International Projects and Cross-Cultural Adjustment of British Expatriates in Middle East: A Qualitative Investigation of Influencing Factors


 

International Projects and Cross-Cultural 
Adjustment of British Expatriates in Middle 
East: A Qualitative Investigation of Influencing 
Factors 

Ashwini Konanahalli,
 
Lukumon Oyedele, Jason von Meding, John Spillane  

                             and Ron Coates (Queen’s University Belfast, United Kingdom) 

 
 

Abstract  
Increased globalisation within the British AEC (Architectural, Engineering and Construction) 
sector has increased the need for companies to transfer staff to manage their overseas 
operations. To be able to perform abroad, expatriates must harmonise themselves to the 
conditions prevailing in the host country. These include getting accustomed to living, working 
and interacting with the host country nationals. The process is commonly referred to as 
‘cross-cultural adjustment’. Various factors influence the process of adjustment. In order to 
identify these issues, a qualitative study was undertaken, which mainly comprised of 
comprehensive literature review, individual interviews and focus group discussion with 
British expatriates working on international AEC assignments in Middle Eastern countries. 
Through interpretative approach, the current study aims to understand the concept of cross-
cultural adjustment of British Expatriates based in Middle East and their influencing factors.  
 
The findings suggest that success of expatriation does not entirely rest on an expatriate's 
ability but also on organisational support and assistance that expatriates receive prior to and 
during the assignment. Organisational factors such as selection mechanisms, job design, 
training, logistical and social support, mentoring, etc., influence various facets of expatriate 
adjustment. Striking cultural contrasts between British and Arab culture both in work and non 
work situations also dictate the level of support required by the expatriate, suggesting that 
relocation to less developed, remote or politically unstable regions, demands additional 
support and consideration by the parent company. This study is relevant to the AEC 
companies employing British expatriates, who need to be cognisant of the issues highlighted 
above to make rational and informed decisions when handling international assignments in 
the Middle East.  
 
Keywords: Cross-cultural adjustment, International Project Management, Middle East and North 
Africa, Organisational strategies, Overseas AEC Assignments, Work related factors 

 
 

Introduction 
With the increase of business globalisation, international mobility is becoming a common 
experience for a growing number of employees sent on long term-assignments (Hechanova 
et al., 2003). The international AEC (Architectural, Engineering and Construction) sector is 
no exception. The basic nature of the construction operations, along with the growing 
demand from emerging economies, has lead to many international AEC firms expatriating 
constructional professionals, such as architects, consultants, managers, contractors, etc., 
across various units, to transfer technology (Carrillo, 1994) and manage overseas 
operations. Achieving success on these assignments is an essential issue for such 
companies, as it is indispensible for developmental, functional and reputational reasons 
(Dowling et al., 1998; Strohl and Caliguiri, 1998; Black et al., 1991; Tung and Miller, 1990).  
 
Recent studies suggest that international organisations are increasingly struggling to 
manage their personnel on international assignments, particularly as it relates to assisting 
expatriates and their families to stay until completion of the assignment and then retaining 



 
Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building 

Konanahalli A et al. (2012) ‘International projects and cross-cultural adjustments of British expatriates in Middle 
East: A qualitative investigation of influencing factors’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 
12 (3) 31-54  

32 

them for future postings (GMAC, 2008). Expatriation is very expensive due to associated 
high cost of sending and maintaining personnel overseas (Hechanova et al., 2003).  As a 
result, one of the major challenges faced by the international organisations is how to 
effectively use their expatriates to deliver their overseas assignments (Chi and Levitt, 2009).  
The expectation placed on an expatriate will be to perform the same set of functions that 
they will normally do on the domestic front but in a totally different and complex environment 
(Yamazaki and Kayes, 2005).   
 
However, the expatriate will be challenged with differences in cultural norms, regulations, 
routines, work cultures, institutional work practices, safety standards, etc., which can 
manifest themselves as added costs, delays and conflicts on these assignments (Chua et 
al., 2003; Miller & Lessard, 2001 and Orr, 2005). Grove, (1990) and Fish, (2005) 
appropriately suggest that expatriates need to possess the ability to deal effectively with 
frustration, stress, different political systems, interaction with strangers, intercultural and 
business dimensions. 
 
In all these aforementioned cases, cross-cultural adjustment of these personnel, posted on 
international assignments, therefore becomes an important issue. Adjustment is defined as a 
state where variations or modifications become apparent in an individual to accommodate 
environmental demands (Berry, 1992). An expatriate has to adjust to three specific aspects 
namely, general environment, interaction with host country nationals and work (Black & 
Stephens, 1989). Cross-cultural adjustment is the primary outcome of the international 
assignment on the expatriate, it further influences the sense of achievement in terms of 
satisfaction, performance and assignment completion (SriRamalu, et al., 2010). Studies into 
international adjustment by Black and his associates conceptualised it as a multi-
dimensional concept suggesting that different antecedents may have different impacts on 
each of its facets (Black, et al., 1991). Adjustment is also one of the most frequently studied 
factors in assessing the success of an international assignment (Aycan and Kanungo, 1997, 
Ones and Viswesvaran, 1997).  
 
Despite intensive studies on cross-cultural adjustment in business management sectors,  
similar research within the realm of International AEC industry, appears to be lacking (except 
for Puck, et al., 2008; Zainol & Abdul Aziz, 2010), even though internationalisation is not a 
new concept to this field - it has been in existence before the 20th century (Pheng and 
Leong, 2000) - and that the British construction industry has the longest history in 
international construction operations (Crosthwaithe, 1998). During the 1970's the booming 
oil price (Ngowi, 2005) coupled with shortage of local skills, technology and resources, made 
way for intervention by international AEC firms from US and European countries 
(Loosemoore and Muslmani, 1999). As a result, British based AEC firms continue to have 
significant presence in these oil rich Middle Eastern regions. 
 
This paper is based on a literature review and the viewpoints of AEC industry 
representatives. It seeks to understand the adjustment process of British expatriates working 
within international AEC firms including architectural consultants, engineering consultants, 
contractors, project managers, etc.  British expatriates (BEs) in this context are defined as a 
British nationals sent by their parent companies to manage international assignments on 
projects for a certain time period lasting from several months to years (Edstrom and 
Galbraith, 1977). This study will only concentrate on exploring the impact of organisational, 
work and non-work parameters on cross-cultural adjustment.   
 

Methodology 
This paper is specifically designed to explore a sub-set of variable of British expatriates’ 
cross-cultural adjustment in the Middle-Eastern region. Of interest are Middle East countries 
which are mostly of Arab culture and seen as very different from Western culture.  These 



 
Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building 

Konanahalli A et al. (2012) ‘International projects and cross-cultural adjustments of British expatriates in Middle 
East: A qualitative investigation of influencing factors’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 
12 (3) 31-54  

33 

countries include; Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, 
Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, West Bank, 
Gaza and the Yemen.  
 
