Activities in Retirement: Individual Experience of Silver Work Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller Abstract: One consequence of demographic change is a longer average remaining lifetime after retirement. Many people, however, remain able and willing to continue work after reaching the statutory retirement age. Given the predicted shortage of skilled workers in the future, post-retirement activities have the potential to con- tribute to both organisations and society. This article elaborates the prerequisites for productivity in retirement age and the changed nature of retirement at present. It also quantifi es the extent to which activities are continued at retirement age. Paid employment still occurs beyond the applicable retirement age, whereby with in- creasing age, self-employed persons and assistant family members make up the lion’s share of the statistics. An empirical study shows the concrete situation of ac- tive retirees and the prerequisites for post-retirement activities. At the explorative level, individual experiences of the transition into retirement, the reasons for and the framework of post-retirement activities, motivational factors in job design, and physical and intellectual demands before and after retirement are characterised. The qualitative data indicate that retirement entails changes towards more fl exible structures in everyday life. Decisive reasons for taking up post-retirement activities are the desire to help, pass on knowledge or remain active; personal development and contact with others; and gaining appreciation and recognition. Flexible job de- sign and freedom to make decisions constitute major elements in shaping post- retirement working activities. Offering autonomy, skill variety, and task signifi cance is important for the design of post-retirement activities. The paper closes with iden- tifying relevant research fi elds and the concrete need to take action at individual, organisational, and societal levels. All in all, the transition from working life to retire- ment should be made fl exible enough to do greater justice to the realities of life. Keywords: Older workers · Work Motivation · Retirement · Silver Work · Future of work Comparative Population Studies – Zeitschrift für Bevölkerungswissenschaft Vol. 35, 4 (2010): 801-832 (Day of release: 15.12.2011) © Federal Institute for Population Research 2011 URL: www.comparativepopulationstudies.de DOI: 10.4232/10.CPoS-2010-18en URN: urn:nbn:de:bib-cpos-2010-18en6 • Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller802 1 Point of departure Current debate on the gradual increase in the retirement age to 67 in Germany, which was decided on in 2007 and has been the subject of controversy since then (Spiegel Online 2010), as well as the discussion on the growing labour force participation rate of 55- to 64-year-olds in recent years (Brussig 2009: 281), shows that society and the labour market have become aware of demographic change. From its current level of roughly 16 million, the number of over 65-year-olds in the German population will increase to over 22 million as early as 2030; approx. 23 million, that is, one inhabit- ant in three, will be 65 or older in 2050 (Bundesinstitut für Bevölkerungsforschung 2008: 18). At the same time, life expectancy is increasing, leading to a further rise in the remaining lifetime after retirement. According to the German statutory pen- sion insurance scheme (Deutsche Rentenversicherung), men draw a pension for an average of 15.8 years and women for 20.6 years. In 2001, these fi gures were only 13.8 and 18.9 years, respectively (Deutsche Rentenversicherung 2010: 67). The old age dependency ratio will double in the next 40 years. While there are currently 33 retirees for every 100 persons of working age, there will be more than 60 per 100 in 2050 (Bundesinstitut für Bevölkerungsforschung 2008: 18). This can be expected to present considerable challenges to the German social welfare system and the existing pay-as-you-go system (Moog/Raffelhüschen 2010). According to analyses by Prognos AG, the existing shortage of skilled workers will also continue to grow in all sectors in the coming years. If the present framework persists, there will already be a shortfall of nearly three million more workers in 2015 (Gramke et al. 2009:16). At the same time, however, many people remain able to contribute to the economy beyond the statutory retirement age (Lehr/Kruse 2006: 241) and willing to contin- ue to make use of their productivity: The Federal Institute for Population Research surveyed a representative group of 55- to 64-year-olds in dependent employment, 47.3 % of whom wished to remain in employment after their retirement (Büsch et al. 2010a: 6). In a survey of partially retired employees at one company, two thirds of them could have imagined working for longer (Aleksandrowicz et al. 2009: 2-4). However, in view of different professional groups with different workload de- mands, it is necessary to distinguish between the nature and magnitude of con- tinued employment. One indication of these disparities is that the average age of retirement is 60.6, much earlier than the statutory retirement age (Deutsche Rent- enversicherung 2010: 68). Moreover, individual differences in work ability become evident even prior to retirement age (Ilmarinen 2005: 135-136). These differences are what continue to make the group with high ability willing and able to contribute. It is hence a matter of making it “not only desirable, but also possible in objective terms” to continue to work (Naegele/Sporket 2009: 279). Post-retirement activities possess a vast potential and might help solve the soci- etal problems outlined above: Organisations can remain competitive by countering the shortage of specialists and managers at the same time that the burden on social security systems is reduced. Individuals can also tap a major source of personal well-being and health by remaining in employment and earning a little extra income. However, since not all people possess the requisite physical and intellectual fi tness, Activities in retirement: Individual experience of silver work • 803 only a specifi c group of individuals remain active and productive at retirement age. Nonetheless, a considerable degree of “silver work” can be observed (Deller/Maxin 2009: 309). This paper starts by studying the necessary prerequisites for productivity in ad- vanced age and investigating the current situation that is characterised by changes in the nature of retirement. In order to describe the fi eld of tension between employ- ment and retirement, this paper further quantifi es the extent of continued employ- ment following retirement in Germany. It then goes on to describe the concrete situation in which active retirees fi nd themselves, as well as the prerequisites for post-retirement activities, on the basis of an exploratory study. It concludes by iden- tifying relevant fi elds of research and indicating where action needs to be taken. 1.1 Productivity at retirement age People continue to be productive up to an advanced age (see Börsch-Supan et al. 2009: 54-57; Giniger et al. 1983: 473-474). In some cases it is even possible to ob- serve a larger contribution on the part of elderly workers in comparison to their younger colleagues (see Ilmarinen 2005: 136). In addition, older workers often have more professional experience. Many studies identifi ed a positive connection be- tween professional experience and professional performance (Avolio et al. 1990: 416; McEnrue 1988: 181; Quiñones et al. 1995: 904). “Defi cit models” of ageing, by contrast, which presume that intellectual performance generally declines in old age, are considered to have been disproven (Lehr/Kruse 2006: 241). There is no doubt that sensory, cognitive, and motor processes change as people grow older (Yordanova et al. 2004: 358-360). However, crystallized intelligence (the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience) and fl uid intelligence (quickly and fl exibly dealing with sensory impressions), for instance, develop differently over the lifespan: The degree of crystallized intelligence can increase once more in old age if the person’s life provides favourable conditions and there is no specifi c brain pathology (Baltes 1993: 589). Laboratory studies, by contrast, show that with increasing age, perform- ance and neurophysiological parameters appear to decline in terms of fl uid intel- ligence, e.g. with reaction tasks (Kolev et al. 2009: 222). When it comes to making a contribution, however, compensating for failing skills with other skills that do not decrease or even increase plays a decisive role (Baltes/Carstensen 1996: 205-208; Lehr 2007: 65-66; Salthouse 1984; Wild-Wall et al. 2009: 302). Additionally, environ- ment and individual lifestyle exert an infl uence on the development of cognitive performance, so that increasing inter-individual differences are seen in advanced age (Hertzog et al. 2008: 5). These infl uencing factors hence also affect the develop- ment of individual work ability in advanced age (Ilmarinen 2005: 136). Yet productivity in retirement age is infl uenced not only by the ability to contrib- ute, but also by the willingness to contribute and the personal life situation of the individual. The importance attached to central aspects of life such as work, family, and health changes in the course of a lifetime (Lehr 2007: 53-55). Younger people (25-34) primarily invest in work, followed by friends, family, and independence. The • Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller804 so-called life investment among the elderly (55-84), by contrast, is primarily carried out in families, followed by health and friends (Staudinger 1996: 366). Retention of intellectual skills for the life phase of this group of individuals, who in