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Abstract
This work is “Communicating Femaleness in Communalism” Human beings made up of 
males and females live together in our communities and communicate to be understood. 
Communication lends itself to essentially two modes, that is, the linguistic and paralinguistic 
modes. Through these two modes, maleness and femaleness are communicated. The notion of 
maleness or femaleness is due to ideas and practices attached to them in these communities. 
Femaleness is communicated in subordination to maleness. Communicating femaleness in 
subordination to maleness is a problem because it portrays the females as entities who cannot 
function effectively without support from the males. The aim of this study therefore, is to find 
out how femaleness is communicated in our communities against the backdrop of maleness 
that showcases subordination of the females. Survey design is adopted for the study while, Karl 
Marx's Class distinction theory is used for data analysis. A total of three plays; Ome ihe jide 
ofo (OIJQ), Nke m ji ka (NMJK), and Nwata rie awo (NRA), were used for data analysis. The 
study discovered that femaleness is communicated in communalism in subordination to 
maleness through morphological process, female names and naming and female related 
figures of thoughts. The study recommends that femaleness should be fairly and on the strength 
of the female be communicated and not in subordination to maleness as shown in their names 
and naming.   

Keywords: Female, Femaleness, Communalism, Communication.

Introduction
The notion that men and women come from different planets, with each having its own culture 
has in recent time been discussed and argued. Gray (1992:108), avers, “Most common 
relationship problems between men and women are a result of fundamental psychological 
differences between the sexes which the author exemplified by means of its eponymous 
metaphor: that men and women are from distinct planets-men from Mars and women from 
Venus”. He goes on to say that each sex is acclimated to its own planet's society and customs, 
but not to those of the other. All the same, fact remains that men and women grow up in the 
same planet-earth and, interact on daily basis.

In looking at linguistics communication differences between men and women, one has 
to be very careful. It is a wrong assumption that all men communicate in the same manner. 
Same is the case with women. 
There are some notable differences in the linguistic communication patterns of the males and 
the females. For women, talk is the essence of relationships. Consistent with this primary goal, 
women's speech tends to display identifiable features that foster connections, support, 
closeness, and understanding. For men, talk essence is to exert control, preserve 
independence, give advice, and enhance status (Labov, 1972).   

NSOLIBE, OBIAGELI THERESA Ph.D 
Department of Linguistics/Igbo, 

Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, University
Igbariam Campus

Email Address: ot.nsolibe@coou.edu.ng
Telephone Nos: 08035795591, 09014029075 

COMMUNICATING FEMALENESS IN COMMUNALISM: 
A STUDY OF THREE SELECTED PLAYS



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Equality between people is generally important in women's communication (Aries, 
1987). To achieve symmetry, women often match experiences to indicate “You're not alone in 
how you feel.” Typical ways to communicate equality would be saying, “I've done the same 
thing many times,” “I've felt the same way,” or “Something like that happened to me too and I 
felt like you do” (Hall & Langellier, 1988). Rather than a rigid you-tell-your-ideas-then-I'll-
tell-mine sequence, women's speech more characteristically follows an interactive pattern in 
which different voices weave together to create conversations. But men, like to monopolise 
conversation to show control and exercise power. He is likely to say, “I did it my own way”, 
I've never felt that way” or “It has never happened to me.”

Also important in women's speech is showing support for others. To demonstrate 
support, women often express understanding and sympathy with a friend's situation or 
feelings. Men lack these qualities. They are impatient and unsympathetic to show manliness 
and not weakness. To demonstrate understanding and support, women may use “Oh, you must 
feel terrible,” “I really hear what you are saying,” or “I think you did the right thing” as 
communicative clues that we understand and support how another feels. Related to these first 
two features is women's typical attention to the relationship level of communication (Wood, 
1993a, 1993b; Wood & Inman, 1993). You will recall that the relationship level of talk focuses 
on feelings and the relationship between communications rather than on the content of 
messages. In conversations between women, it is common to hear a number of questions that 
probe for better understanding of feelings and perceptions surrounding the subject of talk 
(Beck, 1988, pp. 104; Tannen, 1990b). “Tell me more about what happened,” “How did you 
feel when it occurred?” “Do you think it was deliberate?” “How does this fit into the overall 
relationship?” are probes that help a listener understand a speaker's perspective. The content of 
talk is dealt with, but usually not without serious attention to the feelings involved.

Another feature of women's speech style is conversational “maintenance work” (Beck, 
1988; Fishman, 1978). This involves efforts to sustain conversation by inviting others to speak 
and by prompting them to elaborate their experiences. Women, for instance, ask a number of 
questions that initiate topics for others: “How was your day?” “Tell me about your meeting,” 
“Did anything interesting happen on your trip?” Communication of this sort opens the 
conversational door to others and maintains interaction. Men do not have this quality for he 
will see such questions as waste of time because the day has come and gone. Even when he is 
asked such questions, his answer may kill the conversation. His answer to “How was your 
day?” may be “Well, like others” When such answer is given, it shows lack of interest. 