To explore the phenomenon of adjustment in a sample of British expatriate's, this study 
adopted two approaches, namely, 
 

 Literature review and, 

 Qualitative research 
 
Due to the broad scope of this topic, the literature review has been a critical aspect of the 
research. Factors influencing cross-cultural adjustment have been sparsely explored in the 
international Architectural, Engineering and Construction (AEC) sector. To understand the 
work, non-work and organisational antecedents of adjustment, this research probed deep 
into the literature by reviewing it with reference to studies conducted in various sectors of 
business management, psychology and international human resource management. 
 
Additionally, the researchers adopted a qualitative methodology to understand the concept 
of expatriate’s cross-cultural adjustment from the participant’s perspective, primarily to avoid 
losing social and institutional context during quantification of textual data (Kaplan and 
Maxwell, 1994). The researchers conducted a systematic enquiry, attempting to interpret 
and make sense of the phenomena and the meanings that individuals attribute to them 
(Shank, 2002). A qualitative approach was considered appropriate for the following reasons; 
 

- to examine complex issues of causality, process and context (Dudwick, et al., 2006); 
- to explore the main actor’s interpretation of events and to draw conclusions from 

them; 

- and most importantly, to first identify the variables that might later be tested 
quantitatively (Hoepfl, 1997). 
 

Hence, qualitative research is considered to be apt as opposed to quantitative research. 
Qualitative research methods include, interviewing, archival research and participant 
observation (Myers and Avison, 2002). This study adopted interviewing, since it aimed to 
gain a deeper understanding of Middle Eastern culture and societies. Furthermore, the 
researchers used individual interviews and focus group discussions, the two most common 
methods to collect qualitative data (Gill et al.,2008). Other qualitative techniques like, 
archival research and participant observation were ruled out, as most expatriates were 
based overseas and there was no scope to observe them in action and no access to written 
records. 
 

Literature Review 
Cross-cultural Adjustment 
Cross-cultural adjustment is referred to as the degree to which an expatriate is 
psychologically comfortable with various aspects of the foreign country (Black, 1988). It 
involves uncertainty reduction by imitating or learning appropriate local behaviours and 
harmonising with the culture (Peltokorpi and Froese, 2009). 
 
An expatriate needs to adjust his/her behaviour to the norms and rules of the host nation. 
Failure to adjust will result in early return prior to assignment completion (Harzing, 1995), 
poor job performance and low levels of satisfaction (Naumann, 1993). On the other hand, 
successful adjustment will result in integration of some elements of expatriate original culture 
with that of the host country (Kim and Ruben, 1988). As a result well adjusted expatriates 
are able to perform effectively. Black and Stephens, (1989); Black, (1988) and Black et al., 
(1991) identified three aspects of adjustment.  Each is briefly discussed below. 



 
Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building 

Konanahalli A et al. (2012) ‘International projects and cross-cultural adjustments of British expatriates in Middle 
East: A qualitative investigation of influencing factors’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 
12 (3) 31-54  

34 

Interaction Adjustment  
This aspect deals with the comfort levels when dealing or interacting with host country 
nationals at work and in non-work situations (Black and Stephens 1989). It is also suggested 
that interaction is the most difficult of the three facets of adjustment. 

 
Work Adjustment  
This involves adapting oneself to the new job tasks, roles and environment. Work adjustment 
is easier if there are similarities between the parent and the host subsidiary in terms of 
procedures, policies and task requirements (Black and Stephens 1989). 
   
General Adjustment 
This second facet deals with overall adjustment to living in a foreign land and adjusting to its 
culture (Black, 1988). It comprises factors such as housing conditions, healthcare, cost of 
living, etc. (Black and Stephens 1989).   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
Antecedents of Cross-cultural Adjustment 
Recent studies on adjustment have conceptualised it as a multi-faceted phenomenon with 
three major dimensions (Black 1988, Black and Gregersen, 1991, Black et al., 1991, McEvoy 
and Parker 1995) all of which have been empirically tested.  Adopting a multiple theoretical 
perspective Black et al., (1991) have identified a host of factors that influence all three facets 
of adjustment and phased these factors into pre-assignment and in-country periods (Refer to 
Figure 1). Since the aim of this study is to investigate organisational, non-work and work 
determinants of expatriate adjustment, the individual factors have not been discussed. 
 
Anticipatory Adjustment  
Anticipatory adjustment is the input from domestic adjustment literature. According to Black 
et al., (1991) adjustment will be a lot easier and quicker, if anticipatory adjustment has been 
worked out well. The two aspects to be dealt with during this period include expatriate 
selection and providing cross-cultural training. 

Figure 1 Frame-work for Cross-cultural Adjustment by Black et al. (1991)  

 

Training 

 

Previous 
Experience 

 

Organization 
Selection Mechanisms & Criteria 

 

Accurate 
Expectation 

Anticipatory 
Adjustment 

Individual 
Individual 
Self-efficacy (1,2,3) 
Relational skills (1,2,3) 
Perception skills 
(1,2,3) 

 

Job 
Role clarity (1) 
Role discretion (1) 
Role Novelty (1) 
Role conflict (1) 

 

Organizational 
Culture  
Organization culture 
novelty (1) 
Social support (1) 
Logistical help (2,3) 

 

Organizational 
Socialisation 
Socialisation tactics 
Socialisation content 

 

Non Work 
Culture Novelty (2,3) 
Family Spouse 
adjustment (1,2,3) 

 

Mode of Adjustment 

 

Degree of Adjustment 
1-Work adjustment 
2- Interaction adjustment 
3- General adjustment 

 

Anticipatory Adjustment 



 
Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building 

Konanahalli A et al. (2012) ‘International projects and cross-cultural adjustments of British expatriates in Middle 
East: A qualitative investigation of influencing factors’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 
12 (3) 31-54  

35 

Organisational Factors 

 Expatriate Selection 
During the anticipatory phase, when considering individuals for foreign assignments, 
the most important organisational factors to be considered are the criteria and the 
process of expatriate selection (Black et al., 1991). This has been substantiated by 
researchers, who have long been advocating effective recruitment and selection 
systems for successful expat assignments (Tung, 1981, 1982). In spite of this, to date, 
most organisations continue to rely on technical skills and domestic track record as the 
criteria for selection (Morley and Flynn, 2003; Sparrow et al., 2004). 
 

 Cross-cultural Training 
Cross-cultural training is an intervention to escalate an individual’s aptitude to deal with 
and perform in an unfamiliar environment (Tung, 1981). Studies by Mendenhall and 
Oddou, (1985); Tung, (1981); Mendenhall et al., (1987); Black and Mendenhall, (1990) 
suggest that comprehensive cross-cultural training is helpful in building an expatriate’s 
cross-cultural skills and competencies. Trained expatriates are able to carry 
themselves confidently and work efficiently with less supervision (Gutterridge et al., 
1993) and have the potential to predict success on international projects (Parkinson 
and Morley, 2006).  