some cases are far above the standard working age, gains importance (Staudinger/Baltes 1996: 64-65). Work-related motives of younger and older workers aged up to 65 also un- dergo age-dependent changes (Grube/Hertel 2008; Stamov-Roßnagel/Hertel 2010: 896-898). In surveys among workers aged 18 to 64, whereas a linear increase be- tween age and the signifi cance of the motive was shown for the aspects autonomy, signifi cance, creating something lasting, helping, and appreciation, a linear reduc- tion was shown for the aspects infl uence, career, leisure, and fun and enjoyment (Grube 2009: 102-103). These fi ndings provide information on age-related changes among older workers, but not on the motives of working retirees. For the group of 18- to 64-year-olds, the socioemotional selectivity theory of Carstensen (2006) can also take on particular signifi cance. It states that, as people grow older and have a subjectively perceived shorter remaining lifetime, motives shift towards emotion- ally signifi cant activities and goals: “... [When] people perceive time as fi nite, they attach greater importance to fi nding emotional meaning and satisfaction from life and invest fewer resources into gathering information and expanding horizons” (Carstensen 2006: 1915). In the light of a lifetime that is increasingly perceived as being fi nite, the focus becomes placed on positive emotions, also, for instance, through positively valued experiences at work. Motivations change when new pri- orities are set. North American research on motivation (Kanfer 2009) distinguishes between two forms of work motivation, namely the status of work in general terms (mo- tivation for work) and the motivation for a concrete activity (motivation at work). Kanfer stresses that there is a shortage of empirical evidence that theories of work motivation transfer to a higher age (Kanfer 2009: 87). The methods applied show that the “motivation for work” when people are in middle age and older is more closely linked to the working conditions experienced (Kanfer 2009: 88). The motiva- tion to carry out an activity in retirement can hence arise out of matching the activ- ity with an individual motivation for precisely this concrete activity, but also from a high personal status attached to work in general. Studies on the intention to en- gage in continued employment in retirement additionally show that post-retirement work appears more likely if work takes on a central status in life (Lim/Ng 1997: 199). Age-related changes in work motivation can also emanate from personal attitude changes in self-concept or values (Kanfer/Ackerman 2004: 451-452). This can lead to a change in the acceptance of working conditions (Kanfer 2009: 86). A change in the values attached to the dimensions of motivational job design (motivation at work) is hence also to be expected for active retirees. Factors that exert an infl u- ence on the intrinsic motivation for a concrete task have already been defi ned in the Job Characteristics Model (Hackman/Oldham 1975); based on this, Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) provide an enlarged, comprehensive concept for the motivational work characteristics. Individual performance hence depends heavily on the job design (see also Schooler 1999: 243). An appropriate job design can enhance the productivity of Activities in retirement: Individual experience of silver work • 805 older workers (Skirbekk 2008: 9). As long-term studies have found out, complex tasks are particularly favourable to retaining intellectual abilities in advanced age, (Schooler et al. 1999: 488-490). This also applies to leisure activities with a high degree of complexity (Schooler/Mulatu 2001: 473). In a survey of 55- to 64-year-old workers, Büsch et al. (2010b: 145) found that more than one quarter of respondents evaluated their subjectively estimated ability to work as high or medium, but their own willingness to work as low. Even in the case of perceived performance ability just before retirement age, demotivating factors in job design may hence contrib- ute to existing performance potential remaining unused in old age. Organisational frameworks may partly lead to these changes in motivation. For both workers and retirees, there appear to be motivators for various tasks, not only for professional ones. Many retirees are in a situation in which they can choose their preferences. We presume that existing performance potential can be accessed by reducing or excluding demotivating factors, as well as by establishing and expanding conditions that enhance motivation in a work environment. 1.2 A new form of retirement The nature of retirement has undergone considerable change over time (for an over- view: Shultz/Wang 2011). A new relationship between work, learning, and leisure can be increasingly observed in which these elements are more closely interlinked and exist regardless of age (Reday-Mulvey 2005: 21-22). The term “retirement” used to signify the conclusion of an active working life, and implied that workers with- drew from the labour market altogether. Given the increasing remaining lifetime in retirement, however, many people turn to alternative employment, such as vol- untary work, after completing their regular working lives (Alterssurvey 2002a: 5; Freiwilligensurvey 2006: 303-305), but also to continued professional employment (Alterssurvey 2002b: 3; Griffi n/Hesketh 2008: 115-117; Ulrich/Brott 2005: 160). Continued professional employment in retirement has been the subject of re- search in North America for more than two decades (Doeringer 1990: 5-7; Wang et al. 2008: 818-819). Since then, bridge employment has been registered and ana- lysed as a social phenomenon likely caused to a considerable degree by the needs of the labour market. Whereas elderly workers in the USA and Canada in the 1950s were still able to presume that they would have lasting, long-term employment re- lationships (see Calo 2005: 302), companies began to push elderly workers into early retirement in the 1980s. The reasons included increasing competition among organisations, also leading to mergers and take-overs, internal restructuring, and job cuts (see Doeringer 1990: 7-8; Feldman 1994: 286). Since then, a signifi cant number of affected workers consequently participate in different forms of bridge employment (Feldman 1994: 286). Bridge employment refers to tasks that generally entail a combination of reduced working hours, less responsibility, greater fl exibil- ity, and less physical strain (Feldman 1994: 287-288). These conditions offer elderly workers the option to gradually withdraw from the labour market (see Shultz 2001: 253; Weckerle/Shultz 1999: 325-326). At the same time, they give elderly workers the opportunity to remain on the labour market beyond retirement without having • Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller806 to forego gains in terms of leisure time and self-determination in everyday life. In this context, bridge employment may be taken literally since it offers the individual a bridge between the obligations of full-time employment and complete withdrawal from the labour market into retirement (Beehr/Bennett 2007: 278). Bridge employ- ment activities do not necessarily constitute less demanding or challenging work (Adams/Rau 2004: 720). Managers may, for instance, be available to their former employer in an advisory capacity beyond retirement age or return to the company for individual projects. The possibilities of employment in the context of bridge employment are mani- fold. The literature often distinguishes between career bridge employment and bridge employment in a different fi eld, also referred to as non-career bridge em- ployment (see Feldman 1994: 289; Gobeski/Beehr 2009: 409-410; Wang et al. 2008: 818). In the context of career bridge employment, towards the end of their profes- sional careers workers can continue in their original fi eld of work with their previ- ous employer, with another company or on a self-employed basis (see Gobeski/ Beehr 2009: 417). Alternatively, in the context of non-career bridge employment, it is conceivable to choose employment that is unrelated to the job or sector (see Shultz 2001: 252-253). One example of work within career bridge employment is when retired teachers continue their teaching activity in adult education for a chari- table organisation. An example of non-career bridge employment, by contrast, is when a postal company employee transports patients as an unskilled worker after reaching the statutory retirement age. Because of the low level of skills required, non-career bridge employment is often poorly paid, which may also entail a loss of status (see Feldman 1994: 289; Gobeski/Beehr 2009: 402). Tasks in the context of bridge employment encompass paid employment or unpaid voluntary work (see Griffi n/Hesketh 2008: 102-103). The paid activities can be carried out on the basis of employment or self-employment (see Doeringer 1990: 6). Other alternatives are full-time and part-time work, as well as project and casual work (see Gobeski/Beehr 2009: 401). Retirement constitutes a radical change in life that is felt to differing degrees by different individuals (Calo 2005: 306; Mayring 2000: 132). There are empirical indications of the change being perceived as less signifi cant in comparison to other life events, but there are major inter-individual differences in this perception (Mat- thews/Brown 1987: 567). The less rigid structure of daily routine or of relationships with others after retirement can in some cases be regained through activities (Atch- ley 1989: 188). After a working life entailing a high workload, post-retirement activi- ties can ease the transition into retirement. Motives for engaging in bridge employment can be distinguished into personal reasons, a desire for contact, or fi nancial