Microsoft Word - Deedam.docx Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development Vol. 14, Iss. 2 (2015), Pp. 90-105 Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes on Indigenous Women’s Economic Empowerment in Nigeria: Evidence From Port Harcourt Metropolis Nua J. Deedam Department of Food Science and Technology River State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria Anthony O. Onoja Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria tonyojonimi@gmail.com Abstract This study was designed to assess the impact of participation of Port Harcourt indigenous women in poverty eradication programmes in Rivers State, Nigeria. The study used a questionnaire to elicit responses from 385 indigenous women who were randomly selected through a multi-stage technique from the study area. Descriptive statistics and t-tests were used to analyse the data collected. Results showed that majority (58.3 per cent) of the women were members of a cooperative society, 63.5 per cent were members of a community based organization (CBO), while 60.9 per cent were member of “Esusu” (rotatory credit schemes). The result further showed that 66.3 per cent of the women had engaged in jobs aimed at poverty alleviation. Only 6.0 per cent identified that they were not member of any poverty alleviation programmes (PAP) by government. It was found that after joining the PAP, 75.5 per cent of them experienced an increase in income of 36.6 per cent. The hypothesis test indicated that statistically significant differences existed in the income of the women from various sources of the economic undertakings after joining poverty alleviation programmes. It was therefore recommended that more programmes designed at alleviating poverty in Rivers State should target indigenous women. In addition to this, the study also recommended the establishment of entrepreneurship capacity-building programmes to enable the women to bring out their optimal input while participating in the poverty eradication programmes. Author’s Note Mrs. Nua Janet Deedam is a lecturer at the Department of Food Science and Technology, River State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Dr. Anthony Ojonimi Onoja is a senior lecturer at the Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Keywords: Indigenous, Nigeria, poverty, women. Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes 1. Introduction Poverty is one of the most prevailing problems facing humanity, being a major obstacle to the realization of human rights and sustainable development . The Human Development Report (2002) placed the number of people living on less than a dollar a day in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) at 46.7 per cent. The poverty trend in Nigeria, an SSA country, as shown by the Federal Office of Statistics (FOS, 2009), showed that the incidence of poverty increased from 28.1 per cent in 1995-2000 to 42.7 per cent in 2002, increased to 65.6 per cent in 2005, and to 70.2 per cent in 2009. According to the report, about 70 per cent of the Nigerian population live below the poverty line. A report from the World Bank’s (2010) Human Development Report ranked Nigeria at 142 in the Human Development Index (HDI), thus grouped as one of the countries referred to, by the report, as having “low human development.” The report, which was based on 2000-2008, indicated that the proportion of the population living below the income poverty line (i.e. those with purchasing power parity, or PPP, of $1.25 a day) stood at 64.4%—a very high figure. Global efforts to tackle poverty and gender discrimination appeared not to be yielding positive results. World Bank (2001), indicated that about 70 per cent of the 1.3 billion people living on less than $1 a day are women. According to the African Development Bank (ADB, 2010) world leaders agreed to a set of time bounds and measurable goals and targets for combating poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, and discrimination against women at the United Nations Millennium Summit. T h e World Bank (2001) stated that poverty stems from a situation where gross inequality in the ownership of assets persists because of vested interests and entrenched power structures. Economists like Jeffrey Sachs (Work Bank 2001) see improvements in property rights as being instrumental to poverty alleviation. This underscores the reason for increased attention to poverty eradication globally, namely the launching of several poverty alleviation programmes which were also aimed at actualizing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of reducing hunger and poverty by half globally by 2015. Unfortunately, 2015 is now here yet poverty in the world and Nigeria is far from being eradicated. Women’s participation in development in Africa and other developing economies (a situation that could have improved the poverty situation of women) has been rated low (The United Nations Development Program, UNDP, 2003). This low participation has also been blamed