Changes in Birth Seasonality in East and West Germany, 1946-2017 Changes in Birth Seasonality in East and West Germany, 1946-2017 Risto Conte Keivabu Abstract: Seasonal trends in fertility are found in several contexts and are affected by societal and environmental factors. This paper documents how birth seasonality in East and West Germany changed over time and, in particular, after 1989 and the onset of Reunification. We use birth counts by month from the Human Fertility Database, broken down into East and West Germany, from 1946 to 2017. We observe similar birth seasonality in East and West Germany in the years from 1946 to the 1970s, with an initial peak occurring in the first months of the year followed by a second peak in September. In the 1970s, West Germany starts to diverge, with the emergence of a single peak in births in late summer. Shortly after Reunification, the seasonal fertility trends found in West Germany are mirrored in East Germany. Consequently, it appears that the socioeconomic, cultural and institutional differences in the two areas have potentially influenced the intra-annual distribution of births, as well as the timing and number of children as described in previous studies. Keywords: Seasonality · Germany · Fertility · Demographic changes 1 Introduction Seasonal trends in births are found in several contexts around the world, but are not homogeneous across regions, time and sociodemographic groups. Importantly, economic (Ruiu/Breschi 2019), cultural (Symul et al. 2022; Wood et al. 2017), environmental (Wilson et al. 2020), sociodemographic (Bobak/Gjonca 2001; Haandrikman/van Wissen 2008; Recio Alcaide et al. 2022), and physiological factors (Ellision et al. 2005) as well as parity (Sobotka et al. 2005), and pandemics (Aassve et al. 2021; Krombholz 2024) are major determinants of birth seasonality. However, as economic, cultural and environmental factors change over time, shifts in the seasonality of births may well be expected to follow. For example, existing research has reported extensively on how the industrialisation process has affected seasonality of fertility in the past (Ruiu/Breschi 2019). Nevertheless, there is a lack of studies investigating how major socioeconomic and institutional changes in already industrialised settings with similar environmental conditions alter seasonality of births. For instance, the socioeconomic, technological and cultural differences Comparative Population Studies ‒ Demographic Trends Around the Globe Vol. 50 (2025): 41-56 (Date of release: 23.04.2025) Federal Institute for Population Research 2025 URL: www.comparativepopulationstudies.de DOI: https://doi.org/10.12765/CPoS-2025-04 URN: urn:nbn:de:bib-cpos-2025-04en4 • Risto Conte Keivabu42 evident in East and West Germany after the Second World War have been found to influence the timing and total number of births (Goldstein/Kreyenfeld 2011; Kreyenfeld 2003, 2004), but the intra-annual distribution of births could have differed as well. In this study, we explore how seasonality of fertility is shaped by long-term differences in socioeconomic factors and sudden changes in economic structures, drawing on the unique context found in East Germany and West Germany in the period following the Second World War. The economic and societal differences between East and West Germany post-Second World War have been substantial and it is possible that they have shaped seasonality of births. Notably, environmental factors are not expected to determine differences in the two areas as found in other contexts (Martinez-Bakker et al. 2014; Wilson et al. 2020), since the two areas share a similar climate. Conversely, differences might be expected due to the higher religiosity found in West Germany compared with the East. The latter has one of the highest rates of atheism, due in part to the strong process of secularisation experienced during the rule of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) (Froese/ Pfaff 2005). The higher share of the population employed in agriculture in East Germany could be a determinant of higher birth seasonality as already documented in the 19th century, most notably for non-marital births (Klüsener/Goldstein 2016). Furthermore, the abrupt changes in socioeconomic structures that occurred in East Germany with the process of Reunification may have brought about a sudden change in seasonal trends in the area. Consequently, by exploring seasonal trends in East and West Germany, we contribute to the broader existing literature focusing on seasonal fertility trends and the potential determinants thereof. 