and generative reasons (Dendinger et al. 2005: 23-25; Mor-Barak 1995: 332-334). Personal reasons lead to acts that increase one’s own well-being. The need to remain intellectually and physically active is es- sential in this respect to activity in retirement (Brown 2003: 21). Perceived apprecia- tion and recognition of the contribution made, as well as enjoyment of and interest in the activity appear to play a vital role in taking up a paid or unpaid activity after professional employment (AARP 2002: 59). Adapting to retirement can be facili- Activities in retirement: Individual experience of silver work • 807 tated by maintaining external structures and previous contacts (Atchley 1989: 183). A desire for contact can also be a major reason for activities in retirement (Aquino et al. 1996: 488). The desire to pass on knowledge and experience to the next genera- tion was identifi ed as a central infl uencing factor for continued employment in re- tirement in North America (Calo 2005: 306-309; Dendinger et al. 2005: 31-33; Saba/ Guerin 2005: 208). These generative reasons encompass passing on experience or the desire to help others. Another major requirement for taking up an activity is fl exibility (Brown 2003: 10). This includes, for instance, the possibility to take time to care for family members and to be able to determine one’s working time oneself. The transition into retirement is a process that is infl uenced by personal and envi- ronmental factors (Beehr 1986: 46; Feldman 1994: 291; Ulrich/Brott 2005: 163-164). A large number of empirical studies have identifi ed individual preconditions, as well as work- and organisation-related, family-related, and socio-economic factors, as major factors infl uencing the process of retirement (Wang/Shultz 2010: 182). The various manifestations of the individual transition show either a quantitative and/ or a qualitative deviation from the previous employment, which is expressed in changes in working hours, a new employer, or another type of employment (Pleau 2010: 4). Feldman (1994: 288) identifi es as a motivation for retirement the need for a less stringent psychological connection with the world of work. The transition into retirement hence must not necessarily result in complete withdrawal from the labour market and in exclusively drawing pensions. In the sense of bridge employ- ment, retirement can instead be perceived as a further stage in the individual career development (Calo 2005: 307; Wang/Shultz 2010: 179-180) in which persons con- tinue to work on the labour market in a reduced form. 2 Post-retirement activities in Germany In Germany, initial practical models have been developed relating to the use of the professional skills that have been acquired by skilled retirees. These methods are currently exclusively concerned with the imparting of expert knowledge and skills. Organisations complying with the concept of the Senior Expert Service (SES), Bosch Management Support GmbH (BMS), or Erfahrung Deutschland GmbH (ED) place retirees in voluntary (SES) or paid work either within a company (BMS) or without taking former company affi liations into consideration (ED). The existence of these organisations demonstrates that, when suitable frameworks and appropriate skills are available, employment in retirement can be interesting for persons and compa- nies. Because pensions drawn are likely to be lower in the foreseeable future, other forms of employment in retirement may also take on primary signifi cance. For the less highly skilled it will then presumably be more a matter of managing fi nancially than of imparting knowledge. Since the population of traditional working age is shrinking, attractive framework conditions may be helpful for recruiting workers of all ages. Here, work should be offered in an attractive and suitable form for all population groups. The current pa- per attempts to take an initial empirical step towards addressing the phenomenon of silver work. We have therefore chosen an exploratory approach here to cover • Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller808 as broad a range of subjective estimates as possible. Connected to the research on bridge employment, this approach generates initial fi ndings on the design of silver work in the socio-economical and political environment in Germany, which differs from that in North America. The goal is to arrive at a differentiated depic- tion of the life reality of this specifi c group of individuals. This fi rst step will lay a necessary foundation for dealing with this new applied fi eld of research and testing hypotheses in further steps. The approach hence answers Kanfer’s (2009: 89) call for targeted research into basic phenomena in “specifi c samples” if there are only few indications of the empirical validity of established theories in these fi elds. In order to illustrate the phenomenon of silver work, we fi rst quantify the extent of of- fi cially recorded post-retirement work in Germany. We then present the explorative results of a fi rst empirical study, indicating the concrete situation and prerequisites for post-retirement activities in Germany. 2.1 Extent of post-retirement activities Although bridge employment is a widespread phenomenon in North America (Dendinger et al. 2005: 21-22; Doeringer 1990: 6; Shultz 2001: 248; Wang et al. 2008: 818-819), no fi gures were available until recently on active retirees’ labour market participation in Germany. 2.1.1 Sample and method To determine the extent of post-retirement work in Germany, we looked at numbers of persons in paid employment, which are regularly published in the microcensus by the Federal Statistical Offi ce. Although the Federal Statistical Offi ce collects this information on a yearly basis, data for the group aged 65 years and older were re- ported for the fi rst time for 2007 (Deller/Maxin 2009: 308; Statistisches Bundesamt 2009a). 2.1.2 Results of the microcensus Figure 1 shows the number of persons remaining in paid employment at retirement age for 2007. As anticipated, an ongoing reduction in the number of persons in paid employment can be observed. Whereas at the age of 65, 100,000 persons in paid employment are reported nationally, 11,000 persons are still in paid employment at the age of 75. Furthermore, paid employment is still found in the even older cohorts on a case-by-case basis. Here, however, more precise observations can likely be made only after a new census has been carried out, given that in the microcensus the number of cases in the 75-plus age groups has shrunk to a size for extrapolation is no longer possible (Statistisches Bundesamt 2009b). One group of particular interest are the self-employed. They form the largest professional group among those in retirement age, their share clearly growing with increasing age (see Fig. 2). Roughly 55,000 self-employed persons are still in paid employment in the age group of 70 to 74 alone. At the same time, professional activ- Activities in retirement: Individual experience of silver work • 809 ity on the part of civil servants in the same age group can no longer be observed. This suggests that pensioners from this group who are interested in continued ac- tivities beyond retirement age seek other forms of employment because of the ex- isting restrictions on post-retirement work, possibly in self-employment. Looking at the percentage of self-employed and of assistant family members among persons in paid employment (Fig. 2), one can clearly observe for both groups a relative increase with rising age. The self-employed account for only 12.4 % of persons in paid employment aged 50 to 54, but for almost half of those aged 75 to 79 (47.7 %). If one adds to these numbers the assistant family members helping the self-employed, this group accounts for 65.9 % of all persons in paid employment in the highest age class. As has been shown, paid employment also exists beyond the applicable retire- ment age. The number of those currently of retirement age who remain in paid employment per age group sinks with advancing age. However, not all professional groups participate in continued paid employment to the same degree: Whereas former civil servant pensioners aged over 65 do not appear in the statistics as being in paid employment, the dominance of the group of the self-employed increases with advancing age. Other forms of employment in retirement, such as voluntary and family commitment, also play a major role in this age group. Over 60-year-olds currently constitute the largest growth group of voluntary commitment (Freiwilligen- survey 2006: 312-315). In the coming sections we will present the results of a com- prehensive study on the life realities of currently paid and unpaid working retirees. Fig. 1: Persons in paid employment 2007 aged 65 to 75 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 Workers Absolute figures in 1,000s Age in years Source: Statistisches Bundesamt 2009a, own design • Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller810 2.2 Characteristics of post-retirement activities In this section, we present the results of a fi rst empirical study on the formation and manifestation of silver work in Germany. 