for the less satisfactory impact of public investment in development. The women plan and act together for the satisfaction of their felt needs. This is a process where the women assist themselves through organized effort to acquire the attitudes, skills, and concepts required for their effective participation in programmes designed to promote their wellbeing. This low participation has also been blamed for the less than satisfactory impact of public investment in development (Iheduru, 2002). According to Maduagwu (2007) and Ketepa-Kalala (2001), the Beijing Conference declared that about 70 per cent of women live in unacceptable conditions of poverty, mostly in developing countries (which includes Nigeria). In Nigeria, there are several poverty alleviation programmes, some operating under the auspices of the government authorities such as the National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP), while others Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes operate under the tutelage of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and even cooperative bodies among rural and indigenous peoples whose livelihood activities have commonalities. To eradicate poverty in Nigeria and achieve sustainable development, women must participate fully and equally in the formulation of developmental policies. The eradication of poverty cannot be accomplished through anti-poverty programmes alone but will require democratic participation and changes in economic structures that will allow indigenous women to resource opportunities and public services (Garuba, 2004). Unfortunately, research into how the orchestrated poverty alleviation programmes (PAP) affect indigenous women in Nigeria and even globally appear very scant, if available. There is a huge need for more research into this important area to provide current and reliable indices for informed policy making about ways of transforming the economic wellbeing of indigenous women in developing economies as Nigeria, hence the need for this research. Findings from such studies have the potential to promote useful policies and scalable models for eradicating poverty in other developing countries. 1.1 Objectives of the Study Based on the aforementioned, this study was designed with the aim of assessing the impact of poverty eradication programmes on the economic well- being or livelihoods of indigenous women in Port Harcourt metropolis, Nigeria. Specifically, the study’s purpose was to : 1.) identify the level of participation of indigenous women in poverty alleviation programmes in the study area; and 2.) assess the impact of participation in poverty alleviation programmes on selected economic empowerment indices among Port Harcourt metropolis indigenous women. 1.2 Literature Review and Theoretical Issues The problem of poverty is intertwined with gender issues. The International Fund for Agricultural Development, IFAD (1997) noted that women represent the majority of the rural poor (up to 70%), especially where migration, marital instability, male mortality, and single parenthood have left them as heads of households. Women carry most of the responsibilities for household food security; women have indigenous technical knowledge, skills and motivation, and tend to remain on the margin, without access to critical resources. IFAD (1997) observed that rural poverty is associated with lack of access to productive resources, especially land. The poorest men and women in general have little or no land, yet socio-economic structures further reduce or inhibit access to land by women. Cultural traditions also inhibit women’s access to other productive resources and services. Lack of education, especially among women, is correlated with high birth rates; the resulting population pressure contributes to environmental degradation, increasingly in the form of marginal land coming under cultivation; environmental degradation is characterized by soil erosion, declining yields, and even declining agricultural productivity. This leads to further expansion and migration, which increases the burden on those family members remaining as survivors. At times, the Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes poverty condition requires that even young children work in subsistence activities. This, alongside the lack of resources to pay school fees, prevents children, especially, from attending schools. Illiteracy prevents poor people from learning new skills and accessing information and services. Women in particular work long hours and have difficulty allotting time to rural development programmes. A human-centred approach to development would entail a process of social change in which the women themselves have an opportunity to take part in making decisions that affect their lives (Etuk and Okwudishu, 2002). It is the women themselves who bring about poverty reduction; there can be no change for the better without their informed participation, i.e. without mobilizing their capabilities and energies and