


































Text Book  Journal PDF Sis. Noelle


01

COOU Journal of Arts and Humanities (CJAH) Vol. 5 No. 3, 2020

Abstract
The study investigated the influence of family violence and age on the manifestation of 
depressive symptoms among married women. The sample for the study comprised 200 
married women (100 battered and 100 non-battered) who were selected from Onitsha North 
Local Government Area, Anambra State, Nigeria. Marital Conflict Behaviour Checklist 
(MCBC) was used to serve as an indicator of conflict behaviour which spouses engaged in, 
during conflicts. The Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depressive Scale (CESD) Radloff, 
(1977) was used to measure the levels of depressive symptoms manifested by the participants. 
Data were analyzed using 2x2 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The results showed that there 
was significant difference between battered and non-battered women on the report of 
depression and there was a statistically significant age difference in the manifestation of 
depression. Young battered women reported higher depression than old battered women. The 
findings suggest that depression was as a result of battering. The correlation co-efficient of 
marital conflict and depression showed to be positive and significant at (P>0.05), which 
implied that the higher the marital conflict, the higher the depression of the participants.  
Based on the findings of the study, recommendations were made. 

Keywords:  Family violence, Battered women, Non-battered women and Depressive 
symptoms.

Introduction
Global trends have shown that the increasing frequency of violence and its attendant 
consequences on women, children, families and communities is becoming source of concern 
to family physicians, psychologists, sociologists, social health workers, community leaders, 
politicians and families themselves. Violence inflicts long-term harm on physical, mental, 
emotional, psychological, spiritual, social and economic well-being of individuals. 

Violence is an act carried out with the intention or perceived intention to cause pain, 
injury, or abuse. When two people or parties fail to achieve a consensus over an issue, the 
tendency is that they may resort to the use of violence, if they failed to control their emotions. 
The stronger party may lord it over the weaker one as sometimes happens in the case of 
husband and wife. Violence against women was culturally accepted in most African societies 
(Kunnyi, 2014). Gender stereotype prejudice against women in Nigeria perceives the male as 
superior and the female as inferior. The male role socialization and cultural influence invest 
them with lots of powers and recognition. Uchem (2002) stated that men often enact laws and 
women bear the brunt. For instance, adultery and promiscuity are often punished in women but 

MARY NICOLETTE CHINWE IHENACHO, IHM
Department of Educational Psychology

Nwofor Orizu College of Education
Nsugbe, Anambra State, Nigeria

Email: chinweihenacho@yahoo.com
Phone: +2348035081647

INFLUENCE OF FAMILY VIOLENCE AND AGE ON 
MANIFESTATION OF DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS 

AMONG MARRIED WOMEN



not in men. Unfortunately, the women in trying to keep the family conflict secret oftentimes 
suffer in silence. Hence, violence in the family which may have social, cultural, religious, race 
and ethnic orientations are usually perpetrated by the male members of the family against 
women (Musbau 2017 &Ishiola, 2016).

Unfortunately, family violence affects every member of the family, husbands, wives, 
parents, children, elders, siblings and dating partners (Seifert, 2012). However, because 
women appear to be the most frequent victims, they are termed "appropriate victims."This is in 
concordance with United Nations' General Assembly 2000 assertion that, domestic violent 
acts are often gender-based and result to physical, sexual and mental harm to women with 
inclusive intimidation, deprivation of public and private liberty. Deprivation of women's 
human rights is an act of violence against women which violate, impair or nullify their 
enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedom (UN (2013). 

Ideally, the family is a place of warm intimacy, and a place where one's security is 
expected to be assured. Paradoxically however, it is also in the family that people are more 
likely to be abused, physically assaulted, sexually victimized, beaten up, slapped or spanked 
by other members than anywhere else or by anyone else. World Health Organization (WHO, 
2016), averred that family violence are portrayed in behaviours such as threats, damaging 
property, violent sexual behaviour or play fighting. In Nigeria, family violence, include wife 
battery, acid attack, molestation, rape, corporal punishment, girl-child marriage forced or 
arranged, female genital mutilation, dowry related violence, gun shots and other traditional 
practices harmful to women (Ishiola, 2016). Despite the harm inflicted on women who are 
victims of domestic violence in many parts of Nigeria, the notion still persists that family 
conflict matter has no room for external intrusion. This African erroneous perception cages 
women to the point that in trying to cope with all the stressors in family life and domestic 
violence, they may begin to manifest depressive symptoms such as sleeplessness, sadness, loss 
of weight, obesity and crying spells.  A lot of victims of physical, psychological and sexual 
violence suffer from psychosomatic illnesses, gastrointestinal disturbances, mental health 
disorders, saddness, chronic pain, etc.(Department of Justice, Canada, 2017). 