2.2.1 Target group Taking the point of departure outlined in the fi rst section, this exploratory study aimed to obtain a picture of the individual situation of active retirees in Germany. To this end, we primarily developed open-ended questions, the answers to which were largely left to the respondents themselves in terms of their length and content. We explored some selected aspects on the basis of existing theories with the aid of quantitatively anchored scales. Our sample consisted of silver workers, offi cially retired persons who continue to engage in one or several paid or unpaid activities (see Deller/Maxin 2008). The reasons for and framework of these activities formed the focus of the explorative and applied survey. Open-ended questions on the tran- sition into retirement and on the design of everyday routines, together with a quan- Fig. 2: Percentage of all professional groups among persons in paid employment of the respective age group in 2007 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70 -74 75-79 Self-employed persons Assistant family members Civil servants Salaried employees Wageearners Age group Percentage share Source: Statistisches Bundesamt 2009a, own design Activities in retirement: Individual experience of silver work • 811 titative comparative survey of the former and current work situations, supplement the semi-structured questionnaire of the survey. In the following, questionnaire and sample are described. 2.2.2 Questionnaire We collected the data with a semi-structured interview guide in the context of tel- ephone interviews lasting an average of 60 minutes. The practical relevance of the questionnaire was ensured in close cooperation with personnel offi cers from DAX companies and from a consulting fi rm specialised in evaluating jobs. It was possible to categorise the professional activity of the interview participant prior to retirement using questions on the nature of the job (complexity and responsibility) and the size of the company, using a version of the Hay Group job evaluation system. The topic of transition into retirement was explored by combining four open- ended and four closed questions: a) What were your feelings on approaching retire- ment? b) In overall retrospect: Have you achieved your professional goals (0-150; anchor: 0-no goal achieved, 50-partly, 100-completely achieved, 150-over exceed- ed)? c) For what reasons did you retire (at this time)? d) Looking back, would you make the same decision again (Yes/No)? e) How did you fi nd your present activity? f) All in all, have you personally gained more freedom? How important is this to you? (0-100; anchor: 0-not important at all, 50-important but not suffi ciently, 100-indis- pensable/highly decisive)? g) To what degree are the skills you use today identical to those of your former work (in %)? h) Please describe the ratio between your work and leisure times: To what degree are these interrelated? A total of fi ve open-ended questions were asked on the topic of reasons for and framework of post-retirement activities: a) What reasons do you have for working in retirement? b) What is particularly important to you in your work? c) What would be the ideal conditions for work in retirement? d) What should a specifi c personnel policy for elderly workers look like? e) Where do you see the greatest need for action for fi rms with regard to the employment of elderly people? For the depiction of factors of work motivation, we applied a section from the Job Diagnostic Survey of Hackman and Oldham (1975), which describes motivational work characteristics. We selected this method for two reasons: Firstly, we wished, in addition to the open-ended questions, to obtain initial impressions of the distribu- tion of the fundamental factors of work motivation in post-retirement work settings. We therefore asked for an assessment of these motivational work characteristics on a scale from 0 to 100. For this fi rst empirical step, we chose these fi ve basic job dimensions. Only after data collection had started was a comprehensive question- naire for motivational work characteristics published that also included other di- mensions (Morgeson/Humphrey 2006). Secondly, the many open-ended questions left little time for detailed quantitative surveys without going beyond the scope of the telephone interview. The study used a selection of the job dimensions skill variety, autonomy, task signifi cance, task identity, and task-related feedback that contribute to work motivation (Hackman/Oldham 1975; Morgeson/Humphrey 2006: 1323; Oldham/Hackman 2010: 464). Skill variety is understood here as the degree • Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller812 to which work requires many varied skills. Autonomy signifi es the degree of self- determination with which the work is carried out. Task signifi cance is expressed in how important or signifi cant individuals personally consider their work to be. Task identity describes the degree to which the work facilitates the creation of a com- pleted piece of work or project. Task-related feedback signifi es the degree to which someone can directly ascertain from the job how well they have worked (Hackman/ Oldham 1975: 161-162; Landy/Conte 2010: 399; Morgeson/Humphrey 2006: 1323). The extent of the existence of these dimensions was assessed on a scale of 0 to 100 at three different points in time (before and after retirement, as well as in an ideal situation). Physical and intellectual demands were rated on a scale from 0 to 100 with the anchor values 0-no demands, 50-medium demands, and 100-very high demands. Once again, respondents were asked for an assessment of the current employment situation, a retrospective evaluation of the former work situation, and their ideal of employment in retirement. Additionally, respondents were asked to state up to which age they wished to continue to work (maximum age). With this approach, we would like to gain an approximation of the actual ability of respondents to contrib- ute at three points in their lives. The specifi c make-up of the sample in this survey (see section 2.2.4) is contingent on motivation, since only retirees who were work- ing beyond the statutory retirement age on their own initiative and of their own accord were surveyed. 2.2.3 Data analysis Quantitative data were analysed using the SPSS 17.0 and Microsoft Excel soft- ware programs. The open-ended questions were analysed using content analysis (Mayring 2008; Neuendorf 2002). To this end, the unstructured statements were recorded on tape, transcribed, paraphrased, coded, and quantifi ed in a following stage by inductive category formation (Mayring 2008: 74-76). Wherever the com- plexity of the dataset allowed, interrater reliabilities according to Krippendorff were determined for the categories of the content analysis (Craggs/Krippendorff 2004; see also Krippendorff 2004: 427-428). Two independent judgments by trained raters were consulted to calculate the coeffi cient. Semantic validity and construct validity were ensured through multipersonal codebook development in a team of two to six developers, and in some cases through triangulation (Flick 2008: 312-313; Mayring 2008: 111). 2.2.4 Sample characteristics Organisations such as trade unions, charities, or companies were identifi ed that had contact with their former members in retirement, and contacted via e-mail. The goal was to recruit study participants from the white collar fi eld, in which more than 40 % of all those in paid employment in Germany were employed at the time of data collection (BAuA 2008: 6). However, it was not possible to obtain a suffi ciently large sample on the basis of this systematic approach because of a lack of cooperation Activities in retirement: Individual experience of silver work • 813 on the part of the organisations approached. As an alternative, personal contacts of the research team and recommendations of interview partners were used for re- cruiting. A cumulative sample was created that does not claim to be representative of the population. From September to December 2005, as well as from April to July 2006, a total of 146 retirees in paid or voluntary work aged 60 to 85 (M=67, SD=4.2) were surveyed in telephone interviews lasting an average of 60 minutes. The standard deviation (SD) provides information about the amount of difference in the sample. A high value depicts a large degree of differentiation, and a low value shows a lower de- gree of differentiation between the individuals surveyed. 31 % of the sample were women and 69 % men. Almost 60 % of the interviewees held a university degree. The sample hence has an above-average level of education. Information on the interviewees’ work prior to retirement made it possible to distinguish between management and non-management functions. Functions ly- ing between these levels cannot be unambiguously determined. Table 1 shows the composition of the sample with respect to the professional position prior to retire- ment, while Table 2 reveals the fi eld of post-retirement activities. The categorisa- Tab. 1: Activities of the study participants prior to retirement Level of complexity by Hay Group1 Spread in the sample (%) Example positions 1 0.7 2 1.4 3 0.7 State Secretary, managing director, board member 4 7.9 5 higher complexity 10.8 6 12.9 Chemist, head of division, general in the federal armed services, manager, professor, chairman of a savings bank, director of studies 7 medium complexity 21.6 Manager, design engineer 8 13.7 9 18.0 10 10.1 11 0.7 12 lower complexity 1.4 Master baker, banker, driver, teacher, pastor, office worker, tax official, technical worker, cleaner Notes: N=139. 1 Classifi cation of the last full-time position prior to retirement was carried out by the Hay Group. Levels of complexity 1-6 correspond to management functions; levels 8-12 correspond to non-management functions; level 7 cannot be clearly attributed. Source: own design • Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller814 tion of the former professional position (Tab. 1) is based on the information about the interviewees’ last full-time employment prior to retirement. 