without increasing their knowledge and skills. As a result, the degree of poverty reduction in the 21st century should not be measured in terms of economic growth alone but must be seen from the point of general welfare of human beings. Etuk and Okwudishu (2002), argued that poverty reduction is used today especially in political and economic discourses to mean a change from a less desirable to a more desirable condition characterized by economic productivity, a high standard of living, technological advancement, a stable political order, the presence of basic human needs such as food, water, clothing, shelter, and a high literacy and educational level. The eradication of poverty cannot be accomplished through anti-poverty programmes alone but will require democratic participation and changes in economic structures, which would allow indigenous women access to resource opportunities and public services (Garuba, 2004). Level of participation is a process of acting together with different interest, deciding together what is best, and forming a partnership to carry something out. Supporting independent community initiatives, i.e. helping others do what they want and perhaps within a framework of grants, advice, and support provided by the resource holder, is intended to achieve more than otherwise. According to Maduagwu (2007), the participation of women in poverty alleviation programmes has helped to grow increasingly competent for enacting co-operative solutions for their families. It helps them not only become more effective in their participation in solving the problems of their families, but also aids them in developing the skills for understanding the relative importance of problems and selecting appropriate options to address them. This enables women to take up the opportunity to identify their poverty levels, deal with them, and learn from their problems. Indigenous people are persons, communities, and nations which claim a historical continuity and cultural affinity with societies endemic to their original territories that developed prior to exposure to western culture. The Ikwerres are the indigenous communities whose home lands are in the Niger Delta region, and of which 60 per cent of their tribal lands have been acquired for public development, resulting in the destruction of several of their villages and desecration of many of their sacred sites and burial grounds. The Ikwerres are the real inhabitants of Port Harcourt City, the capital of Rivers State, and also the oil hub of Nigeria. Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes 2. Research Methods 2.1 Area of Study The study was carried out in Port Harcourt City Local Government Area of Rivers State Nigeria. Port Harcourt is the capital city of Rivers State and also the headquarters of the Port Harcourt Local Government Area. It lies alongside the Bonny River and the Atlantic Ocean, and is located within the Niger Delta. The population of the city as of 2006 was 2,660,435 (National Population Commission, NPC, 2006). The ethnic groups are Ikwerre, Ijaw, and others. The population of the indigenous women was 11,970 (NPC, 2006) in nine communities of the city. The Ikwerres are the real inhabitants of Port Harcourt City, the capital of Rivers State, Nigeria. The present day location was inhabited only by the minority Ikwerre ethnic group, but today Port Harcourt is a metropolitan city of over a million people made up of Ikwerre indigenes and those from other parts of Nigeria, as well as a significant number of foreign nations who work in the petroleum and allied industries (Ihemere, 2003). The communities of Port Harcourt Local Government Area (PHALGA) are Nkpogu, Rumuwoji, Rumukalagbor, Elakahia, Rebisi, Nkpolu-Oroworokwo, Orogbum, Ohamini, and Ogbunabali. 2.2 Data Collection Procedure The study, a survey in design, was carried out in 2012. Primary and secondary data were used for the study. Secondary data sources were from journals, textbooks, institutional research reports, as well as online resources. Primary data were obtained through a set of structured questionnaires and interview schedules administered to indigenous women in the study area. A multi-stage random sampling technique was applied to select a total of 385 indigenous women from the study area. First, 5 out of the 9 communities in Port Harcourt, LGA were randomly chosen. Then, a list of indigenous women operating in different Poverty Alleviation programmes was obtained from the Ministry of Women Affairs in the state. From this list, 77 indigenous women were randomly chosen in equal proportion from the five communities sampled for the study. The women, however, cut across various entrepreneurial segments and poverty alleviation programmes. 