 
In-Country Adjustment 
The literature for integration of domestic and international adjustment with respect to In-
country adjustment is more complicated than the anticipatory phase (Black et al., 1991), the 
reason being that it requires both mode and degree of adjustment. In-Country adjustment 
comprises of job, organisational culture and non-work factors. 

 

 Job factors 
Job factors are definite sets of tasks and duties performed by the expatriates (Selmer 
and Fenner, 2009).  Therefore they are categorised into two groups (Black, 1988); 

 

 Adjustment facilitating job factors  
 Adjustment inhibiting job factors 

 
Role clarity and role discretion are two job related factors that facilitate work 
adjustment (Black et al., 1991). Expatriates whose job roles, responsibilities and 
behaviours to be undertaken, are set up clearly by the organisation (Andreason, 2003; 
Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al, 2005), experience less uncertainty associated with their work 
situation and in turn adjust to their work quickly (Black 1988, Nicholson, 1984, and 
Pinder and Schroeder 1987). Similarly, flexibility in the working environment (role 
discretion) allows the expatriate to mould the job to his or her expectations. 
 
There are several job-related factors that could increase the uncertainties, 
unfamiliarity's, unpredictability or uncontrollability of the new role and consequently 
inhibit adjustment (Black et al., 1991). Novel work settings could vary from the home 
nation demanding new skill sets and behaviours, which means the expatriate has a 
tremendous amount of information to process like, legal, economic, political, taxation 
and also how to interact with locals (Andreason, 2003).  
 
On the other hand, when an expatriate experiences conflict; ambiguity between the 
expectations held regarding job behaviours, duties, do's and don’ts, uncertainty levels 
are likely to increase and so impede adjustment. Also, placing excessive demands on 
expatriates who assume new positions (Brewster and Harris, 1999) i.e. role overload is 
likely to produce similar consequences. 
 



 
Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building 

Konanahalli A et al. (2012) ‘International projects and cross-cultural adjustments of British expatriates in Middle 
East: A qualitative investigation of influencing factors’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 
12 (3) 31-54  

36 

 Organizational factors 
Organisational factors include organisation cultural novelty, social and logistical 
support provided by the organisation. Black et al., (1991) propose organisational 
cultural novelty would be expected to increase the uncertainty associated with work 
environment (Church, 1982; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985 and Stening, 1979). The 
greater the difference between the parent organisation and the host country 
subsidiary, the greater are the adjustment challenges (Black et al., 1991).   
 
An expatriate’s relocation to an unfamiliar environment is a stressful event. 
Organisational support on the logistic front is essential; it helps to reduce the amount 
of time they spend on these issues and facilitates adjustment to the new work set-up 
(Aycan, 1997). It includes sorting out visas, work permits, housing, organising school 
for their children, medical insurance, etc.   
 
Social support mainly assists in mobilising psychological resources and further 
provides feelings of reinforcement, recognition and affirmation (Fontaine, 1986; Rook, 
1984). This support could stem from family, host national colleagues, compatriots, or in 
some instances expatriates from other countries.  Particularly on the work front, 
expatriates should be provided with clear information on the do's and the don'ts 
especially if the organisational culture novelty between the home and the host country 
subsidiary is high. Studies suggest that social support has a positive impact on their 
ability to adapt to the new environment (Coyle, 1992 and Brewster and Scullion, 1997). 
 

 Non work factors 
Factors listed under this section include culture novelty of the host country and family-
spouse adjustment.  

 
Cultural distance refers to the extent of cultural differences between the home and the 
host country (Shenkar, 2001). It is also referred to as "Cultural toughness" or "Cultural 
novelty". Church (1982), Mendenhall & Oddou (1985) and Stening (1979) argue that 
cultural novelty of the host country increases uncertainty i.e. perceived discrepancies 
between the home and host countries increase the level of doubts and present the 
expatriates with adjustment difficulties.  

 
Adjustment of the spouse and family are important because a child’s maladjustment to 
various aspects of the host nation adversely affects the sojourner’s own adjustment 
thereby affecting their work performance (Earley and Ang, 2003). Prior research has 
substantiated that the inability of the spouses/family to adjust to living in the host 
country was one of the most frequently cited reasons for failure among American 
expatriates (Black and Stephens, 1989; Harvey 1985 and Tung 1981). Ever changing 
work place demographics suggests that organisations need to take into consideration 
dual career couples when thinking of relocation (Selmer and Leung, 2003). Therefore 
organisations should tune resources in this direction, as it enhances both the 
expatriate’s and his/her partner’s satisfaction with foreign assignment.  
 

Other Organisational Issues 
Free Choice for Accepting International Assignments 
Free choice refers to the degree to which an individual can choose to accept the assignment 
(Cerdin & Pargneux, 2009). It helps to judge whether the assignment fits well with their will, 
skills and knowledge (Chenyi & Baruch, 2010). Expatriates lacking free choice or being 
pressurised by organisations to take up assignments against their will would not only face 
adjustment difficulties but also develop negative attitudes towards the job itself (Black & 
Stephens, 1989). Studies by Feldman, (1988); Wanous, (1980); Hall, (1976) have 
established free choice as a necessary factor influencing success involving international 



 
Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building 

Konanahalli A et al. (2012) ‘International projects and cross-cultural adjustments of British expatriates in Middle 
East: A qualitative investigation of influencing factors’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 
12 (3) 31-54  

37 

transfers; Kraimer and Wayne (2004) found a positive relationship between free choice and 
adjustment.  
 
Mentoring  
An additional aspect of social support will be the appointment of a mentor, an individual who 
provides assistance on learning and understanding the culture of the assigned country 
(Volard et al., 1988). A mentor acts as the link between the head office and the expat, giving 
him/her information on the latest events and involving them in the decision making process 
(McCauhey and Bruning, 2005). Host nationals can also be mentors helping the expatriate 
gain concrete training in cultural behavior, introducing them to valued business contacts and 
provide assistance in interpreting situations (Kraimer et al., 2001). Mentoring helps to reduce 
any uncertainty associated with the new environment and make the expatriate feel more 
comfortable with their new work group and help them get more easily assimilated into the 
host culture (Caligiuri and Lazarova, 2002). Hence, mentored expats will not only adjust to 
work quickly but also interact efficiently with locals. 
 
Training Host Country Nations 
When operating overseas, an expatriate will certainly have to deal with local staff. To 
maintain output quality, an effective interaction with local staff is key. Vance and Pederon 
(1993) support the idea that the host nationals also need to be trained for assignments with 
foreigners. They advocate training as an ethical imperative for global firms as it assists in 
reducing stress and increasing the effectiveness of the individual. Such training will therefore 
facilitate greater work and interaction adjustment. In spite of this knowledge, expatriation 
research has not explored this dimension to its full detail (Vance and Ring, 1994). 
 
Ongoing Continuous Support 
An organisation needs to make a conscious effort to maintain contact between the expatriate 
and their head office. Ongoing assistance on technical or personal issues gives assurance to  
an employee that they are an integral part of the organisation, thus reducing anxiety and 
uncertainty associated with ‘out of sight, out of mind’ fears (Tung, 1988) and accelerates 
adjustment (Aycan, 1997).  
 