2 Change in seasonality of fertility over time Only a small number of studies have documented changes in the seasonality of births over time. In Spain, a peak in births was documented in the spring months between the 1940s and the 1980s, but a decline in such a peak was observed in later years, disappearing in the 2000s (Cancho-Candela et al. 2007). In recent decades, this has been replaced by a new peak in late summer (Recio Alcaide et al. 2023). Similar findings to Spain were also observed in France, West Germany, the Netherlands (Haandrikman/van Wissen 2008) and Poland (Cypryjański 2019; Lerchl et al. 1993; Régnier-Loilier/Divinagracia 2010). In Sweden, births peaked in spring between 1940 and 1999, but showed a loss of seasonality in the 21st century (Dahlberg/Andersson 2018). There are multiple mechanisms used to explain changes in birth seasonality. One explanation relates to industrialisation and the economic and technological developments in societies (Dahlberg/Andersson 2018). For instance, in Italy at the turn of the 20th century, the shift in seasonal birth trends occurred earlier in the north of the country than in the south due to the north’s earlier industrial development (Ruiu/Breschi 2019). Other possible factors relate to the introduction of birth control, a higher level of non-marital births and the declining importance of religion (Recio Alcaide et al. 2023). Furthermore, short-term changes in birth seasonality have Changes in Birth Seasonality in East and West Germany, 1946-2017 • 43 been observed and linked to environmental factors such as hot temperatures (Conte Keivabu et al. 2024; Hajdu/Hajdu 2022) or pandemics (Chandra et al. 2018). Nevertheless, it remains unclear as to how sudden changes in socioeconomic and institutional structures might affect birth seasonality. 3 Data and methods In this study, we leverage data on monthly birth counts separately for East and West Germany from January 1946 to December 2017, as provided by the Human Fertility Database (HFD 2023) (for further information on the data, we refer the reader to the HFD documentation on Germany). To analyse the change in the seasonality of fertility in the two areas over time, we first adjust our time series of monthly birth counts by the number of days in each month. Second, we construct a birth index that is computed as: Im,y,r = in which the index I for year y, month m and region r is determined by the monthly birth counts in region r and month m, divided by the centred moving average number of births in region r and year y, and multiplied by 100. The moving average is computed symmetrically, averaging the 12 months around a specific month (six months prior and six months after). In this regard, we follow similar previous studies that used such an index to observe monthly variations in births from expected values in a specific year (Haandrikman/van Wissen 2008; Recio Alcaide et al. 2022; Wilson et al. 2020). Third, we estimate the change in seasonality over time based on equation (1): 1) Ym,y,r = αr + MONTHm X αr + ɛm,y,r Here, we run an OLS model with the birth index as our outcome representing the index in region r at month m and year y. We then run an interaction between our variable α denoting region r and the month variable MONTH and we run this model for eight separate periods, from 1946 to 1954, 1955 to 1963, 1964 to 1972, 1973 to 1981, 1982 to 1989, 1990 to 1998, 1999 to 2007 and 2008 to 2017. The results allow us to provide an estimate of the months with higher and lower numbers of births in a specific period and region of Germany. Finally, to better investigate changes in birth seasonality in the years prior to Reunification (1980-1989) compared with the periods immediately thereafter (1990 to 1998, 1999 to 2007 and 2008 to 2017), we use a p-score as per similar previous studies analysing changes in seasonal trends (Fallesen 2021). The p-score is used to calculate the percentage difference in the birth index of a given month in the period after Reunification relative to the baseline, namely the years before Reunification. The p-score is calculated as: 2) Pm,period,r = ��,�,� ���,�,� ∗ 100,  𝐼𝐼�,������,� � 𝐼𝐼�,��������,� 𝐼𝐼�,��������,�   • Risto Conte Keivabu44 here, with P denoting the percentage change in the monthly birth index in the periods after Reunification relative to the period just before Reunification. Positive values therefore denote an increase in the birth index in the periods after Reunification, whereas negative values describe a decrease. Importantly, we calculate this score separately for East and West Germany. The code and data available to replicate the analysis are accessible in this repository: https://osf.io/9a835/. 