Women usually respond in some fashion to what others say and this is inclusivity. It is 
also another women's speech style which is responsiveness (Beck, 1988; Tannen, 1990a, 
1990b; (Wood, 1993a). A woman might say “Tell me more” or “That's interesting”; perhaps 
she will nod and use eye contact to signal she is engaged; perhaps she will ask a question such 
as “Can you explain what you mean?” Responsiveness reflects learned tendencies to care 
about others and to make them feel valued and included (Kemper, 1984; Lakoff, 1975). It 
affirms another person and encourages elaboration by showing interest in what was said.

Another women's style of speech is that it is personal and concrete (Campbell, 1973; 
Hall & Langellier, 1988; Tannen, 1990b). Typical of women's conversation are details, 
personal disclosures, anecdotes and concrete reasoning. These features cultivate a personal 
tone in women's communication, and they facilitate feelings of closeness by connecting 
communicator's lives. Men don't divulge anything personal about themselves in conversation. 
They feel exposed if this is done.

Women's communication also has the quality of tentativeness. They may express this 



in a number of ways. Sometimes, they use verbal hedges such as “I kind of feel you may be 
overreacting.” In other situations, they qualify statements by saying “I'm probably not the best 
judge of this, but…” Talk can be made provisional by tagging a question onto a statement in a 
way that invites another to respond: “That was a pretty good movie, wasn't it?” “We should get 
out this weekend, don't you think?” Tentative communication leaves open the door for others 
to respond and express their opinion. 

There has been controversy about tentativeness in women's speech. Lakoff (1975), 
who first noted that women use more hedges, qualifiers, and tag questions than men, claimed 
these represent lack of confidence and uncertainty. Calling women's speech powerless, Lakoff 
argued that it reflects women's socialization into subordinate roles and self-esteem. Since 
Lakoff's work, however, other scholars (Bate, 1988; Wood & Lenze, 1991b) have suggested 
different explanations of women's tentative style of speaking. Spender (1984a), in particular, 
points out that Lakoff's judgements of the inferiority of women's speech were based on using 
male speech as the standard, which does not recognize the distinctive validity of different 
speech communities. Rather than reflecting powerlessness, the use of hedges, qualifiers, and 
tag questions may express women's desires to keep conversation open and to include others.

Men on the other hand, use such speech styles as to exert control, preserve 
independence, give advice, and enhance status. For them, conversation is an arena for proving 
oneself and negotiating prestige (Tannen, 1990b). To establish their own status and value, men 
often speak to exhibit knowledge, skills, or ability. Equally typical, is the tendency to avoid 
disclosing personal information that might make a man appear weak or vulnerable (Derlega & 
Chaiken, 1976; Lewis & McCarthy, 1988; Saurer & Eisler, 1990). For instance, if someone 
expresses concern about a relationship with a boyfriend, a man might say “The way you should 
handle that is…,” “Don't let him get to you,” or “You ought to just tell him…” This illustrates 
the tendency to give advice that Tannen reports is common in men's speech. On relationship 
level of communication, giving advice does two things. First, it focuses on instrumental 
activity-what another should do or be- and does not acknowledge feelings. Second, it 
expresses superiority and maintains control. It says “I would know how to handle that.” The 
message may be perceived as implying the speaker is superior to the other person. Between 
men, advice giving seems understood as a give-and-take, but it may be interpreted as unfeeling 
and condescending by women whose rules for communication differ.

Another feature of men's speech style is instrumentalitythe use of speech to accomplish 
instrumental objectives. Men are socialised to do things, achieve goals (Bellinger & Gleason, 
1982). In conversation, this is often expressed through problem-solving efforts that focus on 
getting information, discovering facts, and suggesting solutions. The above speech styles of 
men and women stated above show that there are marked differences between each sexes' 
speech style. 
                    
Female and Femaleness 
The word 'female' is from the Latin word 'femela' meaning the familiar form of femina 
meaning “woman”. In the 14th century, the English spelling of 'femele' was altered so that the 
word paralleled the spelling of 'male' (Sparks, 1976: 27). The female is “an individual of sex 
that bears young” or “that produces ova or eggs” while the male is “the sex that produces small, 
typically mobile gametes especially spermatozoa, which a female may be fertilised with” 
(Anderson 1983:16). The female can be defined by physical appearance, by chromosome 
constitution or by gender identification and roles (William, 2018: 19).  I see a female as one 

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who has the God given role, to bear children, run a home and be subjective to her husband.
In support of the definition of female according to gender identification, Marx and 

Engels (1977:21) say, “Sometime in pre-history, women and men were equal. Engels (1977) 
assumes that the division of labour between men (as breadwinner) and women (as 
domesticated wives and mothers) had always existed for they play different roles. The reason, 
he said, for women staying at home may be contextual. The woman may be in neo-natal after 
child birth or may be nursing a child or may be cooking for the family, while the man in the 
context is outside the home looking for what to sustain the family with.

Defining femaleness according to physical appearance shows females as having 
physical features   differentiating them from males. Females have heart-shaped faces against 
males' square faces; males have Adam's apple while females don't have; males are hairy while 
females are not; females have vagina and ovaries while males have penis and testes as sex 
organs. Females are curvy in shape while males are muscular (Natalie, 2012:12). Another way 
of defining femaleness is through chromosome constitution. Chromosome involves thread-
like molecules that carry hereditary information for everything from height to eye colour 
(Szalay, 2018). Females have two “xx” chromosomes which are constant while, males have 
two chromosomes also, but theirs is “xy”. The sex of a baby depends on the male chromosome 
released to fuse with the “x” chromosome released by the female. If he releases “x” 
chromosome, the baby will be female, but if he releases “y” chromosome, the baby will be a 
male.    