34.4 % of the re- spondents were employed in management; 43.9 % were not. 21.6 % of the sample worked in the area that was not unambiguously determinable. The categorisation of the clients of work after retirement (Tab. 2) arose through a content-analytical evaluation of the responses to the open-ended question “Please describe your work (e.g. voluntary, paid employment, social support of family or friends, other). Describe the main activity to which you wish to refer.” Because of the qualitative nature of the data material, it was not possible to make an unambiguous distinction between paid and unpaid work. Künemund (2006: 116-121) also refers to the methodological problem in the delimitation between paid and unpaid work (see also Rosenbladt 2001: 216). The respondents worked an average of 52.3 hours per week in their former pro- fessional positions (SD=12.8). These numbers refer to the actual working hours, and ranged from 10 to 85 hours per week. Four out of fi ve respondents (80.3 %) had worked more than 40 hours per week. For post-retirement activities, the work- ing hours ranged between one and 60 hours per week, averaging out at 18.3 hours (SD=12.3), which corresponds to roughly one third of the former hours per week. One third of respondents (30.5 %) worked for more than 20 hours per week in retire- ment. The sample’s high level of education corresponds to the complexity of the previ- ous work. The activity currently carried out was established largely as a result of contacts from previous working life, through both external enquiries and following own initiative and active searches. One fi fth of the respondents worked for com- mercial enterprises, but also for charitable, art and cultural institutions, as well as Tab. 2: Clients of the study participants after retirement Note: N=140. Categorising responses to the open-ended question “Please describe your work (e.g. voluntary, paid employment, social support of family or friends, other). Describe the main activity to which you wish to refer.” Source: own design Clients Spread in the sample (%) Private industry 22.1 Charities 12.1 Art and cultural institutions 10.0 Political institutions 9.3 Educational institutions 8.6 Rotary Club/Lions Club 5.7 Church institutions 5.7 Economic associations, clubs, and foundations 5.0 Sports clubs 3.6 Other 17.9 Activities in retirement: Individual experience of silver work • 815 various associations. In our study, more than half of the retirees could benefi t from skills acquired in their previous working lives. The sample is characterised by previ- ous work that was intellectually demanding, a level that post-retirement activities cannot entirely sustain. The results in the question areas described, namely transition into retirement, reasons and framework for post-retirement work, factors of work motivation, and physical and intellectual demands prior to and after retirement are presented in the following fi ve sections. These results provide an overview of the relevant areas for an initial understanding of the life world of active retirees in Germany. 2.2.5 Results: transition into retirement Three quarters of the respondents (77.1 %) stated in retrospect that they have fully achieved their professional goals. The average degree of achieving goals is 108.4 (SD=27.4; scale: 0-150). All in all, the work goals were fully achieved and were ex- ceeded in some cases. More than half of the respondents (52.2 %) had entered retirement with positive feelings. Only 11.8 % spoke of negative feelings in the tran- sition into retirement. In an open-ended question about the reasons for retirement, four out of ten (38.0 %) respondents stated that it had been stipulated by company regulations. More than one quarter of the respondents (26.8 %) cited internal com- pany reasons such as job cuts or even insolvency of the company as the reason for retirement. Only 12.7 % mentioned health-related reasons leading to the termina- tion of regular work. Looking back, the great majority of the respondents (93.2 %) would once again decide for the selected time of transition into retirement. Not all respondents retired of their own accord, but largely after a fulfi lled working life and with positive feelings. Table 3 provides an overview of the development of post- retirement activities. One quarter of the unsupported statements (24.1 %) affi rmed that post-retire- ment activity had been established on the basis of the previous work or contacts from working life. Nearly just as frequently (23.6 %), an external enquiry was named as leading to post-retirement activities. However, own initiative and active search- ing also accounts for one fi fth (19.7 %) of the occurrences. Continuation and intensi- fi cation of ancillary work or hobbies already pursued during working life determined one sixth (15.8 %) of the statements. The use of the individual’s existing network, regardless of the former work, played a somewhat subordinate role (7.4 %), as did follow-on activities already pursued during working life (2.5 %) and the same ac- tivity on a different dimension (2.5 %). It should be taken into account here that multiple attributions were possible and that an individual’s attributions could occur in various categories. When asked whether they had gained greater freedom in re- tirement, respondents reported considerably more freedom in retrospect: 79.7 % responded positively to the question. Almost two thirds of them referred to gain- ing greater freedom as being indispensable (61.8 %). More than half of the skills (56.5 %) used in post-retirement work were identical to those used in their former work. The largest share of the respondents reported a fl owing transition between • Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller816 leisure and work (45.5 %). One third (33.6 %) rigorously distinguished between the two areas. By contrast, one fi fth did not distinguish between work and leisure at all (21.0 %). 2.2.6 Results: reasons and framework Major aspects of taking up post-retirement activities are shown to be the areas of helping, the desire to pass on knowledge, wishing to remain active, own develop- ment, and contact with others. Table 4 provides an overview of the reasons, each of which were quantifi ed in a content analysis and identifi ed across different ques- tion areas. In two open-ended questions, a main general question was fi rst asked about the reasons for post-retirement activities, and later in the course of the inter- view about aspects of post-retirement work that are particularly important to the respondent. Results of the two questions suggest that the category of wishing to help others and pass on knowledge is central. In the unstructured statements on the reasons for continuing in activities, it accounts for one eighth (12.3 %) of the occur- rences, and for almost one third in the answers on importance (30.5 %). It is salient across both question areas in the category, indicating that it is a major element in the motivation for continuing to work. Another such element is contact with others, which is linked with post-retirement activities, with one sixth (16.7 %) of occurrenc- es regarding importance. A further fundamental component of the motivation for continuing activities is personal development and the desire to remain active, with more than one third (36.0 %) of occurrences regarding the reasons. Recognition and appreciation experienced through post-retirement activities are similarly frequent in both areas (reasons: 9.3 %, importance: 9.9 %), indicating that they are a further essential component of the motivation to engage in activities in retirement. Finan- cial matters also appear within both the reasons for employment (6.4 %) and the Tab. 3: Development of post-retirement activities Notes: Open-ended question: “How did you fi nd your present work?” Multiple responses were possible. Content-analytical categorised fi elds. Krippendorff’s α = 0.69. N=142. 203 occurrences. Occurrences stated as percentages. Source: own design Category Occurrences (%) From previous work, contact from job 24.1 External enquiry (passive) 23.6 Own initiative, active search 19.7 Continuation, intensification of work or hobbies 15.8 Contacts, network (not from old work) 7.4 Same work as before, different scale 2.5 Follow-on work was already decided on during working life 2.5 Other 4.4 Activities in retirement: Individual experience of silver work • 817 important aspects of activity in retirement (2.5 %), albeit with a comparatively small number of occurrences. The topic of remuneration was named in the responses to both open-ended questions. Enjoyment and interest in the work were mentioned comparatively often among the reasons for post-retirement activities (18.6 %), but do not appear at all among important aspects of post-retirement work. Table 5 sums up the results of the three open-ended questions on the ideal framework of post-retirement activities obtained by content analysis, the design of a specifi c personnel policy for older people, and in general on the areas with the greatest need for action for fi rms with regard to the employment of elderly people. In the overview of these open-ended questions, age-tailored working conditions and the consideration of specifi c needs, as well as recognition and appreciation, are shown to be promoted with different intensities. The salience of these categories is a clear indication that they are major structural elements in job design after retire- ment. These aspects are fundamental components of the design of post-retirement activities. The following are decisive across all three question areas: fl exible work- ing hour arrangements, age-tailored working conditions and the consideration of needs, and the use of experience-based knowledge in intergenerational exchange. The demand for fl exible working hours is very dominant in the fi rst two question areas on the ideal framework and specifi c personnel policy, with almost one third (29.1 %) and one eighth (12.8 %) of the occurrences, respectively, but is not regard- ed as constituting the greatest need for action on the part of organisations. Instead, Tab. 4: Reasons for post-retirement activities Note: Content-analytical categorised fi elds. Information as a percentage of the occurren- ces. Open-ended questions: 1 “What reasons do you have for working in retirement?” (N=139; 236 occurrences; Krippendorff’s α = 0.78) 2 “What is particularly important to you in your work?” (N=141; 203 occurrences; Krip- pendorff’s α = 0.87) Source: own design Reasons and importance Reasons1 in percent Importance2 in percent Helping, wanting to pass on knowledge 12.3 30.5 Contact with others 7.6 16.7 Wanting to remain active, personal development 36.0 10.3 Own demand, performance -- 10.3 Recognition, appreciation 9.3 9.9 Fulfilment, well-being -- 8.9 Financial reasons 6.4 2.5 Enjoyment, interest 18.6 -- Other 6.8 5.4 Other contexts 3.0 5.4 • Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller818 Tab. 5: Framework for post-retirement activities Notes: Content-analytical categorised fi elds. Information as a percentage of the occur- rences. Open-ended questions: 1 “What would be the ideal conditions for work in retirement?” (N=141; 306 occurrenc- es; Despite a reduction in the complexity of the data it was not possible to calculate Krippendorff’s α without combining the categories further, which would have entailed loss of content.) 