Qualitative Research 
Data Collection 
The subject of the study involved British nationals managing or having previously managed, 
their parent organisation's international Architectural, Engineering and Construction (AEC) 
operations in Arab countries. Employing a random sampling technique a list of international 
British companies operating in Middle Eastern countries was obtained. Normally, 
researchers in the past have associated random sampling with quantitative research and 
non-random sampling with qualitative. As noted by Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2005) this 
represents a false dichotomy. It is suggested that both sampling techniques could be used 
either ways to increase options for researchers (Onwuegbuzie and Collins, 2007).  
   
Telephone calls were made to British AEC companies and HR managers were contacted to 
seek approval for participation. Once approved, emails were sent out to the HR mangers 
reiterating the purpose and the confidentiality of the study. Only eight companies operating 
in seven Middle Eastern countries agreed to participate and provided access to their 
expatriates. Next, snowball sampling was used to secure additional participants. Snow ball 
sampling is used to elicit knowledge, from extended associations, through previous 
acquaintances (Babbie, 2008). This technique enables using recommendations to find more 
participants for the study. It is considered to be appropriate when targeting a special 
population (Babbie, 2008), in this case British expatriates. Respondents were contacted via 
e-mails and telephone calls. Upon agreement, in-depth individual interviews and focus group 
discussions were conducted.  



 
Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building 

Konanahalli A et al. (2012) ‘International projects and cross-cultural adjustments of British expatriates in Middle 
East: A qualitative investigation of influencing factors’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 
12 (3) 31-54  

38 

Qualitative Individual Interviews 
Qualitative interviews are useful for understanding the background data and the evolution of 
the relationship between actor and the situation (Twum, 2010). To collect detailed 
information about an expatriate’s experience of living and working overseas from their own 
perspective, unstructured in depth interviews were considered to be apt. This meant that the 
interviews had very little structure or preconceived plan as to how to deal with the topic 
(Hancock, 1998). During the unstructured interview the researchers asked open ended 
questions giving the respondent a chance to freely explain their opinion or experiences. 
 

Interview 
Code 

Assignment  
duration in 

years 

Industry 
experience 

Job role during 
the assignment 

Country of 
Assignment 

Profession 

UA-IN1 Open 15 Project Architect UAE 
Architectural 
Consultants 

EG-IN2 2 21 
Engineering 
Consultant 

Egypt 
Engineering 
Consultancy 

UA-IN3 3 40 
Business 

development 
director 

UAE 
Architectural 
Consultants 

BA-IN4 Open 30 
Regional 
Director 

Bahrain 
Engineering 
Consultancy 

UA-IN5 2 12 Project Manager UAE 
Architectural 
Consultants 

OM-IN6 2.5 15 
Health & Safety 

manager 
Oman Contractor 

KU-IN7 4 19 Project Architect Kuwait 
Architectural 
Consultants 

KU-IN8 2 9 
Quantity 
Surveyor 

Kuwait 
Architectural 
Consultants 

Table 1 Respondents profile for individual interviews 

 
Overall eight individual interviews were carried out. Two were conducted in person, whereas 
the remaining six interviews had to be conducted using voice over IP technology because 
most expatriates were based overseas on assignments. However, no differences in the 
quality of the data could be observed between these two interviews types.   
 

Focus Group Discussions 
Apart from carrying out individual interviews, three focus group discussions (each group 
comprising of four expatriates) were also included. Focus group discussions involve 
individuals selected and assembled by the researcher to discuss and comment on the 
subject of the research from personal experience (Powell et. al., 1996). Based on the 
principle of data triangulation, the focus groups consisted of four expatriates from the same 
organisation. When individuals have specialized knowledge or experiences to discuss in the 
group, Krueger (1994) has endorsed the use of very small focus groups which include three 
(Morgan, 1997) or four participants. Since it is difficult to exert control over larger groups, 
researchers have recommended the group size to be somewhere between four and six 
participants (Greenbaum, 1988;Vaughn et al., 1996).  
 
Focus groups were specifically conducted to validate the factors identified from the 
interviews and enable deeper insights into the group's thinking (Sommer and Sommer, 
2002). Also, incorporating viewpoints of four different individuals basically helps to verify and 
increase validity of the data collected. 
 
For the focus groups, the option of tele-conferencing was used to interview a number of 
individuals at the same time. The proactive approach adopted by the researchers, not only 

http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/1/47.full#ref-24
http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/1/47.full#ref-60


 
Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building 

Konanahalli A et al. (2012) ‘International projects and cross-cultural adjustments of British expatriates in Middle 
East: A qualitative investigation of influencing factors’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 
12 (3) 31-54  

39 

ensured that the interview was free flowing and in keeping with the topic of discussion, but 
also assisted in preventing individuals from dominating and ensured that all participants 
were involved and contributed equally.  

 

Interview 
Code 

Assignment  
duration in 

years 

Industry 
experience 

Job role during 
the assignment 

Country of 
Assignment 

Profession 

SA-FG1 3 6 Quantity Surveyor Saudi Arabia 
Engineering 
Consultancy 

SA-FG2 3 7 Quantity Surveyor Saudi Arabia 
Engineering 
Consultancy 

SA-FG3 3 25 
Plants & 

Equipment 
Manager 

Saudi Arabia 
Engineering 
Consultancy 

SA-FG4 3 10 Planning Manager Saudi Arabia 
Engineering 
Consultancy 

EG-FG1 Open 42 Regional Director Egypt Contractor 

EG-FG2 3 12 Project Manager Egypt Contractor 

EG-FG3 3 25 
Health & Safety 

Manager 
Egypt Contractor 

EG-FG4 3 30 
Commercial 

Director 
Egypt Contractor 

QA-FG1 Open 35 Country Manager Qatar 
Project 

Management 

QA-FG2 Open 31 
Regional 
Manager 

Qatar 
Project 

Management 

QA-FG3 5 30 Strategic Planner Qatar 
Project 

Management 

QA-FG4 5 9 Quantity Surveyor Qatar 
Project 

Management 

Table 1 Respondents profile for focus group discussions 

 
According to Fossey, et al., (2002) there is no fixed minimum number of participants 
recommended to conduct sound qualitative research, however sufficient in depth information 
needs to be gathered to fully describe the phenomena being studied. Since this study aimed 
to capture a holistic view of expatriate adjustment, no initial estimate of interviews was 
considered by the researchers. But after having conducted a total of eight individual 
interviews and three focus group discussion, the study gathered a large amount of data, 
where it was possible to identify fully developed general patterns. It reached the point of 
‘theoretical saturation’ where no new insights were being obtained (Glaser and Strauss 
1999).  
 
Most of the interviews and focus groups were audio recorded with prior permission. For the 
one's which permission couldn't be granted, field notes were taken by the researchers. 
These interviews and focus group discussions lasted somewhere between 1 to 2 hours.  
 