4 Results In Figure 1, we plot the total number of monthly births in East and West Germany from 1946 to 2017. As reported in several previous studies, we observe an increase in births in the years after the Second World War. However, we also observe a sharp decline in births in West and East Germany in the 1970s that coincides with the oil crisis. Following Reunification, births in East Germany decline sharply, with a steady, albeit only partial recovery from the early 2000s onwards. Conversely, in West Germany, there is no sharp decline in births in the immediate post-Reunification period. Such descriptive findings are consistent with existing studies depicting a difference in fertility rates before and after Reunification, especially in East Germany (Goldstein/Kreyenfeld 2011; Kreyenfeld 2004). Nevertheless, it should be noted that we plot these numbers here for descriptive purposes only and that the trends depicted show the absolute number of births but do not take into consideration changes in population size and age structure. As a result, these should be interpreted carefully and compared with figures such as the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) provided in previous studies (Goldstein/Kreyenfeld 2011; Kreyenfeld 2004). To better understand the spread of births between months in a given year, we compute a yearly coefficient of variation (CV) in East and West Germany. The CV is calculated as: Cy,r = Here, we divide the standard deviation in region r and year y by the average number of births in the same region and year. The values of the CV are interpreted as percentages and denote variability relative to the mean, where high values signify years with values dispersed from the average, and vice versa for low values. In Figure 2, we observe the yearly CV in East and West Germany from 1946 to 2017. The CV is relatively low, showing values of around 5 for most of the years. Nevertheless, in certain periods the CV displays a sharp increase. A high coefficient of variation in both East and West Germany is observed in the years immediately following the Second World War, but declines thereafter. Notably, we observe a major increase in the coefficient of variation in East Germany in 1972. This increase is surprising and could be the result of several political, socioeconomic and cultural factors that occurred in the late 1960s and early 1970s. For instance, several reforms in family and reproductive policies were implemented in 1972 and might explain this pattern (Kreyenfeld 2004). Monetary incentives were implemented to boost fertility in a country with low immigration (Kreyenfeld 2004). However, in Figure 1 (also shown in more detail in Appendix: Fig. A1), we observe a notable decline in σ�,� μ�,� * 100.  Changes in Birth Seasonality in East and West Germany, 1946-2017 • 45 births in East Germany in 1972, from August onwards in particular. Consequently, the family policies implemented to boost fertility do not seem to have had the expected impact, rather the contrary. March 1972 witnessed a major change in reproductive rights with the legalisation of abortion, making it available to all women within 12 weeks of pregnancy and at later stages for specific cases such as health dangers to the mother (Mehlan 1990). Approximately 110,000 abortions were performed in 1972 but the number decreased to some 80,000 in 1988 (David 1992; Mehlan 1990). Studies on the legalisation of abortion and the effects on the fertility rate find mostly a negative association (Levine et al. 1999; Pop-Eleches 2010; Valente 2014), although there are also some contrasting findings (Fernández/Juif 2023). In East Germany, we observe a decline in births from 234,870 in 1971 to 200,443 in 1972, suggesting a decline of about 14.7 percent which is somewhat comparable with the decline of 11 percent documented in parts of the United States (Levine et al. 1999). Additionally, in Appendix Figure A1, we see that the average number of births in Fig. 1: Number of births in East (blue) and West Germany (red) 0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 Number of Births 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Year Note: In the Figure, we show the monthly number of births in East and West Germany between 1946 and 2017. The monthly values are shown in black. The red line is a curve generated using a kernel-weighted (Epanechnikov) local regression fit with a bandwidth of three months. The blue line represents a similar curve, but for East Germany. Source: Human Fertility Database, own calculations. • Risto Conte Keivabu46 January and February of 1972 resembles that of the previous three years, but a decline can be seen from March onwards, with the largest decrease evident eight and nine months after the legalisation of abortion, in November and December 1972 respectively. Nevertheless, such insights should be treated with caution and require additional future research, since other competing