2.3 Data Analysis Technique The data collected on the first objective of the study were analysed using descriptive statistics, such as mean, percentages and frequencies. The second research objective was attained through the aid of paired samples t-test. There are two main types of t-test: an independent-measures t-test – when samples are not matched – and a matched-pair t-test - when samples appear in pairs (Gujarati and Sangeetha, 2007). The value of t may be calculated using statistical packages such as SPSS or EViews. The t-test for the equality of means (t Test algorithms) is given as follows: Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes The t- test statistics is given as; …………………...……. Where: is the mean for Group 1.(economic empowerment index before joining poverty alleviation programme); is the mean for Group 2 (economic empowerment index after joining poverty alleviation programme); n1 is the number of people in Group 1 (economic empowerment index before joining poverty alleviation programme); n2 is the number of people in Group 2. (economic empowerment index after joining poverty alleviation programme); s1 2 is the variance for Group 1( economic empowerment index before joining poverty alleviation programme); s2 2 is the variance for Group 2 (economic empowerment index after joining poverty alleviation programme). The symbol s2 stands for the variance. The variance is the standard deviation without the square root, i.e. nothing more than the sum of the deviations of all the scores from the mean divided by n-1. The formula above is for testing the significance of difference between two independent samples, i.e., groups of events. 3. Results and Discussion Result in Table 1 indicated that the majority (58.3 per cent) of the women were members of a cooperative society, 63.5 per cent were members of community based organization (CBO), and 60.9 per cent were members of the Esusu. Their reasons for joining such groups are related to forming a safety net for the members so as to shield themselves from the risks of poverty. The result further showed that 66.3 per cent of the women had engaged in jobs aimed at poverty alleviation. Only 6.0 per cent identified that they were not member of any PAP by government. Among those that were identified as members, 32.6 per cent were members of TAP, 30.8 per cent were members of ESI while 20.5 per cent were members of WFSH. Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes Table 1: Level of involvement in poverty alleviation programmes Item Frequency Percentage Member of a cooperative society “Yes” “No” Engagement in any job or employment for purpose of alleviating poverty “Yes” “No” Member of any community based organization (CBO) “Yes” “No” Member of any contributory credit society “Yes” “No” Member of any poverty alleviation programmes sponsored by government Empowerment Support Initiative (ESI) The Adolescent Programme (TAP) Women Fish Sellers Association (WFSH ) Widowhood Centre (WC) 225 161 256 130 245 141 235 151 119 126 79 23 58.3 41.7 66.3 33.7 63.5 36.7 60.9 39.1 30.8 32.6 20.5 6.0 Source: Field Data (2012). Table 2 showed that majority of the women had benefited from government sponsored PAP (75.4%) and from any other PAP (90.7%). It is evident that more women benefited from other PAP than government sponsored PAP. The result further showed that almost half (50.3%) of the women were having an annual income below N100,000 before joining the PAP but after joining the PAP, 75,0 per cent had an annual income of more than N100,000. The implication of the findings in this section is that women who really desire to improve their wealth status need not rely on government-sponsored poverty alleviation programmes alone. The fact that 75 per cent of the women who joined poverty alleviation programmes had their income levels raised above their erstwhile N100000 (equivalent of US $632.91 in 2012 US dollars at an exchange rate of 158 to 1 US dollar) participation in and access to poverty alleviation programmes have the capacity of boosting income levels of women thus reducing income poverty. Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes Table 2: Impact from poverty alleviation programmes Item Frequency Percentage Cumulative % Benefited from any poverty alleviation programme sponsored by government. Yes No Benefited from any of the poverty alleviation programs Yes No 292 94 350 32 75.6 24.4 90.7 8.3 75.6 100 90.7 100 Source: Field Data (2012). It was not certain whether the income change after participating in poverty alleviation programmes by the women in this study was significant enough on statistical grounds to use for making policy statements. Therefore a more cursory examination was done by the t-test, whose results are presented in Table 3. Results in Table 3 shows a significant increase (p<0.05) in the mean income of the women before participating in PAP (N22,2937.17, or approximately USD 1411.00) and after joining the PAP (N304,590.67, or approximately USD1,927.79), an increase of about 36.6 per cent. The t-test result enables us to reject the hypothesis that there is no significant change in income of women who participated in poverty alleviation programmes before and after participating in the PAP. This implies that PAP have positive impacts on the