Femaleness is the fact or quality of being female, while, maleness is the fact or quality 
of being male. Maleness or femaleness vary from culture to culture and is defined socially. In 
some societies, males play roles that differ from those of the females because, each have ideas 
and practices attached to them. They include--separation of the work place from the domestic 
space which, was accompanied by the notion that woman is suited to separate spheres and, that 
a woman's place was in the home and, the man's place outside; cultural practices like dietary 
preferences. For instance, in Igbo society in the past, a child should not eat egg, a woman 
should not eat gizzard and chicken vent; religious and spiritual practices; childcare practices; 
and medical treatment practices (Davidoff and Hall, 1987). However, males and females 
should play different but complementary roles in order to promote the well-being of the family 
in particular and the society at large (Nwankwo, 2020: 44). In support of this view, 
Chukwukere (1995), contends that modernization has weakened bonds and emancipated the 
African woman in particular and women in general, giving them some powers, choices and 
some initiatives. Taiwo and Akin-Aina (1999), see the idea of maleness and femaleness as 
social differences that have wide variation within and between cultures, which can change 
over time.

Communalism 
Communalism is a pervasive phenomenon in the public life of people living in communities 
(Krishna, 1985:1). According to Shaheen (2017, 11): “If a person is deprived of his or her 
rights or privileges, just on the basis of his or her community, this is communalism.” He 
continues by saying that communalism as an ideology may be perceived as: (a) A total 
commitment to a set of beliefs, (b) Far from rationality, (c) Committing of self to the 
community alone (d) Unwillingness to accept other belief patterns and faiths, (e) Closing of 
self and being highly emotional to it, to the extent of crossing the bounds of law at times. 
Contrary to Shaheem's belief, Book chin (2010), avers that communalism is a system that 
integrates communal ownership and federations of highly localized independent 
communities. In other words, males and females belonging to individual community partake 



in whatever that is going on in the community including how they communicate maleness and 
femaleness. 

Morgan (1972) says that the term 'communalism' was first used by the British colonists 
to describe the situation of colonies like India and Malaysia, where religious minority existed 
alongside a religious majority. The colonial use of the word gave it a negative connotation of 
bigotry, divisiveness and parochialism, thus helping to justify the colonial civilisation mission.  
Place of this study is Africa (Igbo) and as such we need to define communalism as Africa sees 
and lives it. According to Ikuenobe (2006, 39), “African communalism refers to the traditional 
way rural areas of Africa have been functioning in the past.” He says that African 
communalism is a moral doctrine that also values human dignity, rights, and responsibilities. 
The features of African communal societies in the past are the existence of classes, which are 
social stratification, trust, security, communion and the fact that strong family and kinship ties 
form the basis of social life. But today there exist sharp class distinction, lack of trust, 
insecurity, lack of communion and strong family kinship ties as basis for social life 
(Onwubiko. 1991:13).  Groups of individuals making up communities consist of males and 
females who co-exist and communicate to produce communal bonding. They have different 
ways of communicating femaleness and maleness. For better understanding of how 
femaleness is communicated in communalism, we need to understand what communication is.

Communication
Schmitz (2012), says that communication is the act of giving, receiving or exchanging 
information, ideas and opinions so that the message is completely understood by both parties. 
Contributing,  Applebaum (1975) avers that communication is the imparting, conveying, 
sending or exchanging of ideas or knowledge by speech, writing or signs. All human beings 
communicate in order to be understood and their intentions and desires known and met. 
Supporting this notion, Mac-Bride (1981, 127) says, “Communication maintains and animates 
life and it is the motor and expression of social activity, cultural activity and civilization. It 
leads people from instincts to inspiration through variegated processes and systems of enquiry, 
command and control. It creates a common pool of ideas, strengthens the feeling of 
togetherness through exchange of messages and translates through exchange, reflecting every 
emotion and need from the humblest tasks of human survival to supreme manifestation of 
creativity or destruction.”

Communication is also the sending and the receiving of messages, which is essential to 
all social life and cultural systems, so much so that, it is often taken in anthropological theory to 
be paradigm of all cultures and all social organisation (Seymour-Smith, 1986). According to 
Seymour-Smith (1986), communication exists in two modes-the symbolic and the substantive. 
Symbolic mode is the verbal mode and it involves words in spoken or written language while 
the substantive mode involves nonverbal communication with concrete materials and 
substances.

Female communication patterns in communalism are both linguistically and para-
linguistically. Linguistic mode of communication implies a systemic means of communication 
by the use of sounds or conventional symbols. Para-linguistic or nonverbal communication 
involves nonverbal speech sounds or conventional symbols. For expression to be para-
linguistic, it must be culturally determined, nonverbal and an integral part of conversational 
transaction and is also consciously controlled (Weitz, 1974: 56).  Femaleness and even 
maleness have their various ways of being communicated vis-a-vis their differences in terms 
of subject matter expressed through morphological processes, names and naming and related 
figures of thought, and this is tagged gender communication. We are going to look at how 

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femaleness is communicated linguistically in communalism using some selected texts for 
illustration.