Physical violence is the inflicting or attempt to inflict bodily or physical harm or injury 
by beating, battering, slapping, grabbing, kicking, stabbing, punching, flogging, shooting, 
using weapon against partner e.g. pangs, guns, knives (Rhodes, Frankel, & Levinthal ,2007). 
Physical abuse and neglect also include withholding access to resources of medical care and 
hygienic assistance, forced alcohol and drug use (Arisi, 2011). Psychological violence or 
neglect, manifested in patterns of behaviour such as degrading, bullying, terrorizing, isolating, 
corrupting, gas lighting,  and verbal or non-verbal form of abuse against one's spouse.  
Psychological abuses are actions that serve to undermine an individual's self-worth or esteem. 
It may be evident in constant criticism, belittling, name-calling, silent treatment, making and 
breaking of promises. Emotional abuse or mental abuse is characterized by a person exposing 
or subjecting another to behaviours that may result in lots of psychological trauma, such as: 
fear, anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorders and other forms of psychological 
wounds.

Research has shown that a number of factors which include, personality traits, 
demographic and economic factors are associated with family violence (Abadi, Mahdavi, 
Esnaeli & Amighi 2014 & Abdulhai, Moseleh, 2015). In the view of (Colucci & Hassan 2014), 
spousal violence is seen to be more prevalent in blue and low socio- economic families. Thus, 
total dependency of wives on  husbands for basic necessities of life such as food, shelter and 

COOU Journal of Arts and Humanities (CJAH) Vol. 5 No. 3, 2020

02



03

COOU Journal of Arts and Humanities (CJAH) Vol. 5 No. 3, 2020

clothing (Nurul, Syazlian, Maisarah, Normilia 2018), may keep them long in an abusive 
relationship, and after some time they may begin to internalize the belief that they are helpless. 
Feelings of helplessness may   manifest in depressive symptoms, which in many cases in the 
Nigerian setting, are glossed over.

However, battering may not affect younger (age range 15- 40) and older married 
women (50 and above) in similar ways for reasons that other family challenges such as child-
bearing and rearing may be an important factor in the lives of the former. Experience has also 
shown that in Nigeria, most older married mothers take comfort in their grown up children and 
if their children were married, the advantage of taking leave for a while to assist  their nursing 
daughters (what the Igbos call, 'omugwo'), has a lot of soothing effect and a break from violent 
husbands. Incidentally, studies have not yet explored the pattern of depressive syndrome 
manifestation of younger and older married women. 

Theoretical Framework: 
This study is based on the social learning and situation models. According the social learning 
model, we are all born into families and it is in these families that we are taught the first 
profound lessons of social interaction and society's rules of accepted conducts. The social 
learning model can be better understood by the use of the phrase “cycle violence” – that violent 
childhood of the abused children grow up to become abusive parents and violent adult. This is 
what Kaufaman and Zigler (1987) termed inter-generational transmission of violence. One 
can say that much of violent behaviour that occurs in the school is a re-play of violence that has 
been learned at home. On the other hand, women who experienced spousal violence in the 
family of orientation are more likely to accept conjugal violence as part and parcel of married 
life. However, this model affirms that since violence is a learned behaviour, it also can be 
unlearned.