Respondent Profiling  
All the twenty respondents of this study were male. On average, the participants had work 
experience of 21 years within the industry. Among the interviewed, for 15% of the 
participants it was their first overseas posting, 85% of them were currently working on their 
international assignment and 60% of respondents were married. Both focus group 
discussions and individual interviews included participants from diverse backgrounds 
ranging from contractors, project management, architectural and engineering fields. 
 



 
Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building 

Konanahalli A et al. (2012) ‘International projects and cross-cultural adjustments of British expatriates in Middle 
East: A qualitative investigation of influencing factors’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 
12 (3) 31-54  

40 

All the interviewees were coded. The first two letters in the code refer to the interviewee’s 
country of assignment BA-(Bahrain), SA-(Saudi Arabia), EG-(Egypt), QA-(Qatar), KU-
(Kuwait), OM-(Oman) and UA-(United Arab Emirates). The next two letters refer to the type 
of interview i.e. FG-(Focus Group), IN-(Individual interview) and the last number of the code 
helps to differentiate between each individual. The profiles and details of each interviewee 
are shown in Table 1 and 2. 
 

Results and Findings of Qualitative Study  
Qualitative data analysis is a systematic and transparent way of making sense and meaning 
of the data collected (Punch 2005). Each of the interviews was transcribed by carefully 
listening to audio recording and then translating it into text verbatim. Bogdan & Biklen, 
(1992) define qualitative data as “rough materials researchers collect from the world they are 
studying; they are the particulars that form the basis of analysis”. This study analysed the 
qualitative data using an interpretative approach, also known as a ‘descriptive approach’. It 
provides thorough descriptions and interpretations of social phenomena, including its 
meaning to those who experience it (Tesch, 1991). This technique helps to structure data 
extracted from interviews in a rational way to determine factors, actions and reactions. It also 
presents a holistic view of data rather than a condensed view. 
 
The transcribed data from the individual interviews and focus group discussions were 
combined with the factors identified from the literature review. The findings of the qualitative 
study have been listed in Table 3 and discussed in detail in the following section. A list of the 
findings was sent to each of the participants for approval and validation. 
 

Organisational Factors Non work Factors Work Factors 

Expatriate selection (Black et al., 
1991; Jassawalla et al.,2004; 25% 
Interviews; 100% Focus groups) 

Cultural  distance (Black et al., 
1991; Ozorhon et al., 2008; 63% 
Interviews; 67% Focus groups) 

Implementing requirements like 
quality, (Ozorhon et al., 2007;50 % 
Interviews; 100% Focus groups) 
Health & Safety (Ozorhon et al., 
2007; Mahalingam &Levitt, 
2005;25% Interviews; 33% Focus 
groups) 

Free choice (Black & Stephens, 
1989; Feldman, 1988; Wanous, 
1980; Hall, 1976; 38% Interviews; 
33% Focus groups) 

Political stability (Ozorhon et al., 
2007; Zhi, 1995; Wang et al., 
1999; Ling and Hoang, 2010;  
Ofori, 2003;  Han & Diekmann 
2001; 25% Interviews; 33% Focus 
groups) 

Availability of resources (Ozorhon et 
al., 2007;  Baloi and Price; 2003; 
 Mahalingam &Levitt, 2007;63% 
Interviews; 67% Focus groups) 

Training Host nationals 
(Jassawalla et al.,2004;67% 
Focus groups) 

Climatic conditions (Bing, et al., 
1999;  Han, et al., 2007;  38% 
Interviews; 67% Focus groups) 

Managing other expatriate groups  
(Orrill, 2006; 50% Interviews; 33% 
Focus groups) 

Cross-cultural training (Black et 
al.,1991;Tung,1981) 

Presence of expatriate community  
(Cohen, 1977; 38% interviews; 
67% Focus groups) 

Competence of project parties (Bing 
et al., 1999; Ozorhon et al., 2007; 
88% Interviews; 67% Focus groups) 

Arranging pre-sojourn visits 
(Jassawalla et al.,2004) 

Family Adjustment (Black, 1988; 
75% Interviews; 67% Focus 
groups) 

Job commitment of  locals (63% 
Interviews; 100% Focus groups) 

Social and logistical support 
(Black et al.,1991;Pinder & 
Schroeder,1987;Tung 1988; 
Torbiorn,1982; 88% Interviews; 
100% Focus groups) 

 Client's understanding of his/her 
responsibilities  (Baloi & Price, 
2003; 38% Interviews; 67% Focus 
groups) 



 
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East: A qualitative investigation of influencing factors’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 
12 (3) 31-54  

41 

 

Table 2 Factors extracted from Literature Review, Interviews and Focus Groups 

 

Discussion 
Upon completion of the qualtiative data analysis, this research proposes a framework for 
cross-cultural adjustment, which attempts to cluster factors along organisational, work and 
non-work issues and assess their impact on the three facets of adjustment. The discussion 
of the findings is presented by drawing on appropriate quotations from the interviews to 
clarify and illustrate issues. Narrations or accounts are viewed as story-like constructs that 
contain individuals’ recollections of events (Orbuch 1997). When using narrations, every 
attempt is made to protect the anonymity of the respondents and their organisation. The 

Organisational Factors Non work Factors Work Factors 

Ongoing head office support 
(Aycan, 1997;Black et al.,1998 
50% Interviews; 67% Focus 
groups) 

 Handling contract administration 
issues (Hall,1996; 25% Interviews; 
67% Focus groups) 

Organisational culture novelty 
(Church, 1982;Mendenhall & 
Oddou, 1985;  Stening,1979) 

 Complexity of the project 
assignment (Ozorhon et al., 2007;  
Han, et al., 2007; 75% Interviews; 
33% Focus groups) 

Mentoring (Volard et al., 1988; 
Downes et al. 2002; Mayrhofer 
and Scullion, 2002; 25% 
Interviews) 

 Flexibility of the client ( Ozorhon et 
al., 2007; 63% Interviews; 67% 
Focus groups) 

Job role design (Black et al., 
1991; 25% Interviews; 67% Focus 
groups) 

 Client’s funding capacity  (Gunhan 
& Arditi,2005;Bing et al., 1999;  
Han, et al., 2007; 50% Interviews; 
67% Focus groups) 

Appointing a local link to deal with 
client & understand local issues 
(Chi & Levitt, 2009; 38% 
Interviews; 33% Focus groups) 

 Introducing new methods, tools and 
techniques (25% Interviews; 33% 
Focus groups) 

Relocation package (Aycan, 1997; 
88% Interviews; 100% Focus 
groups) 

 Dealing with client representatives  
(Han, et al., 2007; 50% Interviews; 
67% Focus groups) 

  Client’s reliability (Baloi and Price; 
2003; 38% Interviews; 33% Focus 
groups) 

  Stakeholders influence on project 
assignments (Bing, et al., 1999;  
Han, et al., 2007; 38% Interviews; 
67% Focus groups) 

