Cultura e Scienza del Colore - Color Culture and Science


 7

Cultura e Scienza del Colore - Color Culture and Science | 10 | 2018 ISSN 2384-9568

1Meriem Benkhedda 
meriembenkhedda@univ-usto.dz
2Kheira Tabet Aoul
kheira.anissa@uaeu.ac.ae
[corresponding author]
 

1Département d’Architecture, 
Université des Sciences et de la 
Technologie d’Oran Mohamed 
Boudiaf, USTO-MB, Oran, Algeria 
 2 Department of Architectural 
Engineering, College of 
Engineering, United Arab 
Emirates University, POBox 
15551, Al Ain, United Arab 
Emirates 

 

Color on Ceramics in the Medieval 
Architecture of Tlemcen, Algeria: 
Light, Ambiance and Symbolism   
 
ABSTRACT

The architectural heritage of the Marinid and Ziyanid dynasties in the region of 
Tlemcen (Algeria) is characterized by geometric and floral shapes of the ornamental 
ceramic of particularly rich polychromic expressions. This ornamentation defines 
the minarets, porches, interior courtyards and patios. The ceramic colors in different 
tones and arrangements provide spaces with an exceptional quality that highly 
characterizes this medieval Arab architecture. The polychromic compositions of the 
ceramic with their intrinsic spatial and aesthetical value remain largely unexplored. 
This research attempts to explore first, an untapped ancestral know-how or “savoir-
faire” and second, to demonstrate that this architectural heritage has a colorful 
atmosphere, whose evolution is linked to the relationship between shapes, lights, 
materials and colors as well as its socio-cultural context. The investigation method 
consists of a survey of colors on ceramics and an analysis of arrangement patterns 
between colors and geometry (relationship and mixtures of colors) to determine the 
rhythms, harmonies of figures and background, optical compositions, and finally 
determine the color language and agreements that result. Color properties, the subtle 
combination of colors and materials interacting with an exquisite geometry display 
a decisive influence on the appearance and the ambiance that emerge, providing 
brightness and light, creating rhythm, motley and fusion in a web of optical effects, 
filled with symbolism, suitable for the cultural and religious circumstances of the 
place.

KEYWORDS
Color, Ceramic, Marinid, Architecture, Ambiance, Tlemcen, Algeria.

CITATION:  Benkhedda M. and Tabet Aoul K. (2018) ‘Color on Ceramics in the Medieval Architecture 
of Tlemcen, Algeria: Light, Ambiance and Symbolism’, Cultura e Scienza del Colore - Color Culture 
and Science Journal, 10, pp. 07-12, DOI: 10.23738/ccsj.i102018.01 

Received 15 September 2017; Revised 07 June 2018; Accepted 30 November 2018

Meriem Benkhedda is an architect and PhD candidate and is currently teaching plastic and graphic art in the Architectural Program at the 
University of Science and Technology of Oran, Algeria. She specializes in color theory and application in the built environment in general with 
a focus on Islamic Architectural heritage in the Maghreb
Kheira Tabet Aoul is a Professor of Architecture at the United Arab Emirates University, UAE. She draws from over 25 years of international 
academic and professional experience in Algeria, USA and the Middle East. Her research focuses on green buildings, sustainable heritage 
conservation and human factors in the built environment.



8 

Cultura e Scienza del Colore - Color Culture and Science | 10 | 2018 | 07 - 12

Benkhedda M. and Tabet Aoul K.

