest land and animals; 70% of households have never been trained in 

forest management and 40% are not aware of the future threats to the sustainability forest and 

woodland that could result from their actions. In over 70% of the LGAs there are no systematic 

procedures for applying for logging, felling of trees for charcoal and fuelwood harvesting. This implies 

a lack of regulation or coordination of logging and charcoal businesses by the government.  

As June 5th 2020 marked the largest global celebration of World Environment Day (WED) with the 

theme “Time for Nature”, it is significant that the world become very conscious of our activities that 

lead to environmental destruction and loss of forestry products, including biodiversity. There is need to 

put in the best of effort to minimise our activities that endanger the environment and be mindful that we 

have the means to ensure a sustainable future for the people and our planet by contributing our quota to 

a more sustainable approach to doing things in order to protect, preserve and enhance our ecosystem. 

There is need to care for the environment and this is the time for mainstreaming environmental 

sustainability in our development agenda as a country and as a people to help in protecting nature to 

continue enjoying the ecosystem services it provides. Additionally, there is a need for legislation of 

policy on modern and enhanced technological usage of forestry products, particularly for charcoal. 

Compulsory use of Improved Eco-stoves should be made available to derived and multidimensional 

poor rural households to ensure efficiency and effectiveness for forest sustainability. It is further 

recommended that: 

i. The government should mainstream environmental concerns into poverty reduction programs and 

strengthening of forest protection programmes to ensure adequate vegetation cover in critical areas 

and to discourage developments likely to cause harmful changes. 

ii. Develop and implement an environment-friendly job-creation initiative for poverty reduction and 

green growth development and combine desirable features of the traditional approach (of 

ecosystems management) with modern scientific methods of conservation. 



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iii. Move production from environmentally polluting and resource-intensive activities by 

encouraging the use of alternative sources of energy e.g. coal briquettes, efficient wood stoves, solar 

energy, wind energy, biogas, etc.  

iv. Promote a shift from dirty energy to clean renewable energy options through reducing the 

percentage of fuel wood consumption in the domestic agricultural and industrial sectors.  

v. Incentivize investment in efficient, clean and environmentally friendly technologies. 

vi. Promote public awareness on the economic and environmental impacts of charcoal production 

and consumption patterns through encouraging communities to imbibe the culture of tree planting. 

There is a need to mandate the inclusion of tree planting as a criterion for building plans approval 

and approving authority shall determine the number of trees based on the size of the land and 

encouraging viable afforestation and reforestation programmes using tested drought resistant and/ 

or (local) economic tree species and conserving indigenous tree species that are endangered. 

vii. Prepare periodic public reports on the state of the environment in various states of the federation 

through strict regulation and enforcement of logging activities and increasing support for 

non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community tree-planting programmes. 

viii. Forest reserves should be established, protected and properly maintained by both Federal and 

State governments. Also, all local government areas should earmark at least 25% of their landmass 

for forestry and this should be properly manned and protected. Other states should ensure the 

creation of forests on at least 15 percent of their land area. 

ix. Government including Federal and State should strengthen and properly fund a reforestation and 

afforestation agency to handle all anti-desertification projects. The Stern Review found that, if 

deforestation were avoided, emission savings from avoided deforestation could potentially reduce 

CO2 emissions for under $5/tCO2, possibly as little as $1/tCO2. Afforestation and reforestation may 

perhaps save a minimum of another 1GtCO2/year, at an estimated cost of $5/tCO2 to $15/tCO2. The 

review determined these figures by assessing eight (8) countries responsible for 70% of global 

deforestation emissions. 

x. Integrated human development issues including income generation, increased local control of 

resources, local institution strengthening, capacity building, and greater involvement of community 

based non-governmental organizations and lower tiers of government as delivery mechanisms. 

xi. Enhancement of food security through improved ecosystem-based management and ecosystem 

restoration. Series of studies show the benefits of implementing strategies to improve ecosystem 

management as a means to increase not only food security but also to achieve other social goals. 

Examples include collaborative management of mangrove forests to promote conservation, 

mitigation of climate change and alleviation of poverty among people dependent on the mangroves 

and adjacent marine ecosystems (Dulvy and Allison, 2009). Such plans necessitate supportive 



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institutions, partnerships, teamwork with farmers’ innovation networks, and connections from 

sustainable farms to markets. 

xii. Design and implement a National Environmental Inspection Programme (NEIP). 

xiii. Compile and domesticate all environmental treaties signed or ratified by Nigeria. 

xiv. Coordinate the activities of involved ministries in a Nexus Approach. 

xv. Provide a locally-adapted regulatory path for the safe use of charcoal and its residues. 

xvi. Assess the value of ecosystem services provided by charcoal and reuse. Benefits that can be 

quantified include improved soil, forest and wetland resources; nutrients, water, and energy 

recovered; GHG emissions reduced, and improved human health. 

xvii. Establish incentives for communities to encourage them to implement a Nexus Approach and to 

cooperate in its implementation. For example, identify how operation costs and the resources 

produced are shared across the community. 

 

Data Availability Statement 

The data availability used to support the findings of this study are included within the article. 

 

Competing Interests 

We declare that we have no conflict of interest that could be perceived as prejudicing the impartiality of 

the research reported. This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, 

commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. 

 

Consent 

All authors declare that written informed consent was obtained from the participants.  

 

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