  Local business culture and work 
practices (Javernick-Will and Scott, 
2010; 75% Interviews; 100% Focus 
groups) 

  Locals approach to risk 
management (Baloi &Price; 2003; 
25% Interviews; 33% Focus groups) 

  Relationship between the project 
parties (Bing et al., 1999 ; 50% 
interviews; 67% Focus groups) 

  Locals English language skills (Han, 
et al., 2007;  Bing, et al., 1999;38% 
Interviews; 67% Focus groups) 

  Local Bureaucratic Culture (Ling & 
Lim, 2006; 33% Focus groups) 

  Strength of the legal system (Shen, 
et al., 2001; Ling and Low, 2007;  
Ling and Hoang, 2010;  Hall 1996; 
67% Focus groups) 



 
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Konanahalli A et al. (2012) ‘International projects and cross-cultural adjustments of British expatriates in Middle 
East: A qualitative investigation of influencing factors’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 
12 (3) 31-54  

42 

extracts are presented such that none of the above mentioned details are revealed. Figure 2 
represents the hypothetical framework. Following is the discussion on the aforementioned 
sub-set variables; 

 

Organisational Support and Expatriate Adjustment 
Organisational support policies and practices are activities, designed by the parent 
organisation, specifically intended to provide assistance to expatriates working overseas 
(Galarza, 1999).  Construction is a highly cost competitive industry which is also reflected in 
the expatriate management strategies adopted by the AEC firms.  Due to financial costs and 
other constraints associated with family relocation, organisations have a propensity to select 
expatriates who are single or newly married. As a result, expatriate selection is merely based 
on availability and convenience. Most interviews suggested that previous international 
experience was one of the key criteria driving expatriate selection. EG-FG1 had this to say: - 
 

Generally we don’t bring in new people but sometimes we do. New people find it 
tougher than the one's that have experience.  But when it comes to individuals with 
experience, you know they have managed to succeed before in those situations, you 
don’t think much 

 
To address this gap and prepare individuals for future overseas postings, some larger AEC 
organisations run graduate programs, where junior staff work alongside senior expatriates 
on relatively short term assignments. 
 
Another interesting observation made during interviews was the reason why some 
expatriates were accepting international assignments. Slower economic activities and 
shrinking workloads in United Kingdom, suggest that expatriates are either under pressure 
or are left with little choice but to accept the overseas postings, as more and more firms are 
targeting emerging markets or increasing their established presence in those regions. British 
expatriates highlighted attractive relocation packages as one of the potential reason behind 
accepting the assignment. The financial support included tax free salary, bonuses for 
completing the assignment, living allowances and even relaxation leaves.  
 
This study found significant difference in the amount of support provided by the AEC 
organisations to the expatriates and their families.  Some organisations adopted a strong 
take-care policy for personnel management. Support included paying utility bills, school fees, 
rents, setting up contracts for accommodation, medical insurance etc. In some countries 
they will offer cleaner services, cooks and even laundry facilities for single expats or front 
line supervisors. SA-FG3 who did not receive much support from his organisation expressed 
his disappointment over poor HR support: - 

 
Human Resource support did not work very well on this assignment. Initially salaries 
were not paid on time. Also, work permit visas were not sorted even after eight 
months of living in the country. It is all down to poor management  

 
Striking cultural differences between Great Britain and Arab regions suggest that AEC 
organisations could alleviate anxiety by preparing the expatriate and his/her family through 
cultural training. Additional factors highlighted during the interviews, that need organisational 
consideration, include: clarity of job roles and responsibilities, placing excessive work 
demands and mentoring support especially for junior staff. As per the psychological contract 
theory, organisational support enhances commitment and it eases the stress and 
uncertainties experienced by the expatriate (Munton and Foster, 1993) whereas violation will 
result in dissatisfaction and retention problems (Guzzo et al., 1994). Thus, an organisation’s 
support will facilitate all the three aspects of adjustment. 
 
 



 
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East: A qualitative investigation of influencing factors’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 
12 (3) 31-54  

43 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Factors particular to the AEC Industry 
The factors particular to the AEC industry are further classified into work-related issues; 
safety standards; strength of the legal system and bureaucratic culture; job commitment, 
competence of local staff/workforce and client related issues. 
 
Work Related Factors  
Each country has its distinct way of handling AEC operations, ranging from being either 
labour to capital intensive (Cunliffe, 1980). Western expatriates posted to work on such 
assignments need to comprehend that the design standards, systems, tools, techniques and 
labour skills in some cases can be distinctly different from their home country.  Knowledge of 
the working practises and the business culture of the host nation are important to deliver 
assignments within the specified parameters. This is specifically relevant to constructors, 
engineers and designers (Javernick-Will and Scott, 2010). 

Figure 2 Framework for Cross-cultural Adjustment on International Assignments 

(The numbers in the brackets indicate the numbered facet of adjustment to which the variable relates) 

Organisational Factors 
Pre-Assignment 
 Expatriate selection (1,2,3) 
 Free choice (1, 2, 3) 
 Cross-cultural training (2,3) 
 Pre-sojourn visit (1,2,3) 
 Job role design (3) 
 Relocation package (1,3) 

 
During Assignment 
 Training host nationals (2,3) 
 Logistical & Social support (1, 2, 3) 
 Ongoing Head office support (3) 
 Mentoring (2, 3) 
 Organisational culture novelty (3) 
 Appointing a local link to deal with 

the client and understand local 
issues(3) 
 

 

Work/Project related Factors (3) 
 Availability of resources  
 Implementing requirements like 

quality, Health and Safety 
 Local business culture and work 

practices 
 Stakeholders influence on project 

assignments 
 Introducing new methods, tools, 

techniques etc. 
 Handling contract administration issues 
 Complexity of the project assignment 
 Competence of the project parties 
 Relationship between the project 

parties 
 Local bureaucratic culture  
 Strength of the legal system  
Competence and commitment of locals 
 Locals approach to risk management 
 Managing other expatriate groups 
 Job commitment of the locals 
 Locals English language skills  
Client Related Issues 
 Client’s reliability 
 Clients understanding of his/her 

responsibilities 
 Flexibility of the client 
 Client’s funding capacity 
 Dealing with client representatives 

 

CROSS-CULTURAL ADJUSTMENT 

British Expatriate 
posted by the 

organisation on 
International 
Assignment 

1- General Adjustment  
 General living conditions  
 Housing  
 Food 
 Shopping 
 Cost of living 
 Entertainment & recreational 

opportunities 
 Healthcare facilities 

2- Interaction Adjustment 
 Socialising with HCN on day to day 

basis 

 Interacting with HCN outside work 

 Speaking with HCN 
 

 

3- Work Adjustment 
 Specific job responsibilities 
 Performance standards & 

expectation 
 Supervisory responsibility 

 

Non work Factors 
 Family Adjustment (1, 3) 
 Presence of Expat community (1) 
 Cultural Distance (1,2,3) 
 Political stability (1,2,3)  
 Climatic conditions (1, 3) 

 
 

 



 
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East: A qualitative investigation of influencing factors’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 
12 (3) 31-54  

44 

For instance, construction projects in Middle-Eastern countries generally are heavily labour 
intensive and tend to have limited resources in terms of plant, technology and labour skills 
with the productivity of workforces varying greatly. Labour skill levels and ability to deliver the 
finished product were considered to be a challenge and this was echoed in most interviews.  
 