2 “What should a specifi c personnel policy for elderly workers look like?” (N=111; 164 occurrences; Krippendorff’s α = 0,67) 3 “Where do you see the greatest need for action for fi rms with regard to the employ- ment of elderly people?” (N=120; 151 occurrences; Krippendorff’s α = 0.71) Source: own design Organisational framework Ideal in retirement1 Personnel policy for the elderly2 Need for firms to take action3 Flexible working hours 29.1 12.8 -- Advisory, freelance work 11.8 -- -- Self-determination, freedom to make decisions 9.8 -- -- Working conditions tailored to age, consideration of needs 7.2 18.3 11.9 Providing a structure 5.6 -- -- Providing a meaning and a goal 5.2 -- -- Financial recognition, special remuneration arrangements 4.9 -- 2.0 Offering self-realisation 4.6 -- -- Facilitating social contact 4.2 -- -- No permanent job or employment 4.2 -- -- Remaining active 3.6 -- -- Recognition and appreciation 2.3 8.5 23.8 Full-time, permanent post 2.0 -- -- Using experience and know-how, exchange between young and old -- 15.2 29.1 Active involvement in the company -- 15.9 18.5 Involvement in further and advanced training -- 5.5 5.3 Specific services for elderly workers -- 10.4 -- Offering possibilities for flexible retirement -- 7.9 -- No special treatment -- 4.3 2.0 Changing state regulations -- -- 3.3 Other 5.6 1.2 4.0 Activities in retirement: Individual experience of silver work • 819 a change in state regulations is called for in the clustered responses to this ques- tion. Even though this category, identifi ed by content analysis, is only slightly rep- resented in the overview (3.3 % of occurrences of the question area), it nonetheless provides an indication of structural changes that employees would like to see for exercising their work when in retirement. A large share of the occurrences in Table 5 stresses intergenerational exchange and passing on of knowledge as a major component, although the only statements quantifi ed here were answers to questions on specifi c contents of a personnel pol- icy for elderly employees and on locating the greatest need for action for organisa- tions. Here, silver workers gave their personal retrospective accounts of the work situation prior to retirement. For post-retirement activities, it becomes clear that ad- visory, self-employed work is the goal, in which self-determination and freedom to take decisions are fundamental (altogether, 21.6 % of the occurrences regarding the ideal framework of post-retirement activities). Aspects that were named across sev- eral question areas assume particular prevalence in the perception of the respond- ents. Financial remuneration of the contributions made by silver workers is named for both the desired framework (4.9 %) and the identifi ed need for action (2.0 %). Even when, overall, a relatively small number of occurrences focus on this aspect, it is nonetheless worth noting that it turns up unprompted and independently in two question areas. The fi nancial resources available to respondents appear to be an infl uencing element here. Moreover, a need for action on the part of the employing organisation in providing fi nancial recognition was identifi ed. Furthermore, remu- neration is frequently regarded as constituting recognition of the contribution that has been made. From silver workers’ perspective, the responsibility is defi nitely on companies at this juncture: The fi nancial recognition of work in retirement does not always appear to be managed satisfactorily. Working retirees would also like organi- sations to involve them more in basic and further training and quite clearly consider the companies to be responsible for this: One out of 20 occurrences in the question areas on specifi c personnel policy for the elderly (5.5 %) and on greater need to act on the part of fi rms (5.3 %),respectively, call for including the elderly in further and advanced training. Some respondents called for equal treatment of all age groups in two question areas in unprompted statements (personnel policy: 4.3 %; need to act: 2.0 %). The two latter aspects, each occurring across different question areas, correspond with one another in terms of content: Treating elderly workers normally, that is, equally vis-à-vis workers of all age groups also encompasses inclusion in further and advanced training. 2.2.7 Results: Factors of work motivation Skill variety, autonomy, and task signifi cance as the selected factors of work motiva- tion were assessed with regard to three different evaluation points. On a scale of 0 to 100, the respondents categorized the current employment situation in retirement, a retrospective of the former work situation, and the ideal of post-retirement activi- ties. Figure 3 shows the results for the dimensions with signifi cant average value differences (t test for dependent samples; Bortz 1999: 140-142) between the three • Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller820 evaluation points earlier, current, and ideal. Differences in the points are shown for the motivation factors skill variety, autonomy, and task signifi cance. Two differ- ent courses are portrayed. For the dimensions task signifi cance and skill variety, v-shaped curves are shown with the highest peak for each in the previous work situation (signifi cance: 90.4; SD=13.0; signifi cance earlier-current t=6.789, df=135, p<0.001; variety: 87.5; SD=14.5; variety earlier-current t=7.471, df=140, p<0.001). The tasks in current employment in retirement show a slighter degree of signifi cance (M=75.4; SD=24.3; current-ideal t=-4.499, df=135, p<0.001) and variety (M=72.7; SD=22.5; current-ideal t=-5.816, df=143. p<0.001), but have a much broader spread in comparison to variety. In an ideal situation, however, the respondents would again like to see a stronger manifestation of these two dimensions (signifi cance: 81.1; SD=22.4; signifi cance earlier-ideal t=4.418, df=133, p<0.001; variety: 81.0; SD=20.7; variety earlier-ideal t=3.653, df=139, p<0.001). For the motivation fac- Fig. 3: Factors of work motivation in comparison Notes: Attribution of selected factors of work motivation (Hackman/Oldham 1975; Old- ham/Hackman 2010) at three different evaluation points: Prior to retirement (earlier), in active retirement (current), and in an ideal situation (ideal). Scale from 0-100 with the anchor values 0-no occurrence, 50-medium level of occurrence, 100-very high level of occurrence. N (autonomy earlier, current, ideal)=144. N (signifi cance earlier)=138. N (sig- nifi cance current)=139. N (signifi cance ideal)=137. N (variety earlier)=141. N (variety cur- rent)=145. N (variety ideal)=144. The mean values of the three assessments differ signifi - cantly from one another in each case, apart from the comparison autonomy current-ideal (t test for paired samples: p<0.001). Source: own design 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 earlier current ideal 87.5 72.7 81.0 90.4 75.4 81.180.5 91.8 93.0 Autonomy Significance Variety Mean values of the rating Activities in retirement: Individual experience of silver work • 821 tor autonomy, by contrast, a different course is revealed: Whereas for the work situation prior to retirement, with a broad spread overall, a much lower degree of autonomy is reported (M=80.5; SD=22.0), the respondents reported a signifi cant gain in autonomy for post-retirement activities (M=91.8; SD=13.7; earlier-current t=-5.626, df=143, p<0.001), with a lowest rating of 40. The degree of desired au- tonomy in an ideal situation achieves, with a very low spread, the highest value of all motivation factors (M=93.0; SD=12.0; earlier-ideal t=-6.468, df=143, p<0.001) and does not signifi cantly differ from the current situation. Here,50 was named by the respondents as the the lowest profi ciency of the specifi ed scale (0-100). For the job dimensions task identity and feedback, not portrayed in Figure 3, no signifi cant av- erage value differences are seen between the three evaluation points. The respec- tively highest value is shown for both motivation factors in analogy to autonomy in the ideal situation (task identity: 85.6; SD=26.1; feedback: M=86.7; SD=19.3). The values for the earlier and current employment situations are, however, below the mean values of the ideal situation (task identity earlier: M=73.5; SD=32.3; task identity current: M=76.3; SD=33.5; feedback earlier: M=80.8; SD=18.9; feedback current: M=79.9; SD=23.5). 