social and economic factors could have contributed to the observed decrease in births. Conversely, the sharp increase in the CV in 1990 in East Germany can be linked to the process of Reunification and the political movements of 1989 which depressed births in the early months of 1990 and postponed them to later months of 1990 as against previous years (Appendix: Fig. A2). Post-Reunification, East and West Germany exhibit a similar CV in births, albeit with a slightly higher value in East Germany. In Figure 3, we show results based on equation (1) run separately for the eight periods (1946 to 1954, 1955 to 1963, 1964 to 1972, 1973 to 1981, 1982 to 1989, 1990 to 1998, 1999 to 2007 and 2008 to 2017). Here, we observe higher values in the birth index during the early months of a year in both regions between 1946 and Fig. 2: Coefficient of variation in East and West Germany Note: The coefficient of variation in births in East and West Germany is reported for the period from 1946 to 2017. Source: Human Fertility Database, own calculations. 0 5 10 15 20 CV Births 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 East Germany West Germany Year Changes in Birth Seasonality in East and West Germany, 1946-2017 • 47 1972. Births tend to peak in February or March, but decline in the months thereafter, with a slight uptick in the month of September that is likely determined by a higher rate of conception during the winter holidays (Wood et al. 2017). In West Germany, the peak observed in the first months of the year decreases over time, becoming a period of below average births from 1982 onwards, but a new peak emerges in late summer and September. In East Germany, a peak in the early months of the year is observed up until 1989, but disappears in the periods thereafter to show a similar seasonal trend to that of West Germany. In Figure 4, we visualise the birth index for each month over time and separately by region. We see that the months of March, April and May show the peaks in births during the first decades. By contrast, we see that the increase in the months of July, August and September takes place in the later decades. As observed in Figure 3, the shift in the trend happens earlier in West Germany, namely in the 1970s, and is slower to take place in East Germany where it accelerates and is completed in the 1990s. The observed shift indicates that conception was frequent during the summer months in the decades after the Second World War, but a postponement in conceptions to autumn and winter months emerged in the 1970s in West Germany and in the 1990s in East Germany. A common trend in the two regions regards the Fig. 3: Seasonality of fertility in East and West Germany across eight periods from 1946 to 2017 Note: Our results are reported based on equation (1), run separately for the eight periods 1946 to 1954, 1955 to 1963, 1964 to 1972, 1973 to 1981, 1982 to 1989, 1990 to 1998, 1999 to 2007 and 2008 to 2017. We report 95% confidence intervals. Source: Human Fertility Database, own calculations. 80 90 100 110 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1946-1954 80 90 100 110 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1955-1963 80 90 100 110 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1964-1972 80 90 100 110 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1973-1981 80 90 100 110 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1982-1989 80 90 100 110 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1990-1998 80 90 100 110 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1999-2007 80 90 100 110 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2008-2017 East Germany West Germany Bi rth In de x Bi rth In de x Bi rth In de x Bi rth In de x Bi rth In de x Bi rth In de x Bi rth In de x Bi rth In de x • Risto Conte Keivabu48 months with the lowest number of births. This remains concentrated in the final two months of the year (November and December). However, March and April exhibit a significant decline in their seasonal component, with birth levels dropping to lows comparable with those seen in November and December. Fig. 4: Birth index for each month from 1946 to 2017 Note: We plot the birth index separately for each month from 1946 to 2017, in both East and West Germany. Source: Human Fertility Database, own calculations. 