In the process of communication, males and females, children and adults are involved. 
Olaoye (1998:183) says, “One communicates in line with the specific, social and cultural 
identity one acquires in the process of socialization and is able to respond to such an identity''. 
Speech community as a specific geographical entity where particular communications take 
place as different from other entities comprises both male and female members. Various 
gender studies have shown that men and women play different roles in society which implies 
that their information and communication needs are different though, synergistic in effect 
(Southerner, 1991, Sigot, 1995). Similarly, the style of communication within a given 
community is affected by the gender factor among things like age, occupation etc. This lends 
credence to the idea that maleness and femaleness are communicated using different styles. 

In the socialization process (while in conversation), women see the world as a 
community to concentrate on their connections as negotiations for closeness in which 
individuals try seeking and giving confirmation, support, and to reach a consensus (Tannen, 
1993). In Harlow's (1967) view, he says that there are both communication successes and 
failure and a lot of factors are responsible for them. Such factors include social class, age and 
gender. Relating to social balance of power is a speech style characteristic of females where 
certain speech acts is used. According to Zimin (1981), the amount of speech produced in 
communication which Shaw and Sadler (1965), posit, is influenced by the nature of the speech 
task which, may be as a result of the cultural, social, and political realities of a male-dominant 
society. The African mode of communication involves the use of oral art forms like myths, 
proverbs, song, and folktales. Achebe (1976), supports this when he points out that the African 
mode of communication with particular reference to Igbo, is such that since the Igbo do not 
construct a rigid and closely argued system of thought to explain the universe and the place of 
man in it, preferring the metaphor of myth and poetry, anyone seeking an insight into their 
world must seek it along their own way. Some of these ways include the folktales, proverbs, 
proper names, rituals and festivals and, he favours men against women in his choice of words 
in these ways. Women aware of their lowly position in the society, develop expressions (verbal 
and non-verbal) for defining separate subordinated selves. Igbo women for example, verbalize 
their separateness with the expression, ‘Xwa xmxnwaanyi’ (The world of women or women's 
world) and a term that signifies separation from the main stream, which is the male world 
(Okafor, 2002).  In most cases, African women communicate their world views through oral 
art forms like proverbs, folktales, songs, poetry etc. Oral art form indeed encodes 
separateness, not on the horizontal level of equivalence but on the vertical gradation in which 
women occupy the lower level, as well as the spherical in which they occupy the margins. 
Nnaemeka (1996) in Ikeokwu (2013, 27), accuses Achebe of using language as a means of 
objectifying and demeaning women, while elevating men. According to him, a look at Things 
Fall Apart and Arrow of God sees women…being scolded and beaten before they disappear 
behind the huts.  
All the above discussions showcase the fact that there exist different ways of communicating 
femaleness from those of the male gender.

Theoretical Framework
Based on the projection that femaleness is communicated in subordination to maleness 
through morphological processes, female names and naming, and female related figures of 
thought, we see that femaleness is mediated through the features of language, cultural system, 
and ideologies. According to gender communicative theories of Lakoff's (1975) 'dominance', 



men use language to keep women in control and in a subordinate position. Women's use of non-
assertive pattern of language supports male dominance and control of power. For instance, a 
man might say commandingly, let's leave this place, but a woman will ask it suggestively, shall 
we leave this place. Lakoff (1975), concludes that women use hedges more often than men. 
Women do this because they are afraid of being seen as behaving in a masculine way, by being 
assertive and saying things directly. Communication style as the basis of linguistic analysis 
becomes here a process that describes how femaleness is communicated in communalism.

Styles of communicating femaleness in communalism show that women are seen as 
subordinate to men, sex who cannot stand on their own and function effectively. This shows 
class distinction. To investigate this female subordination, Karl Marx's Class Distinction 
Theory is required. 

Marxian class theory asserts that, an individual's position within a class hierarchy is 
determined by their role in the production process, and argues that any political and ideological 
consciousness is determined by class position. A class is those who share common interest (in 
this case language), are conscious of those interests, and engage in collective action which 
advances those interests. Within Marxian class theory, the structure of the production process 
forms the basis of class construction. To Marx, a class is a group with intrinsic tendencies and 
interests that differ from those of other groups within society, the basis of a fundamental 
antagonism between such groups. For instance, it is for the females' best interest to use 
language equally to describe maleness and femaleness in communalism and not using 
language to describe femaleness in subordination to maleness thereby creating antagonism 
within the two groups—males and females.

Karl Marx's Class Distinction Theory (C.F 1988) is about the role of class struggle and 
class conflict. In this work, class distinction is between the males and the females (Upper class-
males and lower class-females). He is of the view that society operates as an organic system. 
He believes in its analysis on insatiability of the society through dissension due to inherent 
contradiction in class society. It is sometimes regarded as an aspect of conflict theory of the 
society because it tries to assert and actualize self as women are trying to do.