Other factors deducted from the interviews and focus groups were to do with the differences 
in work practices. For instance, in Middle-Eastern countries it is very common for projects to 
run beyond the anticipated time and cost parameters. This could be attributed to various 
reasons such as protracted planning and approval processes, contracts not being taken 
seriously, unsystematic contractor selection, incompetence of project parties, absence of risk 
management plans for the projects, interference from government and other project 
stakeholders, etc. A British Project Manager (UA-IN5) exemplified his experience on 
contractor selection and their competence: - 
 

Contractors with 4 diggers and 20 men are given multi-million pound contracts to 
complete in three years.  He knows he is going to fail before the start of the job.  Also, 
some contractors secure work outside their domain i.e. contractors good at laying 
water mains end up putting in sewer mains... without experience they struggle  

 
As a result of these factors it becomes essential to take into account the local conditions and 
working practices even before preparing the work programs, designs, specifications, etc. If 
these factors are not taken into account, they could adversely affect the delivery of project 
assignments. 

 
Safety Standards 
In United Kingdom particular attention has been given to Health and Safety. This is now 
firmly based within the mainstream British construction industry, but international 
environments vary drastically on safety standards especially in the developing world.  
Therefore an issue of great concern when performing overseas projects, for international 
British contractors, is one of safety standards (Hall, 2000). OM-IN6 highlighted issues with 
safety standards: - 
 

Normal safety standards are difficult to apply sometimes. We made it a very strong 
rule to wear hard hats, high visibility jackets and protective clothing. Otherwise they 
would not do it 

 
Since Health and Safety continues to be a non-existent concept in some regions, enforcing 
and implementing these standards takes a lot of effort thereby resulting in considerable 
delays and additional costs (Mahalingam and Levitt, 2005).  
 
Strength of the Legal System and Bureaucratic Culture 
The environment of the host country has been considered as an element of risk for operating 
AEC assignments. In particular, the legal system demands special attention because it 
dictates the management of claims, disputes, conflicts and any issues related to the contract 
(Ozorhon et al., 2007). An observation by Hall and Jaggar (1996) suggests a scenario which 
has been echoed in most of the interviews. In the Middle-East the application of the contract 
clauses could follow an erratic path. An expatriate consultant may find that, when the client 
fails to keep up with responsibilities, they would tend to put the contract to one side and try 
fixing a deal. On the other hand, if the fault lies with the consultant, the client would not 
hesitate to apply the law against him/her to its maximum advantage. Some companies could 
also end up bargaining (an Arabic practice) and perhaps providing concessions to avoid the 
application of some of the more onerous clauses.  
 



 
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12 (3) 31-54  

45 

Another aspect of the host nation, highlighted during the interviews, was the bureaucratic 
culture within the Middle East (i.e. constant interference by the project stakeholders at every 
project stage).   
 
Job Commitment and Competence of Local Staff / Workforce 
In most cases, it is the local workforce or local staff that actually executes the majority of 
construction/engineering operations. Interestingly, projects in the Middle East are 
characterised by participants from diverse cultural backgrounds. The majority of the 
workforce will come from countries such as, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Philippines, 
China and Thailand (Enshassi and Bugess, 1991). So, apart from dealing with the locals, the 
British expatriates will also have to deal with other nationalities with divergent skills, customs 
and values. 
  
Most expatriates are posted on international operations because there is a lack of expertise 
in that particular area. To deliver assignments in accordance with international best practice 
standards requires assistance and support from the local staff, for instance, in situations 
requiring them to employ new tools and techniques, work longer hours, or even adhere to 
standard working practices such as health and safety measures, or keeping up with a 
business culture.  
 
British expatriates being monochronic (i.e. highly structured and having an organised 
approach to life) have expressed frustration over locals’ flexible, relaxed and indirect 
approach (Loosemore and Muslmani, 1999). A Regional Director (BA-IN4) expressed his 
opinion of some of his local staff: - 
 

The locals are quite resourceful people, but they have their own ways that are difficult 
to understand. They do not come to work on time, it is very hard to understand, how 
can they come to work late daily and think that is not a problem? 

 
English language skills of the locals are advantageous as it eases communication and 
facilitates greater interaction between them and the expatriates. Due to all these factors, the 
competence and commitment of local staff/workforce towards work becomes essential as it 
dictates the successful execution and completion of the assignment, which eventually 
decides how successful the expatriate has been.  
 
Client related Issues 
In some instances the expatriates have to deal with international clients who can be much 
more challenging than with UK clients, the fundamental reason being that the expatriate 
needs to take cultural differences into consideration. These cross-cultural differences often 
lead to misunderstandings, delays and even conflicts on projects as cited by Muslmani and 
Loosemore (1999): -  
 

During the process of claim negotiations between the UK national and the Arab 
clients, tensions could arise between the Arab clients expecting their decisions to be 
accepted and UK expatriate accustomed to challenging and confrontational culture 

 
To be able to clearly understand the local client’s culture, intentions and expectations, British 
AEC firms need to actively invest in bridging the gaps between the expatriate, who is in 
charge of the operation and the client.  Appointing intermediaries was one strategy used by 
some British companies, this link includes local bodies aware of the details and the gaps 
between the two distinct parties who are, at the same time, able to bridge the communication 
between the two (Chi & Levitt, 2009).  
 
Other issues highlighted, with regard to clients, were their reliability, funding capacity, 
flexibility and ability to discharge their part of their responsibilities towards the assignment. 



 
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46 

Additionally, Arab clients appoint a local consultant body between them and the international 
company, which suggests that expatriates/organisations have to deal with another clientele.  
 
All the factors discussed in this section, basically highlight the high job novelty experienced 
by the British expatriates, suggesting that they have to gain new skills and behaviours to 
perform overseas. They are specifically related to the AEC projects, distinctive to this 
industry and potentially exert an influence on adjustment to work and interaction with locals.  
 

Non Work Factors  
Factors listed under this sub-section include: family adjustment, political stability and cultural 
distance between the home and host countries. 
 