60 80 100 120 Bi rth In de x 1946 1960 1975 1990 2005 2017 January 60 80 100 120 Bi rth In de x 1946 1960 1975 1990 2005 2017 February 60 80 100 120 Bi rth In de x 1946 1960 1975 1990 2005 2017 March 60 80 100 120 Bi rth In de x 1946 1960 1975 1990 2005 2017 April 60 80 100 120 Bi rth In de x 1946 1960 1975 1990 2005 2017 May 60 80 100 120 Bi rth In de x 1946 1960 1975 1990 2005 2017 June 60 80 100 120 Bi rth In de x 1946 1960 1975 1990 2005 2017 July 60 80 100 120 Bi rth In de x 1946 1960 1975 1990 2005 2017 August 60 80 100 120 Bi rth In de x 1946 1960 1975 1990 2005 2017 September 60 80 100 120 Bi rth In de x 1946 1960 1975 1990 2005 2017 October 60 80 100 120 Bi rth In de x 1946 1960 1975 1990 2005 2017 November 60 80 100 120 Bi rth In de x 1946 1960 1975 1990 2005 2017 December East Germany West Germany Changes in Birth Seasonality in East and West Germany, 1946-2017 • 49 In Figure 5, we show the p-score in East and West Germany, describing the percentage change in the birth index in the periods after Reunification relative to the period 1980-1989. In East Germany, we observe a more significant decline in the birth index concentrated in the first months of the year, followed by an increase in late summer. The decline is sharpest for the month of March and the period 2008- 2017, when it exceeds -10 percent. By contrast, the increase is greatest in the late summer months and in the latest period 2008-2017, during which time the increase recorded was about 10 percent. In West Germany, a decline can be seen during the first months of the year although this is not as stark as in the East and is equal to about 5 percent. Similarly, the increase in the birth index is concentrated in the late summer months and is more significant in the period 2008-2017, albeit of minor relevance as it is below 5 percent. Fig. 5: Monthly percentage difference in the birth index post-Reunification relative to the period 1980-1989 -10 -5 0 5 10 % Change in Birth Index Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month East Germany -10 -5 0 5 10 % Change in Birth Index Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month West Germany 1990-1998 1999-2007 2008-2017 Note: In the left panel, we show the percentage difference in the birth index in the periods post-Reunification relative to the period 1980-1989 in East Germany. In the right panel, we show similar values but for West Germany. The periods are 1990-1998, 2000-2007 and 2008- 2017. Source: Human Fertility Database, own calculations. • Risto Conte Keivabu50 5 Discussion and conclusion This study investigated seasonal trends in fertility and their evolution in East and West Germany from 1946 to 2017. First, we observed a change in the seasonality of births over time, with births peaking in spring in the earlier periods and in late summer in the later period. Second, the change in seasonality occurred first in West Germany in the 1970s, and post-Reunification in the 1990s in East Germany. Third, we observe greater declines in the birth index in the early months of the year in the periods post-1990 relative to the pre-Reunification period (1980-1989) in both East and West Germany. The observed shifts in the season of peak fertility, from spring to late summer, align with existing studies on West Germany (Lerchl et al. 1993), East and West Germany (Häussler/Dudenhausen 2024) and other countries such as Spain, Sweden, the Netherlands, France and Poland (Recio Alcaide et al. 2023; Cypryjański 2019; Dahlberg/Andersson 2018; Haandrikman/van Wissen 2008; Régnier-Loilier/ Divinagracia 2010). However, we also observe that the shift in the season of peak births does not happen at the same time in East and West Germany. In the 1970s, East Germany continues to show a preference for early-year births whereas West Germany begins to see a shift towards a late summer peak. Interestingly, alignment of East German birth seasonality with that of West Germany only occurs post- Reunification. These trends lay bare the question of which factors determined the timing in the shift in seasonality in the two regions, and why this occurred only after Reunification in East Germany. Testing the factors that shape such trends in seasonality is beyond the scope of this study, but here we provide some tentative explanations. Previous studies attributed the peak in births during spring to agricultural cycles (Klüsener/Goldstein 2016; Ruiu/Breschi 2019), whereas a peak in September has been described as being attributable to higher levels of sexual activity during the winter festivities (Symul et al. 2022; Wood et al. 2017). It is difficult to argue how much of the sudden change in birth seasonality observed in East Germany is due to the decline in the share of the population employed in the agricultural sector after Reunification. In 1991, 7.3 percent of the population in East Germany was still employed in agriculture and forestry compared with 3.5 percent in West Germany (Burda/Hunt 2001). In 2000, the numbers converged to 3.6 percent in East Germany and 2.4 percent in West Germany (Burda/Hunt 2001). Consequently, the number of people employed in agriculture was higher in East than in West