The social situation model proposes that violence arises out of two main factors, 
stressful life events and cultural norms. Stressful events associated with family violence 
include low income or inadequate financial resources, unemployment, poor educational 
opportunities, poor-living conditions, illness and large family size. Culturally, in most Africa 
societies violence is used by husbands and fathers as disciplinary and corrective measures 
against women and children (Atinmo, 1997). Yet, tough and violent disciplinary measures 
have negative consequences such as depressive symptoms.  Nonetheless, cognitive theories 
aver that it is the individual's interpretation of events or problems which cause depression, 
whereas, Becks (1982) asserted that depression is linked with self-defeating beliefs. The 
depressed person perceives life irrationally and negatively. The negative views about 
themselves, life situation and the future lead them to overestimate the severity of negative or 
feared events and underestimate the positive or their ability to cope. These self-defeating 
beliefs/thoughts is what Seligman (1976) referred to as “Learned helplessness”. The battered 
women seem to be helpless and come to see the batterer as being in control. The result is the 
tendency to withdraw, become passive, depressed and ultimately despairing of themselves, 
their plight and future.  

Clinical as well as survey data consistently reveal a high incidence of depression, 
anxiety and an increased risk of suicide, among samples of women victims of violent 
marriages (Durbach, 2016). In Nigeria however, recent studies such as Benebo, Schumann 
and Vaezghasemi (2018)conducted multilevel study of the effect of intimate partner violence 
on women's status and community norms; Ekundayo, Durowaiye and Modpe, (2015) studied   
the effects of Domestic Violence on young people in family. However, studies on the degree of 
married women's depressive symptoms manifested by battered and non-battered married 
women in Nigeria are sparse.  Hence, the need to examine the degree of manifestation of 
depressive symptoms among young and older battered women. 



Statement of the Problem
The rate of family violence against women in Nigeria has continued to attract the concerns of 
psychologists, sociologists, and medical and mental health personnel. Male chauvinism 
appears to be an accepted norm such that in many families, husbands despicably batter wives - 
both young and old. This results to devastating effects on the battered women who may begin 
to manifest depressive symptoms.  Research so far done in Nigeria has not examined the 
influence of violence on manifestation of depressive symtoms on the young and older battered 
women. Put in question form therefore, the statement of the problem of this study is, “to what 
extent does family violence influence young and old married battered women, young, which is 
manifested in depressive symptoms?”

Hypotheses
Based on the findings from the reviewed work, the following hypotheses were proposed.
1. There will be no significant difference in the manifestation of depressive symptoms 

between battered women and non-battered women due to domestic violence.
2. There will be no significance difference in the manifestation of depressive symptoms 

between young and old battered women due to domestic violence. 
3. There will be no significant correlation between marital conflict and extent of 

depression expressed in the married women. 

Sampling Technique:  The participants comprised two groups – 100 from reported or 
identified cases of violent families and 100 from non-violent families. Purposive sampling 
was used to select the names and addresses of the battered women from the files of various 
reported cases in the area of study, Onitsha North Local Government Area of Anambra State, 
Nigeria. They were married women living with their husbands with one child at least. The ages 
of the participants ranged from 20 to 40 years of younger women; 41 to 55 years for older 
women. 

Method: The design used was Factorial design. A 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with 
unequal sample sizes was used in testing hypothesis one and two. It was analyzed on SPSS 
version 7.5. For the third hypothesis, Pearson r was used to test the relationship between 
marital conflict and depression.

Instruments: Two instruments, the Marital Conflict Behavior Checklist (MCBC) Omeje 
(1998) and the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depressive Scale (CESD) Radloff (1977) 
were used for the data collection. The MCBC (Omeje, 1998) is a 37-item test that measure 
conflict in marriage, with a reliability index of .94 and concurrent validity index .90. MCBC 
was considered to be reliable and valid for the study of marital conflict and violence. The scale 
was used because it incorporates the two forms of violence, physical and psychological 
appropriate for this study. Each item was scored on a four-point scale of: Rarely – 1, 
Sometimes – 2, Often – 3, Always – 4. The MCBC served as an indicator of conflict behavior 
spouses engaged in during conflicts and how often they do so. The CESD is a 20 – item test, 
designed to assess depressive symptoms in the general population (Radloff, 1997). The scale 
has been used in Nigeria by Okafor (1997), who reported a reliability index of .85, while Ugwu 
(1998) reported concurrent validity index of 41. The items were scored on a four-point scale 
ranging from 1 – 4, (rarely 1, sometimes 2, often 3, always 4). The participants report the 
frequency with which the 20 events were encountered within a six months period.