Communicating Femaleness in Communalism: A Study of Three Selected Plays
Communicating femaleness in communalism is looked at under the morphological device 
existing in them, female names and naming, and female figures of thought. The mode of 
expression through which femaleness is communicated in communalism is dealt with both in 
individual and group perspectives. For proper understanding, femaleness communication 
should be treated alongside that of maleness as illustrated below.

The Morphological Speech Patterns
Morphological speech patterns communicating femaleness are linguistic elements that bring 
about change in the meaning of people's speech through the presence of certain syllables or 
words showing femaleness. It involves the analysis and description of the structure of speech 
portraying female in a given language's morphemes. Other linguistic units such as root words, 
affixes, parts of speech, tone/intonation or implied context of femaleness are analysed as 
opposed to those speech patterns portraying maleness.
In Igbo language, we have the fusional/agglutinative type of morphological speech pattern that 
use bound morphemes as against some languages that use analytic type of morphological 
speech pattern.

In the plays under study, there are morphological entries to mark femaleness such as 

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'nye/nyi'(nwunye/nwaany[) wife/woman, and 'nne ' -mother as opposed to 
'ke/ko'(nwoke/nwoko)- in Ome Ihe Jide qfq (OIJQ) to express motherhood 'nne g[' your mother 
'nne anyi' our mother  (OIJQ 13,15). In Nwata Rie Awq (NRA), we have 'nne Obiqma' 
Obiqma's mother NRA (34) 'nne anyi' our mother (34), 'nne' mother (35), 'Nne' here is also used 
to mark motherhood.

There are places 'nne' is used to mark femaleness for things not human. For instance, in 
NRA, we have 'nne ewu' female goat (16). But we don't have 'nna ewu' male goat rather, 'mkpi'. 
This is an example of subjugating women. Nothing stops it from being called 'nna ewu' Goat is 
an animal termed to be stupid and men see women as not intelligent. Calling 'she goat' nne ewu 
is to bring home the fact that they see women as those whose thinking and acting ability is 
below that of the men.

'Nne' also occur in associative construction with 'ada', 'nwa' or its plural 'xmx'. For 
instance, 'adanne'- mother's first daughter. OIJQ (3 & 62), 'nwanne' my sister/brother, NRA 
(16 & 18). 'adanne' in Nke M Ji Ka(NMJK), (11,18 & 43). Using 'nne' in associative 
construction with 'qkpara'-first son to show maleness like in qkpara nne, we have two words instead 
of one as is the case in fussional/agglutinative language.T his is a case of departure from the rule of the 
language structure and subordinating the female, showing that she cannot stand on her own.

Nne' can also co-occur with other morphemes or words apart from 'ada' and 'nwa' or its plural 
from. For instance, 'ikwu' 'ochie' and 'qkpara' like in: 'Ikwunne' mother's relative, OIJQ (1 & 34), 
'Nneochie' Grandmother (NMJK:40 & 50), 'Qkparanne'-mother's first son, NMJK (11 & 18). In 
writing these words of illustration, they all show fusional morphemes in communicating 
femaleness. In communicating maleness, we have them same as those of the females-ikwunna' 
father's relative, 'nnaochie' grandfather, but differs in 'qkpara nna' –father's first son. This is also a 
cases departure from the language structure rule and also communicating femaleness in 
subordination to maleness.

Apart from the female markers mentioned above used in communicating femaleness 
in communalism, there are other female markers such as.
'
vDaa/daada' respectable name for female elder as opposed to 'dee/deede' respectable 

name for male elder. It is found in NMJK: (12).
'
v‘Oriakx’ respectable name given to all married women as opposed to ‘Maazi’ for all 

married men. OIJQ (18). The name 'Oriaku' meaning 'one who enjoys her husband's 
wealth', shows that a woman's name reflects her husband's superior position in her life.

v‘Lqqlq’ an address name given to a king's wife as opposed to 'Eze/Igwe' given to king. 
NMJK (4&6), OIJQ: (45). The man's title here signifies that he is mighty and the 
woman's title shows that she is under the man as she cannot be  ‘lqqlq’ unless married to 
the king.

vEze/Igwe' given to king. NMJK (4 & 6), OIJQ: (45). 

Female Names and Naming 
A name is a word by which a person, place or thing is identified. Although all cultures use 
names, naming varies greatly from people to people to communicate maleness and 
femaleness. Traditional African given names often reflect the circumstances at the time of 
birth like the day (1970:295), says, “In Igbo language and, indeed, most African languages, 



names and concepts are integrated with other cultural practices and customs”.
In some Igbo towns, such as Nnokwa, Ogidi etc., names describe the order in which 

siblings are born. That is why the Igbo people have such female names like 'Adaobi' 'the first 
daughter of the family', 'Adanna' the first daughter of the father, 'Qbianuju' a daughter who 
comes into a family in the midst of many other siblings. These female names communicate 
femaleness. We do not have 'qkparaobi' as first son of the family, 'qkparanna' as one word showing 
the first son of the father, rather we have 'qkpara nna', two words and not as names. We do not have 
'qkparanuju' a son who comes into a family in the midst of many other siblings. Some of these names 
communicating femaleness in communalism portray females as subordinated to males.