ISSN 2384-9568

DOI: 10.23738/ccsj.102018.01

1. INTRODUCTION

The northwestern part of Algeria and in particular 
the region of Tlemcen is one of the few places 
in Algeria that still has major representative 
monuments of Arabic art. The region of Tlemcen 
in western Algeria displays an art that truly 
reflects the splendor of the Arab civilization 
through its successive dynasties. Its proximity 
to Morocco and Spain explains the presence 
of many relics and monuments of Islamic art 
from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, 
contemporary of those found in Granada and 
Fez. Its architecture attests of a thriving arts 
production. “One should be pleased to admire what 
remains of the great royal city and jealously preserve 
its admirable remains” (Marçais & Marçais, 1903, 
p.10). 
The city of Tlemcen owes its embellishments 
to its successive dynasties; the Almoravids, the 
Almohads, the Zianides and most particularly 
the Marinids (Bourouiba, 1981). Tlemcen’s 
monuments, which span from the thirteenth 
to the middle of the fourteenth centuries, 
are contemporary to the great monuments 
of Granada in Spain. They form a group of 
building sassociated with a period of full 
development of the Andalusian architectural 
style. During their quarter-century long reign 
over the city, the Marinids endowed Tlemcen 
of its most beautiful monuments, including 
Sidi Boumediene compound, the Sidi’l-Halwi 
mosque, and the entire city of El-Mansourah, 
of which, unfortunately only the main mosque’s 
minaret remains. 
One of the elements that established the refined 
ornamentation of such buildings is the scenery 
flat polychrome inlaid glazed pottery called 
mosaic of faience, accompanied by stucco and 
wood decoration. Comparatively, the Zianides 
dynasty produced Sidi Belahcen Mosque, the 
Mechouar Mosque, Palace, and a school, the 
Madrassa Taschfiniya. Zianides’ architecture 
is adorned with ceramic and polychrome 
earthenware mosaics. The main sections of 
the faience mosaic (also referred to as zellij) 
are cleverly juxtaposed and combined. They 
generally cover the bases of walls, floors of 
courtyards, porches and doorframes as well as 
the top parts of minarets. The surfaces garnished 
with ceramics are the most colorful and the best 
preserved ones. 
The art of color is superimposed on the ceramic 
with geometric and floral arabesques forms. The 
design of lines is mixed with that of the colors 
to provide the place with a special atmosphere, 
highlight its architecture and its spatial and 
architectural details. In fact, these materials 
conceal a rough masonry work, made of rammed 
earth or unfinished bricks and provide an 
appearance of prosperity. “The surfaces appear to 

be luxuriously adorned immediately evoking the taste 
of the Muslim aristocracy” (Clévenot & Degorge, 
2000, p.96).
The geometry of the patterns and the fractals of 
this important heritage have been widely studied. 
Comparatively, little has been done in terms of 
the study of color design and arrangements. 
The objective of this work is to fill this gap. In 
the present study, the analysis is restricted to 
a single monument where the polychrome of 
its different pieces is explored. The relatively 
well-preserved architectural ensemble of Sidi 
Boumediene was selected for this study as 
the polychrome ceramics is widely used. Other 
relevant monuments, such as the Madrasa 
Tachfiniya have been completely destroyed 
(Kouma & Nafa, 2003), only remain statements 
made by earlier French architects of historical 
monuments, or some ceramics exhibited in the 
Museum Tlemcen.
The investigation methodology of the present 
study is based on a chromatic analysis of 
the arrangements of colors and their derived 
psychological and symbolic meanings.
conceptions. 

2. SIDI BOUMEDIENE COMPOUND  
    
The Sidi Boumediene compound, located in 
the neighborhood of El Eubbad in the city of 
Tlemcen, was built in honor of Abu Choaïb 
Madyane (Boumediene) El Andaloussi, a teacher, 
writer and poet and pole of the Sufism doctrine 
in Algeria and the Maghreb. The architectural 
ensemble includes the Sidi Boumediene 
mosque, built in 1339 (739 AH) by the Marinid 
Sultan, Abu Hassan Ali. It also includes the 
tomb of Saint Sidi Boumediene located nearby, 
and a Madrasa (religious school) built in 1347 
(Bourouiba, 1981).
It is the flourishing ornamentation, mainly flat 
ceramic décor that makes this building stand out 
as a remarkable heritage. Indeed, the entrance 
to the mosque is made from a monumental 
porch, with a seven-meter high horseshoe arch, 
covering a staircase which leads to the door of 
the mosque. On the front porch, a triple festoon 
of brick inlaid with enamel of green netting, 
divides the frame into two parts: the first, the 
Keystone, formed by a large circular border 
round the hanger, the second is formed by two 
spandrels. The finishes of this framework, the 
amounts that support it and the spandrels, are 
made by arabesques, floral decor with double 
palm interlaced, regularly repeated, in mosaic 
tiled in four tones; white, brown, green and 
yellow iron, framed by a green tone ceramic 
net. An epigraphic band in black on white 
background, dedicated to Sultan Abu al-Hassan, 
is written above the rectangular frame.
The frieze which crowns the portal is decorated 