COOU Journal of Arts and Humanities (CJAH) Vol. 5 No. 3, 2020

04



05

COOU Journal of Arts and Humanities (CJAH) Vol. 5 No. 3, 2020

Procedure for Data Collection: The two instruments: MCBC and CESD were administered 
to the participants by the researcher. They were made up of identified victims from violent 
families and non-victims from various parishes and social welfare department in the selected 
areas of Onitsha North. The researcher also visited the women during their meetings in their 
different parishes and administered the instruments to those who willingly volunteered to 
complete the questionnaire. 

Results:  
Table 1: Summary of a 2 x 2 ANOVA on effect of age and battering on depression

Source of 
Variation

Sum of 
squares

Df Mean Square F-Ratio

Age

Battering

Age and Battering

Error

Total

2355.51

1009.39

1885.55

12315.65

321056.0

1

1

1

196

200

2355.51

1009.39

1885.55

62.84

37.49**

16.06*

30.01**

* P<.05
**P<.01
The result as shown in Table I above indicates F = 37.49, p>.05 and this shows that there is a 
significant different between young and old women in their manifestation of depressive 
symptoms. The result indicated a statistically significant difference between battered and non-
battered women in their manifestation of depressive symptoms, F = 16.06, p>.05. There is also 
a significant interaction effect between age and battering in the report of depressive symptoms: 
F = 30.01, P>0.5. This showed that depressive scores of the participants were influenced by a 
combination of age and battering such that the scores of the young battered were higher than 
that of non-battered women.
 
Table II: Mean and Standard Deviation (SD) of Depression Scores of Battered and Non-
Battered Women

Age Battered Non-battered 

Young

Old

X

SD

X

SD

47.24

8.19

34.12

6.56

36.51

8.06

35.78

8.45

Table II above indicates the mean and standard deviation scores of depression of the group of 
participants, young battered women and young non-battered women, old battered women and 
old non-battered women. The results show that young battered women had the highest 
depression scores (x = 47.24) whereas the old battered women had the least depression scores 
(x = 43.12). This indicates that there is a significant difference in the manifestation of 



COOU Journal of Arts and Humanities (CJAH) Vol. 5 No. 3, 2020

06

DEPRESS MARCON

Pearson

Correlation
Sig 2 (tailed) 
Macron
N Depress
Macron

Depress 
Marcon

Depress

1.000

.356**

.000
200
200

.356**

1.000
.000

200
200

***
The correlation co-efficient of 0.36 of marital conflict and depression was positive and 
significant at (P>0.05). This implies that the higher the marital conflict, the higher the 
depression of the participants.

Discussion
The findings in the study revealed that there is a significant difference in the manifestation of 
depressive symptoms between battered and non-battered women.  The battered women 
reported higher depression than non-battered women. This was is contrast with the first 
hypothesis which stated that there will be no significant difference in the manifestation of 
depressive symptoms between battered and non-battered women. The result indicates that 
battery induces a lot of depression, on the battered women. Marital relationship problem was 
also a common source of psychological distress. Okolo (2001) equally observed that stress-
related illness and stressful life events or family violent with their consequence could 
reinforce depression and these would have a lot of negative impact on the mental health of the 
battered group.

The second hypothesis stated that there would be no significant difference in the 
manifestation of depressive symptoms between young and old battered women. Contrary to 
this prediction, the result showed that young battered women manifested higher depression 
than the old women.  This confirms that women under thirty years of age and “newer” 
marriages experience the highest rate of family violence than the older group. The National 
Population Commission, Nigeria (2015) confirmed that women under the age bracket of 15 – 
49 years' experience the highest marital conflict from their intimate partners. The variables 
that may have contributed to the high depression reported by the young battered women may 
be inexperience, marital adjustment on the part of the “newer” married. They come into 
marriage with high expectations and when these are not met the result is disagreement, 
quarrels, disappointment and sadness. The older women having learnt through life lived 
experience tend to portray better shock absorber than the young ones, so are less depressed. On 
the hand, the young battered women could be people with many responsibilities – like caring 

depressive symptoms between the young battered women and old battered women. The result 
also shows that the young battered women had significant higher mean depression score 
(47.24) than the other three groups, whose depression scores did not differ significantly from 
each other, old battered women (34.12), old non-battered women (35.5) and young non-
battered women (36.51).