Proper Names 
Looking at the names given to female characters in the text under study and their style of 
naming to communicate femaleness, we see that the names are identified in terms of their 
husbands' or fathers' as in Ome ihe jide qfq (OIJQ) where the name 'Ochediye' means husband's 
seat. This exhibits degradation of the female because, she is referred to as chair the husband 
seats on. In Nwata rie awq (NRA), the name 'Obiqma' means 'good heart' shown in the bearer's 
disposition towards the husband 'Awqrq' despite his maltreatment of her. Femaleness is 
communicated here as someone who is foolish and can take any insult meted out on her. In Nke 
m ji ka (NMJK), we have the name 'Ihuakx' 'face of wealth'. The wealth of course, is for the 
father who sees the female child as one who when she gets married, brings in wealth into the 
family. Femaleness communicated her shows that the female child is not a permanent member 
of the family of her birth as the male child, and also a source of wealth.

Addresses Portraying Femaleness 
Female address names are the names used to address the females as well as communicate 
femaleness, especially in both the immediate and extended families to show love, recognition, 
respect, displeasure and/or intimacy. In the three texts under study, there are some of these 
addresses communicating femaleness and what they portray. Thus: NRA 'nne' (34), is used in a 
sarcastic manner as an address name. Ekemma called Obiqma “nne” when she is advising her 
to settle down with Anene, her last suitor and, stop being so selective or she will get into 
trouble. 'Nne' is used here to communicate that women are inconsistent, which is a slight to 
women. In NMJK (12), 'Adanne m' is used as an address name by Eze Onyekwere to address 
his sister showing love and respect. 'Adanne di m' (13) this is used by Ugochi to the husband's 
sister to show recognition and respect. 'Qkpara nne Ugochi' in used to address Ugochi, Eze 
Onyekwere's wife's elder brother by Eze Onyekwere's elder sister to show anger.  His sister 
rejecting what Eze Onyekwere said; says that, it is Ugochi's brother that will die. Eze 
Onyekwere's elder sister's speech is a curse. In all the places where 'nne' is used above for 
illustrations, they are bound morphemes except where it is referring to a male, as in 'qkpara nne 
Ugochi' where it did not follow the rule of agglutination/fusion. 

There are also some female derogatory names used to communicate femaleness in the 
texts under study. For instance, in OIJQ (14) &NMJK (42), we have 'Oke nwaanyi' Mighty 
wife/ her majesty. In OIJQ, Ochediye, Nkwonta's mother, is making a mockery of Xbaji's 
intending wife, Adak?, who, if the intending husband, Ubaji, is made the king, will 
automatically become the queen. Ochediye is mocking Adak? because, she has no intention of 
allowing Xbaji to be made the king, not to talk of Adak? becoming the queen. Here, despite the 
fact that the name 'Oke nwaany?' is used derogatorily showing that she should not act like a 
man.  'Oke' is communicating femaleness but, the words are two still as if it is communicating 
maleness. This time it did not follow the usual style because the female is given the quality of a 
male. This exhibits female insult. In NMJK, Eze Onyekwere addresses his wife, Ugochi like 
that because, she came back to his house after the abomination of going to the whiteman's 

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church to be baptized,
In NRA (19), Duru is telling Obidike, Awqrq's father that their king wants him, 

Obidike, to tell the son,  Awqrq, to come and wrestle with Akatoosi from Amaudele to save 
them from disgrace. Akataoosi challenging them calls them 'ibiliachi' meaning useless women 
because he feels that none of the men can challenge him. 'Ibiliachi' is a woman of the age of 
menopause, and regarded as a man, and as of no use as a woman as she has passed the age of 
child bearing. It is used in this context as showing the uselessness of the people of Amangwu. 
'Ibiliachi' is used to communicate femaleness showing women's uselessness once they attain 
the age of menopause. This is an insult to females and, it is a way of showing that men are 
ageless who continue to function till they die.

Female Honorific Names
Female honorific names refer to the names that communicate femaleness designating females' 
titles, or marital status, or other qualifications acquired through cultural or social processes. 
Honorific address is divided into two-the non-conferred type and the conferred type.
The non-conferred honorific female addresses are those addresses socially conferred on the 
female sex to communicate femaleness by virtue of their being females. They abound in some 
of the texts under study. For instance, in NRA (38), 'Oriakx m'- my wife, meaning one who 
enjoys my wealth. The name is used here to communicate the fact that he, the man, provides 
for the woman and that the woman cannot fend for herself. NMJK (12). 'Daa(da) Qgqqma'- 
auntie Qgqqma. Daada is used here to show respect which if not shown, will ignite the woman's 
anger. It also communicates the fact that women are easily angered and that they attach importance 
to being respected. (54), 'nne any[' (Ihuakx) our mother (Ihuakx). 'Nne any[' is used here to show 
seniority and respect. Itcommunicates femaleness as people who likes their seniority to respected 
by those under them (other females she is senior to and children). We also have conferred honorific 
addresses communicating femaleness in the texts under study. Conferred honorific female 
addresses have social or religious or political insignia attached to them depending on the body 
that did the conferment. Such addresses are 'Lqqlq Eze' address for the king's wife conferred 
socially in OIJQ (14), NMJK (23). The titles are dependent on the males/husbands of the 
bearers. This is so because a woman cannot be 'Lqqlq Eze' without being married to the king 
and this shows subordination. 