2.2.8 Results: Physical and intellectual demands In order to be able to assess the subjectively perceived demands of post-retirement activities in comparison to those of the earlier work situation and in an ideal situa- tion (desired ideal), the respondents were asked to assess these on a scale of 0 to 100. Physical and intellectual demands were surveyed in an assessment of the cur- rent employment situation, of a retrospective of the earlier work situation, as well as of the ideal of post-retirement activity. Figure 4 shows the mean values of the rating of physical and intellectual demands for the three evaluation points. In each case they were assessed on a scale of 0 (no demands) to 100 (very high demands). Intel- lectual demands are highest in the earlier work situation, with a mean value of 87.2 (SD=15.7); the lower bound is, remarkably, 40.Upon retirement, the respondents left behind an intellectually demanding activity. The lowest mean value (M=69.7) and the highest standard deviation (SD=23.9), with full use of the scale of intellec- tual demands, are shown for the employment situation in retirement, with the mean assessment still being high. The high level of variance provides an indication of the variety of design of the activities and inter-individual differences in retirement. In an ideal situation, taken as a mean value, the respondents would again like somewhat higher intellectual demands (M=75.8; SD=21.7), but here too there are relatively signifi cant differences between the respondents. A similar distribution is shown in the assessment of the physical demands. In the earlier work situation these were comparatively highest, with a considerable spread (M=67.0; SD=31.8), but lower than the lowest rating value of current intellectual de- mands. Physical demands in the post-retirement work situation were perceived as being lowest (M=52.5; SD=26.0). And in an ideal situation, the respondents would wish for greater physical demands to be made on them (M=57.5; SD=24.0). This median value lies between the earlier and current assessment. In the ratings of • Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller822 the physical demands, the scale from 0 to 100 was fully exhausted for each case. Stronger for intellectual demands, but also for physical ones, a V-shaped curve across the three evaluation points can be observed: The demands are lower in re- tirement in comparison to what they were earlier; in an ideal situation they would however be higher than they are currently. In each case, the mean values of the three evaluation points for intellectual and physical demands differ signifi cantly from one another (t test for dependent samples: intellectual demands earlier-current t=4.786, df=140, p<0.001; intellectual demands current-ideal t=-3.358, df=135, p≤0.001; in- tellectual demands earlier-ideal t=3.44, df=134, p≤0.001; physical demands earlier- current t=7.651, df=144, p<0.001; physical demands current-ideal t=-3.895, df=134, p<0.001; physical demands earlier-ideal t=5.632, df=142, p<0.001). The interview- ees desired a higher level of both intellectual and physical demands in retirement, albeit a lower level of physical than of intellectual demands. The respondents stated on average that they wanted to keep on working up to the age of 73 (M=72.98, SD=6.32; Md=70.0; N=42). The majority of silver workers Fig. 4: Physical and intellectual demands in comparison Notes: Attribution of intellectual and physical demands at three different evaluation points: Prior to retirement (earlier), in active retirement (current), and in an ideal situation (ideal) on a scale of 0-100 with the anchor values 0-no demands, 50-medium demands, 100-very high demands. N (intellectual demands earlier)=145. N (intellectual demands current)=145. N (intellectual demands ideal)=143. N (physical demands earlier)=141. N (physical demands current)=141. N (physical demands ideal)=136. The mean values of the three assessments in each case differ signifi cantly from one another. t test for paired samples: p≤0.001. Source: own design 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 earlier current ideal 67.0 52.5 57.5 87.2 69.7 75.8 intellectual demands physical demands Mean values of the rating Activities in retirement: Individual experience of silver work • 823 (30.2 %) wanted to continue work until the age of 70, while one seventh (14.0 %) wished to remain active until the age of 75. One sixth of respondents (16.3 %) went so far as to express a desire to remain active until the age of 80. 3 Discussion and outlook The fi gures of the Federal Statistical Offi ce demonstrate that paid employment clearly exists beyond the applicable retirement age. In view of the predictable de- mographic infl uences, this is already signifi cant for the economic development of Germany today. In the future, the group of retirees will continue to grow in quan- titative terms due to the baby boomer cohorts approaching retirement age. Given this, the number of working retirees can be expected to rise. However, against the background of the results that have been put forward, realizing the further potential of paid employment is contingent on relevant frameworks of work continuing to develop. As people grow older, the group of the self-employed and assistant family members will become more signifi cant in relative terms while the total number of persons in paid employment at retirement age falls. The motivations that have been identifi ed through open-ended questions for post-retirement activities correspond in their content to the reasons for continuing to work in North America (AARP 2002; Atchley 1989; Dendinger et al. 2005; Mor- Barak 1995), although here an exemplary sample is used. Current research into work motivation advocates venturing to conduct “targeted research” in the fi eld (Kanfer 2009: 89), that is, to conduct research into new phenomena in highly specifi c sam- ples as well. Nonetheless, the initial empirical approach to the environment and working conditions of active retirees in Germany presented here has shortcomings. For one, the group surveyed here constitutes a fairly specifi c group of individuals who are far above the national average when it comes to educational status and fi - nancial situation. The addition of a control group, that is, of a survey of comparable retirees with differences in level of education, professional status, age, socio-eco- nomic status, and the like would have been desirable. Even so, this fi rst empirical survey provides indications that the areas of work and leisure can no longer be kept strictly apart after retirement. Across different question areas, it becomes clear that the structure of silver workers’ everyday life has changed after retirement. Whereas work activity, largely defi ned the day in regular working life, much more fl exible structures are manifest in active retirement. This fi nding matches the assumptions of Kanfer that a much more fl exible job design will be needed in the future in order to retain the elderly on the labour market and in companies (Kanfer 2009: 89). The frequently diverse activities of retirees are integrated in a variable, individual man- ner into leisure activities and family employment. This qualitative, overarching fi nd- ing demonstrates the wide scope of action that silver workers make use of in their fl exible framework conditions. At the same time, a connection can be observed here with the perceived fi nite nature of one’s own life (socioemotional selectivity theory, Carstensen 2006). In the reasons for activity in retirement arising from open-ended questions in this empirical study, one can also observe that active retirees focus on • Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller824 meaningful activities linked with positive emotions, such as helping, wishing to pass on knowledge, and contact with others (see 2.2.6). This exemplary cross-sectional survey of a fairly homogeneous group cannot of course provide any information on the change of motives, but can provide an initial impression of relevant motives for work in retirement. The manifestation of motivation, however, also depends on other aspects, such as the design of the work. Flexibility and freedom are key ele- ments here. Just as for elderly workers, the willingness of silver workers to continue activities is accompanied by a desire to considerably reduce their weekly working hours (see also Büsch et al. 2010a: 6). In this context, it is particularly important to make use of experience-based knowledge, while also taking individual needs into consideration. A lack of motivation to fully contribute in terms of performance at an advanced age (see Büsch et al. 2010b: 145) can also be traced back to the working conditions (see section 1.1). The results presented in this paper show that through the design of motivational work characteristic, active retirees can also contribute to the performance of organisations. The experience of autonomy, task identity, and feedback in post-professional job design is important, as is the freedom gained after the conclusion of a person’s actual working life. Highly signifi cant tasks and a wide variety of skills are factors that silver workers miss in post-retirement activi- ties in comparison to their previous working lives. This suggests the necessity of attractive job design for retirees whose skills are in demand on the market. Kanfer (2009: 87) also pinpoints the development of motivation structures tailored to target groups of elderly workers whom organisations wish to help maintain a high level of motivation as a central challenge for applied research. The representative questionnaire of the Federal Institute for Population Research revealed that persons currently in dependent employment wish to be employed for an average of another 4.1 years after the anticipated retirement age (Büsch et al. 2010b: 6). The retirees surveyed in the study presented here would indeed like to continue to work until the age of 73 on average. Under given preconditions, the motivation to continue post-retirement activities hence exists in principle. Further- more, it is interesting to see that, despite the different social systems in Germany and North America, the results presented here point to considerable commonalities with the motivations identifi ed in North America and the framework of post-retire- ment activities there (see Brown 2003; Calo 2005; Dendinger et al. 2005; Mor-Barak 1995). 