welfare, in particular incomes, of women who participated in the programmes. It is, however, beyond the scope of this study to assess the effects of other variables on income change other than participation in PAP. Table 3: Approximate income earned by the women before and after joining poverty alleviation programme Item Mean (in Naira and kobo) Income before participating in the poverty alleviation programme. Income earned after joining any registered poverty alleviation programme. t – value p – value N 222937.17 (USD 1411.00) N304590.67 (USD1,927.79) 8.011 0.00 Source: Field Data (2012). Table 4 shows the income generated from different sources before and after joining the PAP. The results in the table revealed that almost all livelihood activities Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes studied except two, forestry and hunting, did not show a significant differential in income among the indigenous women who participated in PAP activities before and after joining the PAPs. It was, however, difficult to explain why some activities indicated negative differentials (i.e. livestock/poultry/fisheries). It is possible that the women who invested their money in these livelihood activities were probably not experienced or trained in these businesses and lost all their investments they used in the activity after joining or benefitting from PAP. This may also be attributed to the natives of the city and the environment. From these results, it could also be noted that the services of forestry and hunting were not available to the women in the area. Among the activities that indicated positive income changes after participation by the indigenous women in the study (as shown in Table 4), we found that crop farming and gardening had income differentials of US$ 486.55 equivalence after participation; wholesale and retail achieved a US$602.51 rise in income; manufacturing US$537.97; services US$7078.50; and communication, computer, and photocopying US$706.11. The transportation services sector had a mean appreciated income of US$2341.77; trading/merchandise US$481.71; while other activities such as banking and insurance witnessed mean income differentials of US$1,999.42 after participating in PAP. The t-statistics estimated for all of these factors were significant at a one per cent level. On the whole, it is evident from the findings of this study that participation in PAP activities benefitted the livelihoods of women who participated in the programmes. Table 4: Income realized per annum before and after participating in PAP Source of income Income realized per annum before poverty alleviation programme participation in Naira Income realized per annum after poverty alleviation programme participation in Naira Differential Income in Naira Change in Income in USD t – value Crop Farming, Gardening 112500 189375 76875 486.55 9.94*** Livestock, Poultry 220000 110239.6 -109760.36 -694.69 10.46*** Fisheries 300000 483333.3 183333.33 1160.34 13.15*** Forestry, Hunting 148571.4 293571.4 145000 917.72 1.05 Wholesale, Retail 117385.3 212582 95196.72 602.51 11.89*** Manufacturing 149302.3 234302.3 85000 537.97 6.04*** Services 200848 1319252 1118403.55 7078.50 3.73*** Communications, Computer, and Photocopying 118984.5 230550.4 111565.89 706.11 12.05*** Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes Services Transport Services 360000 730000 370000 2341.77 10.45*** Other Activities, i.e. Banking, Insurance (n = 22) 404545.5 720454.6 315909.1 1999.42 14.44*** Trading 110697.4 186807 76109.65 481.71 25.31*** Source: Field Data (2012). NB: “***” = Figures significant at a 1% level of statistical significance; “**” implies figures are significant at a 5% level and; “*” implies figures are statistical significant at a 10% level. Table 5 in the Appendix indicates that the percentage of women who had no property before joining the PAP decreased after joining the PAP. Therefore, the acquisition of property significantly increased after joining the PAP. In most of the properties considered, none of the women possessed more than one before joining the PAP. Some of the properties that were acquired most (> 4 items) were GSM handsets at 47.2 per cent, radio sets at 42.2 per cent, televisions at 42.2 per cent, kerosene stoves at 40.9 per cent , computers at 29.0 per cent, wheel barrows at 32.9 per cent, and air conditioners at 29.5 per cent. The rent paid for accommodation also increased from N65,414.508 to N100, 505.18. This is a reflection of the change from a low to a high-quality house. 