Female Related Figures of Thought
A figure of thought is a figurative expression that depends for its effect less on the choice 
arrangement of words than on the meaning(s) conveyed. The method of presentation is 
different from what a person might consider 'ordinary'. A figure of thought usually makes 
some connections to a person's sense of logic or emotion and often implies more than what is 
actually said. It forces the listener or reader to draw on his own experience and culture for 
meaning. Such figures of thought include metaphor, humor and euphemism. They are found in 
the texts under study communicating femaleness.

Female Related Metaphor 
Metaphor is a speech device that compares two objects or things without using the word 'like' 
or 'as'. For instance, Shakespeare's 'As You Like It' has this famous metaphor; 'All the world's a 
stage. And all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and entries.' The 
'world' is metaphorically called 'stage'. Literally, the world is not a stage but Shakespeare 
makes the comparison to convey an understanding about the mechanics of the world and the 



lives of the people within it. Structurally, metaphor works on the principle of meaning and 
transfer based on two parts – tenor and vehicle referents. 

There are examples of female linguistic metaphors in the texts under study that 
communicate femaleness. In NRA (38), (i) Nna m ukwu, okwu a abxkwagh[ ihe a ga-a rxwara 
Qgqdq. 'My master, this issue is not what we have to worry about so much'. 'qgqdq' here 
symbolizes femaleness. 'qgqdq' is 'wrapper' and females ties wrapper. 'Ruwaraqgqdq' in the 
context used here communicates femaleness as something that is not very important, 
something that can be ignored. Females are seen here as sex that are not important. In other 
words, men are important while women are not. OIJQ (10), (ii) Q bx eziokwu na q bx di gi ma, [ ma 
na q bx Okaeze ji xlq. 'It is true that he is your husband, but, you know that he is the great pillar 
that holds the house/kindred.' 'di' here refers to a woman's husband. 'Di' is used to 
communicate femaleness in the sense that it shows the woman as under the man. NMJK (57). 
(iii)  Ala Xmxeleme, leenx qj[ taa, onye anqkwala n'qdx ibe ya, Leekwanx ka agha si n'ihu si n'azx na-
aba[a. 'The land of Xmueleme take and eat Kola, let none usurp another's place. Look at war 
looming in front and at the back'. 'Ala' here symbolizes femaleness because 'ala' which is land 
is looked at as 'mother of all'. The words used as metaphor may be objects that mark femaleness 
or concept referents that show femaleness. Ala is used here to communicate femaleness, 
showing motherhood and that mothers protect their own children. Women's position in our 
society which is the domestic sphere, is portrayed in the areas of providing for the family and 
community at large protection, succor, advice, relaxation, nurture, care, love is shown in the 
metaphors above. For instance, the example from NRA (38), shows care because Xduehi, 
Okwukqgx's wife is calming her husband down because of their daughter's misbehaviour and 
he is threatening to deal with her. Duru Nnanyelugo in OIJQ (10) is warning Ochediye to stop 
crying when Chief Qdxenyi died. He knows that Chief Oduenyi was her husband all the same, 
she should avoid making news of his death public by crying and drawing peoples' attention. 
The death of a king has duration of time that will elapse because it is made known to the public. 
'Di' is used to communicate femaleness because 'di'- husband marries the wife and the wife is 
under him. In NMJK (58), Eze Onyekwere offering prayer with kola nut is asking their mother 
land, Xmxeleme to take kola. He is also complaining about the problem in their land brought 
about by the Whiteman, asking the mother land that war is looming, that she should know what 
to do to save her children. 'Land' here meaning mother, communicating femaleness is 
portrayed in this context as having the power to protect her children and that she should do so.
The italicized words above show that the metaphors in them express femaleness. For instance, 
the 'qgqdq' in NRA (38), 'di' in OIJQ (10), and 'ala' in NMJK (57) are all metaphors communicating   
femaleness.

Female Related Humour
Partridge (2006), says that humour refers to the ability or the result of this ability to perceive 
and express a sense of the clever or amusing. It can also be described as a message whose 
incongruity has the ability to evoke laughter. It appeals to knowledge, which is assumed to be 
self-evidently true.

In Igbo literature, humour is commonly referred to as 'Njak[r['- “light-hearted talks”, 
“laughter generated talks” or “free talks”. It has been identified as fluid or as individual jokes. 
Humour is reinforced by the context of the user. 

There are female based humours communicating femaleness in the texts under study. 
For instance, in NRA (38), (i) Q d[ ha bx oturu mma, ha turu, q d[gh[ ha mma, ha tupu. 'If it pleases the 
impostors, let them be, but if not let them retrace their steps' This is a proverbial humour. 
Uduehi while trying to calm down her husband, used this humour. Uduehi uses this joke when 
their daughter Obioma runs away from their house to Aworo's house for him to marry her. In 

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NMJK (41), (ii) Onye nwe ala! Ezigbo Qlxu–di-ya. Be onye ka q ga-anq na-alx di ya' 'Land owner! 
Great husband of her husband. In whose house will she be marrying her husband?' This is how 
Eze Onyekwere calls Lydia, the name the missionaries give his wife Ugochi when they 
baptized her. Ogooma reacting jokingly while her brother is telling her what happened asks the 
question. In OIJQ (42), (iii) Aha m bx Nkwq, any[ bido na Nkwq, any[ emechaa n' Orie n'ihi na aha g[ 
bx Orie' My name is Nkwq, if we start  on Nkwq, we will finish on Orie because your name is 
Orie'. This humour is expressed when Nkwqnta wooing Orie, jokes with the fact that both of 
them bear Igbo market day names. Nkwonta says that he is the man and that their marital 
activities will start on Nkwq (his name) and then will be finalized on Orie (her name) as she is 
the woman. There is the idea here of placing the woman in the last showing lower position.