Table III: Correlation of Marital Conflict and Depression



07

COOU Journal of Arts and Humanities (CJAH) Vol. 5 No. 3, 2020

for their young children, adjusting to new jobs, some could be students without jobs so could 
be solely dependent on their husbands economically. Hence, when   crisis exists in the 
marriage in form of battering the young women may tend to manifest high depressive 
symptoms than the old women.

However, the young non-battered women manifestation of a low level of depression 
could be that their expectations about marriage were met by their partners and those around 
them. They have enjoyed love, care, economic support in their marriage and so are not likely to 
manifest high depressive symptoms like their young battered counterparts. The old battered 
women and old non battered women did not manifest significantly in their depression scores 
because they may have over the long years of their marriage learnt to cope with their situation. 
Moreover, the older women at this stage of their lives may be enjoying the social and economic 
support of their grown-up children, relations, friends and other social groups. Again, they may 
be economically balanced and fulfilled in life, so this may serve to cushion them from feeling 
the impact of battery and depression intensely.

The third hypothesis which stated that there will be no significant correlation between 
marital conflict and depression was not confirmed. There was significant relationship between 
marital conflict and depression. The young battered women who experienced high level of 
marital conflict also reported higher depression. Therefore, this goes to show that when there is 
marital conflict there is also depression. Recent research equally showed that women, who 
suffer depression, are often killed by their family members, 51% of whom are spouses point to 
a long standing spousal abuse as a factor (National Organization for women, 2018).

Conclusion
Family or domestic violence is one of the most heinous abuses that women suffer in marriage 
or intimate relationships. Results from this study have shown that domestic violence affects 
the well-being of women- both young and elderly married women, though the younger women 
seem to manifest more depressive symptoms than the latter. Hence, the negative effect of 
husband battering on women in the context of this study, confirm the high rate of depression, 
physical and psychological illnesses experienced by Nigerian women and by extension the 
increasing rate of maternal death in the country. This therefore calls for critical attention and 
attitudinal change among Nigerian men as well a review of cultural practices against women.

Recommendations
The findings presented in this study clearly point to the fact that some fundamental changes in 
the attitude, values and beliefs of the society towards women have to occur before a decrease in 
the level of marital violence against women can take place.
. Parents, teachers and all entrusted with the training of the child should start 

early to educate them on the need to live in partnership, equality and respect. Inequality 
between men and women starts from the home. Elimination of this inequality right from 
the cradle would be a vital means of curbing family violence.

. Legal administrators of family laws should make effective policies and enforce them so as 
to protect women from marital violence.

. Family physicians can prevent suffering, serious injuries and death by being alert to the 
possibilities of marital violence and victimization when evaluating their patients.

. Public awareness, enlightenment and education of the masses on the seriousness of family 
violence and its damaging consequences to the individual involved, to the children, 
families and the society at large.



COOU Journal of Arts and Humanities (CJAH) Vol. 5 No. 3, 2020

08

REFERENCES

Abadi, M.P., Mahdavi, S., Esnaeili, K., Amighi, M., & Hashemian, A. (2014). The amount of 
domestic violence in Kermanshaihi (a provincial centre, in West Iran) Women given 
birth in 2011-2012. World Journal of Medical Sciences 11(2), 202-206.

Abdulhai, R., & Mosleh, H. (2015). Screening for antepartum anxiety and depression and their 
association with domestic violence among Egyptian pregnant Women. The Journal of 
the Egyptian Public Health Association, 90 (3)101-108.

Arisi, R.O. & Oromareghake, P. (2011). Cultural violence and the Nigeria woman. African 
Research Review. International Association of African Researchers and Reviewers 
5(4) .

Atinmo, M. (1997). Socio cultural implications of wife beating among the Yoruba's in Ibadan, 
Nigeria. F. Oyekanmi, (Eds.) CODESRIA, Men, Women and Violence 80-81, 93, 111.

Becks, A. T. (1982). Depression: Clinical experimental and theoretical aspects. New York: 
Harper & Row.

Benebo, F.O., Schumann, B. & Vaezghasemi, M. (2018). Intimate partner violence against 
women in Nigeria: a multilevel study investigating the effect of women's status and 
community norms. BMC Women's Health 18, 136 (1-17).