 9

Cultura e Scienza del Colore - Color Culture and Science | 10 | 2018 | 07 - 12

Color on Ceramics in the Medieval Architecture of Tlemcen, Algeria: Light, Ambiance and Symbolism   

ISSN 2384-9568

with inlaid bricks of brown enamel plates and 
green bands above five radiating eight point 
rosettes. The intrados of the arch carries a 
regular geometric white, yellow and brown 
ocher coating.
Eleven steps allow access to this porch and 
provide this arcade with a majestic base. The 
stair risers are covered with diamond-shaped 
multicolored ceramics which continues through 
the floor with polychrome faience. The subtle 
ornamentation porch marks the threshold 
giving access to an introvert interior; the square 
courtyard of the mosque, limited by the arch of 
the prayer hall in front of the main entrance, 
embellished with a beautiful onyx basin for 
ablutions.
This courtyard, similar to that of the Madrasa of 
Sidi Boumediene (religious school), is covered 
with mosaics, much less complex than the 
ornate porch. The ceramic is composed with 
small diamonds of various colors. Tiles are 
assembled side by side and arranged diagonally 
in rows of diamonds of the same nuance. They 
are also set in bands through an arrangement 

of tones: manganese brown, copper green, 
iron yellow and white. The diagonal bands, 
joined to each other form a checkerboard, thus 
highlighting a grid floor. 
Just as the porch and the door frame, the 
minaret, located at the northwest corner of the 
mosque, is richly decorated with a polychrome 
mosaic. A frieze of inlaid ceramic with large 
rosettes, result of a geometrical interlacing and 
star polygons, delineates its upper part. 
 
3. CHROMATIC ANALYSIS   
 
In Tlemcen, ceramic is represented by pavement 
tiles with stamping and by multicolored tiles on 
stanniferous enamel.
The pigments as described and classified by 
Marçais (1903) are as follows:

• White: beautiful dough, half-matt, 
slightly greenish, very little cracks
• Manganese brown: generally used 
very thick, as to form an almost black 
tone.
• Yellow is iron yellow, rather impure, 
and produces a tan and spotted yellow.
• Copper green has an intrinsic value 
and a very variable tone; in the same 
decor it can appear as very dark and 
very deep, or very clear leaning towards 
celadon or turquoise colors.

Figure 1 - (Left) Monumental porch 
of Sidi Boumediene Mosque, covering 
a staircase with eleven steps covered 
with multicolored diamond-shape 
ceramics. Source: authors.

Figure 2 - (Right) The front of the 
porch with a triple festoon of bricks 
inlaid with enamel of green netting. 
The finish is highlighted by a four-tone 
floral decor. A majestic frieze ornates 
the upper part of the entrance porch
Source: http://www.vitamineca.
c o m / m o b i l e / p h o t o - g m .
php?p=articles/205/205935.jpg

Figure 3 - Geometric design of the 
underside of the arch, with a light-
dark contrast and a floral decoration 
of the arch front. Source: left: authors, 
right: watercolor by Duthoi 1872 
(authorized by © Ministère de la 
culture (France), the médiathèque de 
l’architecture et du patrimoine (Paris))



10 

Cultura e Scienza del Colore - Color Culture and Science | 10 | 2018 | 07 - 12

Benkhedda M. and Tabet Aoul K.

ISSN 2384-9568

DOI: 10.23738/ccsj.102018.01

• The cobalt blue is quite rare; it does 
not seem to have been used in Tlemcen 
before the second half of the sixteenth 
century. It is clear and almost pure.

This mosaic tile, in the form of enameled clay, is 
an assembly of varnished pieces with different 
tones, cut according to a template and recessed 
into each other. These pieces are molded, cooked 
and then coated with enamel and annealed 
again. They are adjusted, arranged and placed 
in cardboard decorations plans established 
beforehand. They are finally assembled and 
connected together with a mortar made of lime 
and sand, to form large plates of approximately 
half a meter, which are then fixed on the wall  
(Marçais & Marçais, 1903).