Humour (i) is made by female speaker to male audience and about male and female 
referents, (ii) is from female speaker to male audience and about female referent, and (iii) is 
made by male speaker to female audience and about male and female referents. Humours (i) 
and (ii) are about feminine events, while (iii) is about an idea concerning both male and 
female. However, the referents and the verbs contained in the humours explicate the meaning 
embedded in them. The italicized words in (i) and (ii) 'oturu' impostors, and 'onye nwe ala' 
suggest activities that communicate femaleness while, (iii) 'gi bu Orie' suggests idea that 
communicate femaleness. 

Female Related Euphemism 
Certain words or expressions are better not said the way they are in many societies for decency 
sake and or for the sake of traditional belief. This is because such societies see them as being 
unacceptable, obscenities or taboos and as such replace them with the acceptable ones. Such 
replaced term is euphemism. Euphemism is a word or expression used in place of one that may 
be found offensive or suggest something unpleasant (Burridge 2012). Some euphemisms are 
amusing, while others are bland, inoffensive and often misleading terms for things they wish 
to downplay. Such euphemisms communicating femaleness abound in the texts under study.

In NRA (51), (i), Onye chqrq imewe nwunye nna ya ihe mewe ya, ma ya as[la na o bu qkx ga ya 
n'azx. 'Whoever wants to have sex with his father's wife should go ahead and do it and not with 
the flimsy excuse that she passed behind him with light. “imewe” here replaces the term 'ira' 
which is the Igbo name for 'having sex'. 'imewe nwunye nna ya' means having sex with the 
father's wife. In the context it is saying that Aworo, should summon the courage to divorce his 
wife and not to pretend she poisoned his food. 

In OIJQ (27), (ii) O nweela ebe [ na-aga? Are you betrothed? This is used to refer to the 
fact that before proposing to a girl up to marriageable age, you have to find out if she is engaged 
to be married to someone. Nkwqnta asks Orie this question when he wants to propose marriage 
to her. In NMJK (72), (iii) ka anyi na-eri na enye afq. Q bxrx na m agbagh[ ebe ahx ha na-anq eme 
nta eme imo qkx,   ha b[a napx m ihe m jiri bxrx nwoke. 'Let us be having sex and be on the watch out 
for pregnancy. If I don't burn down that place they stay and commit atrocities, let them come 
and take from me what makes me a man'. 'Na-eri na-enye afq' symbolizes “illegal sex' again, 
'ihe m jiri bxrx nwoke' means 'penis' which in Igbo is called 'amu'. For decency’s sake, most often, 
Igbo names for private parts of the body are substituted with other decent words because they are seen 
as being indecent. Eze Onyekwere uses this statement to show his anger on how the 
missionaries are interfering in the affairs of his family. The missionaries rescued Ugochi's twin 
sons thrown into the evil forest to cleanse the land desecrated by their birth. Giving birth to 
twins is an abomination at the time. The missionaries are again keeping Ugochi, his wife and, 
his children who runs to them for safety.   
The italicized words/phrasal in the cited euphemisms (i) 'imewe' having sex, (iii) 'na-eri na-
enyo af?' be having sex and be on the watch out for pregnancy suggest objects and activities 
communicating femaleness. 'Imewe' here suggests the activity of having sex and it is the 



female that receives the action. 'Na-eri na-enyo afo' also suggests the same as 'imewe' earlier 
mentioned 'ihe m jiri buru nwoke' signifies the object used in carrying out the activity on the 
female. The italicized phrasal in (ii), '[ na-aga' betrothed suggests idea communicating 
femaleness. It is the female that leaves the father's house for marriage sake.

Summary and Conclusion 
This study looks at and clearly shows how femaleness is communicated in our patriarchal 
society. Morphologically, it involves speech language morphemes and other linguistic units 
such as root words. We have the fusional type of morphological speech pattern that use bound 
morphemes. We also have free morphemes. They can be roots having affixes attached to them 
as shown in the analysis. These morphological elements often show femaleness, names and 
naming concepts, and addresses. Femaleness is also expressed using figures of thought like 
metaphor, humor and euphemism as we have seen in the analyses.

In conclusion, from the study of the theory of discourse using the Marxist approach, 
communicating femaleness in communalism, we see that in communicating femaleness, 
females are not always fairly communicated to but they inadvertently protest to be heard and 
understood with caution. Language which is the tool for human expression has in no small 
measure helped in communicating femaleness in our everyday life. This is explicated in the 
various ways we make sense of ourselves by other people.

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