Germany, but still limited relative to the overall population. Differences in religiosity are unlikely to explain the later changes in birth seasonality observed in East Germany. Further, similar attitudes on the use of contraception have been documented in East and West Germany and differences are unlikely to be fully explained by the accessibility to such technologies (Oddens et al. 1993), as argued in a recent study (Häussler/Dudenhausen 2024). Arguably, other sociodemographic factors related to the broader change in fertility behaviour, coinciding with a sharp decline in TFR, could have brought about a change in birth seasonality in East Germany after Reunification. For instance, a previous study for the Netherlands argued that seasonal changes in births were driven by a change Changes in Birth Seasonality in East and West Germany, 1946-2017 • 51 in age at first birth and changes in parity (Haandrikman/van Wissen 2008). In fact, previous findings point to an increase in mean age at birth after Reunification and a decline in second births among East German women post-Reunification (Arránz Becker et al. 2010; Kreyenfeld 2003). In conclusion, this study documents the changes in birth seasonality in East and West Germany from 1946 to 2017. The divergent fertility behaviours in East and West Germany, and their alignment post-Reunification, bring further evidence on how economic and sociodemographic factors could influence fertility decisions. Nevertheless, our findings raise important questions regarding the mechanisms that determined the observed changes in birth seasonality. Future studies could test which precise mechanisms led to the observed changes in birth seasonality in East and West Germany and what influenced their timing, potentially providing important lessons in order to understand human fertility behaviour in other contexts. 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E-mail: contekeivabu@demogr.mpg.de URL: https://www.demogr.mpg.de/en/about_us_6113/staff_directory_1899/risto_conte_ keivabu_4143 • Risto Conte Keivabu54 Fig. A1: Monthly birth counts and birth index in East and West Germany 1969- 1975 150,000 200,000 250,000 Bi rth s Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month Births - East Germany 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000 900,000 1,000,000 Bi rth s Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month Births - West Germany Births - Pre & Post 1972 80 90 100 110 120 Bi rth In de x Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month Birth Index - East Germany 90 95 100 105 110 Bi rth In de x Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month Birth Index - West Germany Birth Index - Pre & Post 1972 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 Note: We plot the birth counts and birth index in the years between 1969 and 1975 in East and West Germany. Pre-1972 values are shown in blue and post-1972 values in red. The values for 1972 are in black. Source: Human Fertility Database, own calculations. Changes in Birth Seasonality in East and West Germany, 1946-2017 • 55 Fig. A2: Monthly birth counts and birth index in East and West Germany 1987- 1993 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 Bi rth s Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month Births - East Germany (1987-1993) 90 95 100 105 110 Bi rth In de x Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month Birth Index - East Germany (1987-1993) East Germany (1987-1993) 600,000 650,000 700,000 750,000 800,000 Bi rth s Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month Births - West Germany (1987-1993) 90 95 100 105 110 Bi rth In de x Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month Birth Index - West Germany (1987-1993) West Germany (1987-1993) 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Note: We plot the birth counts and birth index in the years 1987-1993 in East and West Germany. Pre-1990 values are shown in blue and post-1990 values in red. The values for 1990 are in black. Source: Human Fertility Database, own calculations. Published by Federal Institute for Population Research (BiB) 65180 Wiesbaden / Germany 2025 Editor Prof. Dr. Roland Rau Prof. Dr. Heike Trappe Managing Editor Dr. Katrin Schiefer Editorial Assistant Beatriz Feiler-Fuchs Wiebke Hamann Layout Beatriz Feiler-Fuchs E-mail: cpos@bib.bund.de Comparative Population Studies www.comparativepopulationstudies.de ISSN: 1869-8980 (Print) – 1869-8999 (Internet) Scientific Advisory Board Kieron Barclay (Stockholm) Ridhi Kashyap (Oxford) Anne-Kristin Kuhnt (Rostock) Mathias Lerch (Lausanne) Eleonora Mussino (Stockholm) Natalie Nitsche (Canberra) Alyson van Raalte (Rostock) Pia S. Schober (Tübingen) Sergi Vidal (Barcelona) Rainer Wehrhahn (Kiel)