3.2 THE PORCH
A flat polychrome setting highlights the grandeur 
of the porch and announces the mosque with 
cursive writing and a combination of intertwined 
leaves and stems in a set of curves and counter 
curves. The tones used are a very dark brown 
(almost black), green, and tan-yellow, all on 
a white background. A green ceramic band 
underlines the arch, scalloped bricks and other 
details of the porch.
This clever combination of ornamental flora 
symbolizes the infinite nature devoid of a center 
(Burckhardt, 1985). For a Muslim, these forms 
are patterns whose repetition extends beyond 
the visible material world; they are an expression 
of spirituality. 
Islamic decoration is the least naturalistic art 
possible. The religious requirements prohibiting 
human representation left a free hand to the Arab 
artists, to use the imitation of plants (Marçais, 
1903).
This spirituality continues beyond the form, 
towards the world of colors. Indeed, the Koran 
often contrasted white to black (Ringgenberg, 
2009) as two contradictory elements of a same 
pair; light and darkness, day and night, shadow 
and light etc. In this floral composition, the color 
contrast is very pronounced, creating a raised 
pattern effect: the floral decor in dark brown 
seems to stand out from its white background 
(color contrast between advancing and receding 
colors). 
The clear-obscure (or chiaroscuro) is needed to 
develop not only a sense of proportions, but also 
the connection between the dark form thought 
as positive and the negative white. For painters, 
white and black are the strongest means of 
expression for light and darkness (Itten, 1961). 
From the point of view of their effects, white and 
black are totally opposed. This type of contrast is 
also expressed in the Arabic calligraphy
Here, white is the color of the visible light 
and black is the shadow that materializes 

interception of this light, including that of the 
sun, representing a relaxing protection from 
solar heat. It is part of the enjoyment in Paradise, 
which explains the desire to create light and 
shadow effects.
Yellow and green colors are transitional colors 
between white and black. They are also 
intermediate values. The floral decoration is 
related to vegetation and to the garden of bliss 
promised to the Muslim (Clévenot & Degeorge, 
2000). This explains the use of the double palm 
in green tone arranged with the black infinite 
rod that extends throughout the decor. In Islam, 
green is the color of the vegetation, color of 
the eternity garden of fruit trees, of green silk 
clothes, of different brocade sofas and carpets 
of paradise. The green color is eternal in the 
afterlife, but ephemeral on earth. The aim was 
to fill the surfaces with skillful combinations, by 
repeating various forms of ornamental plants.
The yellow palm leaf placed near the brown one 
(nearly black) is added to the floral composition 
of the porch, which affirms the clear-obscure 
contrast. Here the yellow color illuminates the 
chromatic ensemble. It replaces gold, gild and 
spark. It represents the energy and the wealth of 
the Marinid dynasty. In our case study, yellow is 
similar to the color of the brick and thus, creates 
harmony.
In this composition, the complementary shapes 
are coupled to an opposition between two 
values or two colors: black and white, raw brick 
and glazed brick, whose function is to disrupt 
the relationship between form and background. 
White on black draws the lines of the pattern. 
This combination of shapes and colors allows 
the transformation of the architectural context 
into a living and significant space.
Geometric patterns are combined with floral 
decoration. For example, on the surface of the 
underside of the arc, there is a very pronounced 
oblique weft, creating brown diamonds with 
identical shapes, which have the added 
geometric particularity to fit together. These 
nearly black surfaces are surrounded by yellow 
bands. Their composition is based on a clear/
obscure contrast, creating a play of light and 
shadow and a set of relief. At the same time, 
this combination of tone indicates a quality 
design, which is the contrast between the 
saturated and bright yellow and the dull brown; 
de-saturated with the black. This would only 
accentuate the brightness of yellow and gives it 
the brilliant effect of the gold color (The Marinids 
always wanted to represent the golden color). 
This panoply of colors enhances and enriches 
the white plaster. It creates frames design, light 
and shadows effects that animate the arc, into 
a directory of mathematical techniques. Also, 
symbolically, the ornamental abundance means 
prosperity. 