Colucci, E, & Hassan, G. (2014). Prevention of domestic violence against women and children 
in low-economic and middle-income countries. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 27(5), 
350-357.

Department of Justice, Canada. (2017). Health impacts of violent victimization on women and 
their children. https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/cj-jp/fv-vf/rr12_12/p0.html. 
Retrieved, 30th July., 2020.

Durbach, A. (2016). Towards reparative transformation: revisiting the impact of violence 
against women in Post-TRC South Africa. International Journal of Transitional 
Justice,10:366-87.

Ekundayo, B. B., Babatunde E. Durowaiye, B. E. & Ake B. Modupe, A. B. (2015). Effects of 
domestic violence on young people in family setting: Evidence from Omu-
Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria. Scientific Research Journal (SCIRJ), 3(1), 55-63). 

Ishiola, S. A. (2016). Domestic violence: The Nigerian experience.  Asia-Africa Journal of 
Mission and Ministry 13, 3–16.

Kaufman, J & Zigler, E. (1987). Do abused children become abusive parents? American 
Journal of orthopsychiatry,57 (2), 187-192.

Kunnuji, M. O. (2014). Experience of domestic violence and acceptance of intimate partner 
violence among out-of-school adolescent girls in Iwaya Community Lagos State. 
Journal of Interpersonal Violence 30(4), 543-564.

Musbau, R. (2017). Address the scourge of domestic violence. Punch. Retrieved from 
http://punchng.com/addressing-the-scourge-of-domestic-violence/.

National Organization for Women, (2018). Violence against women in United States: 
Statistics.Retrieved from https://now.org/resource/violence-against-women-in-the-
united-states-statistic/

National Population Commission, Nigeria (2015) and ICF International,(2014). Nigeria 
demographic and health survey (2013). Abuja Nigeria and Rockville Mary Land, 
USA: NPC and ICF International.



09

COOU Journal of Arts and Humanities (CJAH) Vol. 5 No. 3, 2020

Nurul, N.A., Syazlian, A.M., Maisarah, I., Normilia,A.W.(2018). Understanding the 
antecedents of domestic violence against women: A preliminary study. Journal for 
studies on Children, Women, Elderly and Disabled, Vol. 4.

Okafor, J. (1997). Comparative assessment of symptoms of depression among secondary 
school teachers. Health and Movement Education Journal (1) 37 -41.

Oluremi, F.D. (2015). Domestic violemce against women in Nigeria. European Journal of 
Psychology Reasearch,2 (1).

Okolo, C. (2001). The effect of domestic violence on the health of women. In Okwu (Ed.). 
African Women Welfare Associations Conference Report. London: Charity Press.

Omeje, O. (1998). Marital conflict behaviour checklist. Unpublished manuscript.
Radloff, L. (1977). The CSE-D Scale: A Self Report Depression Scale for Research in General 

Population. Applied Psychological Measurement,385 - 401.
Rhode, K. V. Frankel, R. M. & Levinthal, N. (2007). You're not a victim of domestic violence, 

are you? provider- patience communication about domestic violence. Ann Intern Med. 
147(9): 620–627.

Seifert, K. (2012). Domestic violence harms all family members. Retrieved from 
https://www.psychologytoday,com.

Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression development and death. San-
Francisco: Freeman.

Uchem, R. N. (2002). Beyond veiling: A response to the issues in women's experiences of 
subjugation in African Christian cultures. Enugu: Snaap Press.

Ugwu, E. G., (1998). Personality types and social support on life stress adjustment among 
U.N.N. students. Unpublished B.Sc. Thesis submitted to Department of Psychology, 
University of Nigeria Nsukka.

Umedum, S. O. (2003). Youth and violence in Nigeria. In J., Okafor (Ed.). The new 
martyrdom: Issues of violence in Nigeria. Awka, Nigeria: Mercury Bright Press.

United  Nations. (1995). From Nairobi to Beijing: Report of the Secretary General. New 
York.

United Nations. (2013).United Nation Entity for Gender Equality and Empowerment of 
Women. Retrived  from https//.www.un.org

World Health Organization. (2016). Understanding and addressing intimate partner violence. 
Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.


	Page 1
	Page 2
	Page 3
	Page 4
	Page 5
	Page 6
	Page 7
	Page 8
	Page 9