Cultural Distance between UK and Arab countries 
A study conducted by Torbion (1982) suggested that expatriates from the western world 
struggled with assignments in India, the Middle East, along with Northern and East African 
countries. Tough living conditions, coupled with poor amenities, harsh climate and divergent 
cultural differences meant these regions were seen as hardship postings. Arab states, which 
are predominantly Islamic, have several practices and codes of conduct that contrast with 
the west. Western expatriates and their families in these locations have to observe caution, 
for instance alcohol cannot be consumed anywhere except for specially licensed places, 
there should be abstinence from public displays of affection and dressing should be modest; 
also homosexuality is completely forbidden. Some British expatriates have expressed their 
initial cultural shock when they had to deal with a 100% male environment in their offices 
and the need to adhere to a dress code for men as well. Also during the holy month of 
Ramadan the local Muslims observe fasting, so care should be taken to be respectful of 
these religious times and observances. KU-IN7 had this to say: - 
 

During Ramadan the locals start off early and leave work early, we as expatriates 
work around these issues and incorporate them within our work routine and avoid 
scheduling meetings or discussions later in the day 

 
Recent times have seen these oil regions grow dramatically with remarkable improvements 
to living, healthcare, educational and infrastructure facilities. As a result, a vast majority of 
the expatriates and their families have expressed their satisfaction with living and working 
conditions in the Middle-East. Also the presence of large expatriate communities (from all 
parts of world) was considered to be an added bonus as interaction with locals was limited.  
As a result, cultural distance potentially affects expats and his/her family's adjustment to the 
host country. 
 
Political Stability of the Host Country 
Political instability in Middle-Eastern regions due to dictatorships has put serious constraints 
on the lifestyles of expatriates and their families. Prior awareness of the social and political 
situations is necessary to be able to make accurate anticipatory adjustments and to develop 
a realistic picture of the host country. Interviews with British expatriates in the Middle East, 
suggest that the recent wave of protests which has erupted across Middle Eastern and North 
African states have considerably put a halt on daily business interactions and general 
lifestyles of expatriates and their families. In some instances the company had to close 
operations and request expatriates to return home until life in the region has returned to 
normalcy. 
   
Therefore, various non-work factors discussed in this section will significantly affect an 
expatriate’s general, interaction and work adjustment. 

 



 
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12 (3) 31-54  

47 

Conclusion 
The current study qualitatively explored the influence of organisational, work and non-work 
factors on the three facets of adjustment of British expatriate's posted on international 
assignments in the Middle Eastern regions. This study has been able to contribute to 
knowledge in two ways, firstly by exploring a sample of British expatriates within the AEC 
sector, and secondly this study has produced a comprehensive framework for expatriate 
adjustment applicable to British construction professionals in these countries.  
 
Most expatriates and organisations take cross-cultural adjustment for granted, the review 
however suggests that AEC based assignments in Middle East are composed of highly 
diverse teams with differing backgrounds, cultures, languages, etc., which creates numerous 
obstacles for British expatriates. Great Britain is a most individualistic country. In Britain, 
individual initiative and achievement is stressed, competition is encouraged over co-
operation, and individual decision making is valued (Samovar and Porter 2004). So, when 
British expatriates work on assignments in collectivistic Middle Eastern regions, cultural 
characteristics and practices of these societies present themselves as major hurdles. For 
instance, the review suggests that on the work front, most British expatriates could not 
understand the reasons why locals awarded contracts, promoted their relatives and 
members of their extended family.  
 
The literature review and exploratory interviews highlight cross-cultural adjustment as one of 
the biggest challenges facing British expatriates in these regions. In Arab countries one 
comes across a culture that is vastly different to that of Great Britain. Instances reveal that 
being unaware of the protocols in the Arab world could have devastating consequences for 
the expatriate and his/her family. The interviews also established that the current political up-
rising in Middle East has been a cause of great concern and has seriously affected their 
movement. Due to its complexity, they need well-rounded support from their employer rather 
than just targeted support (Takeuchi et al., 2009).  
 
On the work front, AEC assignments in the Middle East are deeply influenced by indigenous 
business and work practices of the host nation. For instance, striking contrasts exist between 
British and Arab countries in terms of time keeping, negotiation styles, approaches to 
conflict, business culture, etc. Since these differences in work culture become apparent in 
every aspect of the business, in-depth understanding of the local environment is crucial 
(Kangari and Lucas, 1997). British AEC organisations could address the knowledge gaps 
and uncertainties associated with international assignments firstly, by employing a 
comprehensive selection procedure, going beyond technical skills and including factors such 
as intercultural skills and previous international experience. Offering cultural training prior to 
departure is also very important. Therefore, organisations should take up this initiative to 
invest resources and adopt a support policy not only for the expatriate but also for his/her 
family members. Organisations that take up this initiative of identifying and developing their 
employees’ skills, are generally blessed with loyal and responsible employees (Griffith, 1998; 
Welch, 2003). This will empower the individual with a clear understanding of international 
assignment (McCauhey and Bruning, 2005).    
 
Since nothing much can be done to improve the conditions of the host nations, in such 
circumstances organisational human resource managers must be extra vigilant and offer 
enough support to the expatriate and his/her family. If the British AEC sector is to reap the 
benefits of successful expatriation and its associated benefits, it needs to adopt a holistic 
approach by taking active interest in their staff working overseas. A survey by 
PriceWaterCoopers (2011) also reiterates that though many engineering and construction 
companies acknowledge the importance of international mobility and management of their 
talent, very few have developed a systematic approach to link the two aspects. As 
highlighted by Hall, (1996) multi-national companies in sectors such as manufacturing, 



 
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12 (3) 31-54  

48 

information technology and the retail Industry have well developed systems along with policy 
and procedures, inferences could be taken from these evolved sectors and tailored to suit 
the AEC industry. 
 

Limitations of the Study 
The interpretation of the findings of this study should consider the following limitations. 
Firstly, the data has been collected from British expatriates working in seven (Qatar, Egypt, 
Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Oman and Bahrain) of the twenty Middle 
Eastern countries. There could be some constraints with regards to the generalizability of 
our findings for British expatriates working in other Middle Eastern countries. Also, the data 
has been collected from expatriates living and working in only in large Middle Eastern cities 
(Doha, Riyadh, Jeddah, Cairo, Kuwait city, Manama, Dubai, Abu Dhabi etc.). The reason for 
the selection of these locations is that most international A/E/C companies are located in 
these business cities. Thus, expatriates in remote cities or underdeveloped middle eastern 
countries may have somewhat different perceptions from expatriates in big and developed 
cities or countries. Therefore, the findings may not be generalizeable for the whole of Middle 
East.  
 
The second potential limitation is the representation of the professional backgrounds of the 
participants, though every attempt was made by the researchers to ensure uniformity. Most 
of the participants held managerial positions like; regional managers, country managers, 
project managers, H&S managers etc. This could be due to the fact that expatriates are sent 
abroad to fill in high level managerial jobs that demand managing the local work force 
(Earley and Ang, 2003).  
 
The third limitation of the study is related to the small sample size. Even though there is a 
sizeable British population working in Middle East, information on AEC expatriates was hard 
to collect. Also, a substantial portion of this population comprises of self initiated expatriates, 
who were beyond the scope of this study. Nevertheless, the extensive interviews and focus 
group discussions did provide a snapshot of the realities of the challenges faced by British 
expatriates with regards to adjustment in both work and non work situations.  
 

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