 11

Cultura e Scienza del Colore - Color Culture and Science | 10 | 2018 | 07 - 12

Color on Ceramics in the Medieval Architecture of Tlemcen, Algeria: Light, Ambiance and Symbolism   

ISSN 2384-9568

3.2 THE MOSQUE AND MADRASA PAVEMENT
But more than vegetation, geometry gives rise in 
the Islamic context to an ornamental exploitation 
that does not have its equivalent anywhere else 
(Clévenot & Degeorge, 2000).
First, stair risers of the stairs leading to the 
door of the mosque are decorated with small 
multicolored diamonds, whose tones are 
identical to the porch colors; green, black (dark 
brown) yellow on white background, all framed 
by a green ceramic surround. These fragments 
in diamond, smaller than those which adorn 
the courtyard of the mosque and the Madrasa, 
pleasantly decorate the staircase.
The gridded ground with fillets of diamonds is a 
formal system, where the geometry associated 
with the color plays in counterpoint and 
highlights the fountain in the middle of the patio. 
The diamond headbands are spread over the 
entire surface of the courtyard and create a grid 
of alternating colors. Constructors have made a 
color scheme of bright and dark tones with this 
surface area (yellow and white with black), by 
creating a frame, like weaving or basketry.
Much variation on the principles of the frame 
has interesting similarities with the textile arts 
(Clévenot & Degeorge, 2000). With bands of dark 
diamonds, lines print their path on a background 
of white diamonds.
The combinational logic of colors inside this 
frame creates visual effects. Contrasting colors 

(black, white and yellow) accentuate the design 
of both frames and patterns. The results are 
optical phenomena of vibration because the 
eye is often undecided between clear and 
dark forms. The frame is a linear geometric 
distribution of these compositions, resulting 
in a network combination. For the viewer, the 
visual result is a moving and dynamic space, 
enlightened by white, illuminated by yellow, 
punctuated by green. Black serves to emphasize 
and express these nuances.
This polychrome geometric pattern possesses 
obviously, as those already mentioned, a 
symbolic value given to this highly allegorical 
place of the mosque. Indeed, the chromatic 
whole, punctuated by a green color, introduces 
the concept of the garden, a glittering garden 
(with the use of yellow; color of gold and sparkle, 
of sun and its reflections) to represent the Garden 
of Eden. This mode of expression enhances the 
connotation, not the denotation, leaving the 
viewer with free rein in his interpretation.

3.3 THE MINARET
The minaret rises majestically above the 
architectural complex of Sidi Boumediene. This 
is one of the prettiest still-standing specimens 
of its kind; by the synchronism of its proportions, 
the variety of its toppings and finally, in order 
to be perceived; the richness of ceramic coating 
that decorates its top  (Marçais & Marçais, 1903).
The tile mosaic that adorns this pinnacle is 
composed of each side by a frieze of four rosettes 
of rich geometrical construction. Decorative 
rosettes scheme has a symbolic value, where 
polychrome stars (bright yellow, bypassing black 
tips, outlined by white) are laden with celestial 
meanings; a dark starry sky. The clear-obscure 
contrast is repeated. It emphasizes the spark 
of yellow, which forms a bright spot in the dark 
surface that surrounds it.
To clarify the reading of the figures, the artist can 
assign to each element a different color. But he 

Figure 4 - The courtyard of Sidi 
Boumediene Mosque, with a 
polychrome mosaic of faience 
(brown, yellow, green and white). 
Source: Author.

Figure 5 - Minaret of the mosque with 
a geometric and polychrome decor of 
rosettes.
Source: left: watercolor Duthoi 1872 
(authorized by © Ministère de la 
culture (France), the médiathèque de 
l’architecture et du patrimoine (Paris)). 
Right: authors



12 

Cultura e Scienza del Colore - Color Culture and Science | 10 | 2018 | 07 - 12

Benkhedda M. and Tabet Aoul K.