4. Conclusion The study had been able to find that a majority of the indigenous women in Port Harcourt metropolis participate actively in various poverty alleviation activities (both government initiated and privately organized ones). There are benefits uncovered by this research which appear to encourage them to do so. One of such benefits is the increase in personal incomes which accrue to them after joining the programmes. It was found, for instance, that after joining the PAP, 75.5 per cent of them experienced an increase in income of 36.6 per cent. This development is a salvo to poverty alleviation programmes and underlies the need to put women in the forefront of poverty alleviation programme designs. With this finding, it is evident that one of the ways to ensure sustainable development in Nigeria is to encourage indigenous women to participate in poverty alleviation programmes. They appear to convert investment on them into more desirable results. The findings, which showed that statistically significant differences existed in the income of the women from various sources of livelihood or economic undertakings, corroborated the earlier finding. However, it is recommended that more rigorous studies be carried out using inferential statistics such as regression models based on time series data that include other variables to test whether income changes were attributed to any other factor other than participation in the PAP. For sustainable development to be attained, the pillar of human development must not be neglected. Efforts must be made to put poverty alleviation and gender inclusion in the forefront of sustainable development programmes. We recommend that more programmes designed at alleviating poverty Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Rivers State of Nigeria where Port Harcourt is located target indigenous women. In addition, we also recommend the establishment of entrepreneurship capacity building programmes to enable the women achieve optimal input while participating in the poverty eradication programmes. Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes Bibliography African Development Bank (2010). Gender, poverty and environmental indicators on African countries 2010: XI. Tunisia: Economic and Social Statistics Division Statistics Department African Development Bank. Economic Commission for Africa (1999). Economic Report on Africa. The Challenge of Poverty Reduction and Sustainability. Addis Ababa E/ECA/CM 24/3/99. Etuk ,U and Okwudishu, I.(1998). Ethical condition of human development in 21st Century Africa. Ibadan: Hope Publication:40. Federal Office of Statistic, FOS. (2009). Rivers State Nigeria. Lagos: FOS. Food & Agricultural Organization (1982). Role of women in agricultural production FAO, Rome:5. 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Development in Practice: Taking Action to Reduce Poverty in Sub- Saharan Africa. Washington, D.C. Work Bank (2001). Engendering development through gender equality in rights, resources and voice. Washington, DC., and New York: World Bank and Oxford University Press. World Bank (2010). Human Development Report. Washington, DC., and New York: World Bank. Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes Appendix A Table 5: Number of household items acquired before and after participating in the poverty alleviation programme (n=386). Properties Before poverty alleviation programme After poverty alleviation programme Television None One Two Three Four CD Player None One Two Three Radio Set None One Two Three Four Video Set None One Two Three GSM Handset None One Electric generator None One Two Motorcycle None One Two Car 183 47.4 203 52.6 - - - - - - 262 67.9 124 32.1 - - - - 183 47.4 203 52.6 - - - - - - 301 78.0 85 22.0 - - - - 198 51.3 188 48.7 - - - 308 78 - 347 89.9 39 10.1 - 0.0 172 44.6 163 42.2 39 10.1 4 1.0 8 2.1 63 16.3 257 66.6 52 13.5 14 3.6 172 44.6 163 42.2 39 10.1 4 1.0 8 2.1 158 40.9 186 48.2 38 9.8 4 1.0 53 13.7 182 47.2 116 30.1 31 8.0 4 1.0 175 171 40 260 67.4 99 25.6 27 7.0 Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes None One Two Three No Response Cable / Satellite None One Two No Response Fridge None One No Response Deep freezer None One Two No Response Gas cooker None One Two No Response Kerosene stove None One Two No Response Computer None One Two No Response Washing machine None One Two 329 85.2 53 13.7 4 1.0 293 75.9 89 23.1 - - 4 1.0 231 59.8 151 39.1 4 1.0 302 79.1 69 18.1 11 2.9 291 75.4 95 24.6 227 58.8 155 40.2 4 1.0 321 84.0 61 16.0 227 58.8 123 31.9 22 5.7 10 2.6 120 31.0 221 57.3 45 11.7 - - 143 37.0 202 52.3 23 6.0 18 4.7 146 38.2 174 45.5 58 15.2 4 1.0 177 45.9 177 45.9 24 6.2 8 2.1 148 38.7 158 41.4 72 18.8 4 1.0 218 56.5 112 29.0 33 8.5 15 3.9 4 1.0 4 1.0 Consilience Deedam and Onoja: Impact of Poverty Alleviation Programmes Three No Response Electric fan None One Two Three Four No Response Air conditioner None One Two Three Four No Response Wheel barrow None One Two Three Four No Response Plots of land acquire None One Two No response Building erected None One Two No Response Accommodation rent before participation 4 1.0 249 65.2 133 34.8 232 60.1 142 37.2 8 2.1 300 78.5 70 18.3 12 3.1 300 79.4 70 18.5 8 2.1 344 89.1 38 9.8 4 1.0 317 83.0 65 17.0 170000.00 207 53.6 54 14.0 75 19.4 38 9.8 12 3.1 155 40.6 95 24.6 64 16.6 42 10.9 22 5.8 4 1.0 195 51.6 114 30.2 45 11.9 16 4.2 8 2.1 190 49.7 127 33.9 57 14.9 4 1.0 211 54.7 123 31.9 48 12.4 229 59.3 210000.00 Source: Field Data (2012)