3.1 Derived need for research The fi eld of post-retirement activities in Germany was described for the fi rst time in the exploratory research project presented here. Relevant topical fi elds were identi- fi ed. In future research on silver work, this fi rst step, which constitutes a precursor to a hypothesis-generating research design, must be followed by a hypothesis-testing one that works with control group designs as well. The results reported here sug- gest that a comprehensive investigation of motivational job design may be worth- while for the target group of silver workers. The “motivational work characteristics” observed in isolation in this paper (Hackman/Oldham 1975; 160-162; Morgeson/ Activities in retirement: Individual experience of silver work • 825 Humphrey 2006: 1323) should be complemented by a comprehensive concept in which “knowledge characteristics” (Morgeson/Humphrey 2006: 1323), “social char- acteristics,” and “contextual characteristics” (Morgeson/Humphrey 2006: 1324) are also considered. The “Work Design Questionnaire” (Morgeson/Humphrey 2006) of- fers itself for this purpose. Stegmann and colleagues (2010) provide a validated Ger- man translation. To record further interesting variables, validated scales for the rel- evant fi elds should be used, or new constructs and their operationalisations should be developed. For instance, it should be considered whether the construct space of “appreciation” can be adequately recorded with scales to measure the “respect” construct. A further interesting question is how the willingness to continue in em- ployment and various forms of post-retirement activities is formed over time. To this end, a longitudinal design measuring motivation, socio-economic parameters, and willingness to contribute suggests itself, starting in the end phase of traditional working life and extending beyond retirement age. Silver work continues to be a relevant fi eld for work motivation research, largely – albeit not solely – inspired by demographic developments. For instance, future research should consider how age-related changes in the individual motivational preconditions, including physical and intellectual skills, personality characteristics, and demands outside the work situation infl uence the decision to continue to work (Kanfer 2009: 87). There is a considerable need for research on the willingness and motivation to continue employment in the production industries, so-called blue col- lar employment. The working conditions, differing considerably from employment in the white collar area (offi ce jobs), make it likely that some major differences ex- ist. Self-employed persons and assistant family members are the decisive forms of employment in over-65 age group. Further research in the fi eld of employment at retirement age should fully take into account the motivations of these two groups of individuals. This may lead to derivations being developed for other forms of post- professional employment. Previous fi ndings on motivation to continue employment are either highly spe- cifi c and restricted to a company or to a sector (Aleksandrowicz et al. 2009), thereby excluding relevant forms of employment such as self-employed persons (Büsch et al. 2010a), or are not representative of the population and are hence of only de- scriptive nature (the study presented here). To identify possible potentials, research fi ndings the various forms of post-retirement activities must be applied to a larger, more representative population in future research. 3.2 Concrete need to act at three levels Recommendations for action regarding the design and realisation of silver work can be derived at three levels from the presented results. The individual level deals with the physical and intellectual prerequisites of the individual, in this case of silver workers. This is worth examining from two perspectives: 1) Those interested in silver work create or maintain the individual prerequisites for an extension of their own active lifespan. • Leena Maxin, Jürgen Deller826 2) Knowledge of the motives and demands of silver workers enables organisa- tions to shape working conditions such that the well-being and job satisfaction of this group of individuals can be achieved. For the individual – regardless of age, given that each person in their mid-thirties today can be a potential silver worker one day – this implies a high degree of initiative, with measures such as further training, life-long learning, and healthcare spanning life phases. These measures can clearly be supported in an appropriate manner at an or- ganisational level, such as via corresponding offers in the framework of personnel development and values that are entrenched in the corporate culture. In concrete terms, the introduction and expansion of fl exible working hours, advisory and free- lance work, expansion of freedom to take decisions, appreciation of the contribution made by silver workers, benefi ting from experience and know-how, adjusted work- load and demands, a structured daily routine, active inclusion in events, and fi nan- cial recognition lead to fruitful interaction between silver workers and organisations (see Deller/Maxin 2010a: 11). Central to this is cultural change in organisations to- wards a respectful, appreciative environment of younger and older staff members, as well as the use of synergies and acceptance of various careers. Perceptions and stereotypes of age are prevalent in many organisations, which generate antagonism more than collaboration between the generations. The concept of a life-phase-ori- entated personnel policy (see Rump et al. 2008: 22) takes account of the interplay between professional and private phases of life and their specifi c demands and of fi elds of action for organisations. In concrete terms, for instance, appreciation for all age groups in the company can be expressed with the aid of internal and external communication. Mentoring programs can encourage networking between elderly and younger workers in order to nurture mutual exchange and facilitate or- ganisational learning. The introduction of diversity management (Köppel/Spie 2010) with an organisation-specifi c defi nition of success benchmarks or key performance indicators after each strategic goal can promote the sustainable development of the measures. The shaping of perceptions of age also plays a role at societal and political levels. The existing perception of age is undergoing change and appears to be turning slowly away from a negative picture that is based on the defi cit model (BMFSFJ 2010). Age and productivity are no longer automatically contradictory in the societal discussion of old age, and awareness has arisen of its potentials. A differentiated perception of age can make a major contribution towards cultural change in society. For instance, there has recently been intensifi ed public debate on the fact that if the statutory framework is made appropriately fl exible, silver work can lead, fi rstly, to reducing the burden on the pension system. Secondly, the con- tributions made increasingly by senior citizens in voluntary work (see Alterssurvey 2002a: 3; Freiwilligensurvey 2006: 312) are becoming relevant to society. Reforms of many options for the transition from working life into retirement appear to be necessary. It is a matter of taking into account the changing prerequisites that in- creasingly differ from one individual to another. For individuals who work beyond the statutory retirement age and at the same time would like to pay social insurance contributions, a binding and appealing statutory basis for this possibility would be expedient. It should be defi nitive that employment is to meet the needs of people Activities in retirement: Individual experience of silver work • 827 and should be shaped accordingly –regardless of age (see Deller/Maxin 2010b: 8). Clearly, the world of work can be expected to change. 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A Journal of Neurology 127,2: 351-362 [doi: 10.1093/ brain/awh042]. Translated from the original text by the Federal Institute for Population Research, for information only. The reviewed and author’s authorised original article in German is available under the title “Beschäftigung statt Ruhestand: Individuelles Erleben von Silver Work”, DOI 10.4232/10.CPoS- 2010-18de or URN urn:nbn:de:bib-cpos-2010-18de5, at http://www.comparativepopulationstud- ies.de. Date of submission: 31.08.2010 Date of Acceptance: 27.06.2011 Leena Maxin ( ), Prof. Dr. Jürgen Deller. Institut für Strategisches Personalmanagement, Leuphana Universität Lüneburg, 21335 Lüneburg, Germany and Silver Workers Institute, Genf, Switzerland. E-Mail: maxin@leuphana.de, deller@leuphana.de URL: www.leuphana.de/institute/ispm, www.silverworkers.ch Comparative Population Studies – Zeitschrift für Bevölkerungswissenschaft www.comparativepopulationstudies.de ISSN: 1869-8980 (Print) – 1869-8999 (Internet) © Federal Institute for Population Research 2011 – All rights reserved Published by / Herausgegeben von Prof. Dr. Norbert F. Schneider Layout and print: Federal Institute for Population Research, Wiesbaden (Germany) Managing Editor / Redaktion Frank Swiaczny Copy Editor / Schlussredaktion Dr. Evelyn Grünheid Scientifi c Advisory Board / Wissenschaftlicher Beirat Jürgen Dorbritz (Wiesbaden) Paul Gans (Mannheim) Johannes Huinink (Bremen) Marc Luy (Wien) Clara H. 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