ISSN 2384-9568

DOI: 10.23738/ccsj.102018.01

can also disrupt the reading by playing on the 
simple alternation of light and dark  (Clévenot & 
Degeorge, 2000). This abundant décor creates 
a sense of unreality faced with the material 
reality of the monument, making it a pure 
decor, a heavenly dream, a secluded place from 
worldliness.
A row of crenellations crowns the main body 
of the tower; they carry a mosaic decoration 
unfortunately impacted by the elements. This 
is an adornment consisting of white stars on 
a black background. The use of the bright star 
pattern (white on a black background) is the 
incarnation of the celestial world. The pattern 
stands out as a white active form on a dark 
background, thus highlighting it. Bands of green 
tones underline the architectural style. With the 
clear-obscure contrast, the entire surface takes 
a plastically animated feature

5. CONCLUSIONS

Earthenware mosaics played an important role in 
the decoration of the medieval Arab architecture 
of Tlemcen. Its proven resistance to elements 
made it the best exterior coating. Permanent 
colors are fixed to the portals, minarets, inside 
courtyards spaces and mosques. Colors are 
used in isolated fragments or small groups, and 
encrusted in a brick apparatus, as an exterior 
finish or shaped stone. The tones are bright 
spots in the matt or dark surfaces that surround 
them. They are either assembled in bands of a 
single tone highlighting architectural lines and 
facilitating formal reading, or into complete 
panels, composed of interlacing geometric, floral 
designs, mostly on white background. Color 
gradients that suggest the volumes have been 
replaced by a play of contrasting oppositions, 
reflecting a more graphic understanding of the 
form  (Clévenot & Degeorge, 2000).
The visual impacts of these adorned spaces are 
intimately related to the magnificent adorning 
which covers them. Indeed, polychrome ceramics 
transform the look of the architectural space. It 
has a decisive influence on the appearance of 
a building and the atmosphere that emerges, 
giving an identity to its geometric composition. 
This ceramics adorning the flat surfaces and 
its colors in chiaroscuro contrast provide the 
impressions of relief; form and substance effect; 
light and darkness…
The use of color deliberately destabilizes a 
static geometrical design by introducing a new 
dynamic in architecture (Blair & Bloom, 2011). 
Furthermore, each color symbolizes a state of 
fact in our world on earth or in the hereafter, 
combining psychology and physiology. This 
ornamentation carries aesthetical, philosophical 
and symbolic connotations. 

The image of this architecture, its aesthetic 
and its polychrome is a visual memory that 
characterizes the built heritage, a testimony 
of a know-how of previous civilizations. This 
study aimed to document in order to preserve 
this wealth and avoid the trivialization and 
degradation of some of the most remarkable 
architectural typologies of the country that can 
translate into a new design language and a 
positive contribution to the architectural realm.

FUNDING

This research did not receive any specific grant 
from founding agencies in the public or not-for 
profit sectors.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that nothing affected their 
objectivity or independence and original work. 
Therefore, no conflict of interest exists.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Blair, S., & Bloom, J. (2011). And Diverse Are Their Hues: 
Color in Islamic art and culture. New Haven and London: 
Yale University Press.

Bourouiba, R. (1981). L’art religieux musulman en Algérie. 
2nd edn. Alger: SNED.

Burckhardt, T. (1985). L’art de l’Islam, langage et 
signification. Paris: Editions Sindbad.

Clévenot, D., & Degeorge, G. (2000). Decor d’Islam. Paris: 
Editions Citadelles et Mazenod.

Degeorges, G., & Porter, I. (2001). L’art de la Céramique 
dans l’architecture musulmane. Paris: Flammarion.

Itten, J. (1961). The Art of Color. New York: Van Nostrand 
Reinhold Company.

Kouma, A., & Nafa, C. (2003). L’Algérie et son patrimoine. 
Paris: monom, Editions du patrimoine.

Marçais, G., & Marçais, W. (1903). Les monuments arabes 
de Tlemcen. Paris: Albert Fontemoing Editeur.

Ringgenberg, P. (2009). L’univers symbolique des arts 
islamiques. Paris: L’Hamattan.

h t t p : / / w w w. v i t a m i n e c a . c o m / m o b i l e / p h o t o - g m .
php?p=articles/205/205935.jpg