Current Issues in Comparative Education (CICE), Volume 26, Issue 1, Winter 2024 The Development of Intercultural Competence for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language through an Instructional Design Project Yu-Chieh Wu University of Hawaii at Manoa Most teaching pedagogies in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes prioritize linguistic skills development over exploring how cultural factors shape language interpretation. To address the gap, this study developed and evaluated an instructional design project using the attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction (ARCS) motivational design model combined with critical pedagogy through computer-mediated communication (CMC) tools. The purpose of this research is to enhance EFL teachers’ intercultural competence. Multimedia resources were used to capture participants’ attention, and news articles were selected to connect to their lived experiences. Online forums were used to build their confidence, and intercultural activities provided satisfaction through practical engagement. Critical literacy pedagogy guided the design of questions to encourage EFL teachers to explore assumptions, challenge perspectives, and critically analyze language. Data from 16 EFL teachers’ questionnaires, online comments, and interviews indicated that task attractiveness and the online environment motivated EFL teachers to develop critical literacy skills. Future studies could explore additional strategies for integrating intercultural competence into EFL teaching and examine how cultural dynamics within groups influence online communication. Keywords: English as a foreign language, computer-mediated communication, ARCS motivational design model Introduction In recent years, the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom has become an important place for developing intercultural competence due to its possibility to allow students to explore diverse identities and cultures. However, traditional language acquisition approaches focus on linguistic competence, such as reading, speaking, listening, and writing skills, which cannot capture the complexity of sociocultural perspectives of language learning (Ohta, 2000). To bridge this gap, O’Dowd (2013) suggests that “online cultural exchanges” can be a great model to emphasize linguistic and intercultural competence. Consequently, many training programs for EFL teachers have adopted computer-mediated communication (CMC) to foster international dialogue and overcome the challenges of limited access to target cultures. To support teachers’ engagement in these training programs, the attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction (ARCS) model developed by Keller (1987) is popular in both educational research and practice, and there is a growing interest in applying this model in technology-enhanced learning environments (Ma & Lee, 2021). The ARCS model’s © 2024, Wu. CC BY 4.0. Current Issues in Comparative Education 26(1), 56-75. https://https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en The Development of Intercultural Competence for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language through an Instructional Design Project Current Issues in Comparative Education 57 emphasis on maintaining attention and relevance, boosting confidence, and fostering satisfaction plays a crucial role in sustaining EFL teachers’ active participation. However, fostering intercultural competence requires more than motivation. Deeper engagement with content that challenges perspectives and promotes critical thinking is necessary. To achieve this, critical literacy pedagogy was incorporated to facilitate authentic communication within the online module. Critical literacy pedagogy, rooted in the educational philosophy of Paulo Freire (1970), has evolved to become an integral component of EFL instruction. Introduced in the 1990s as an innovative approach, critical literacy pedagogy has gained significant attention from scholars who advocate for incorporating social and political contexts into language curricula (Pennycook, 2001). This approach prompts EFL teachers to move beyond simple information exchange and progress more along the lines of thinking, “Why do we want to communicate?” This method encourages participants to think critically about language choices and their implications, promoting awareness beyond literal meanings. Recognizing the gap in traditional EFL teaching pedagogies, which predominantly focus on linguistic skills without adequately addressing the influence of cultures on language interpretation, this study develops and evaluates an online professional development module aimed at integrating language learning and intercultural competence through CMC tools. The two research questions that guide this research are: 1. How do the online modules influence participants’ motivation? 2. How do the online modules influence participants’ intercultural competence? This study seeks to address these questions by examining the effectiveness of an online professional development module in enhancing EFL teachers’ motivation and intercultural competence. Instructional Design Project To begin, I developed an online professional development module on the free website builder Wix. The module incorporates diverse voices and narratives, guided by critical questions designed to prompt reflection and deeper engagement. By presenting varied perspectives, the module provided EFL teachers with opportunities to broaden their understanding of intercultural competence, fostering a more nuanced comprehension of language in both personal and societal narratives. By analyzing the participants’ experience in the module, this study seeks to expand knowledge of integrated language learning and intercultural competence, to demonstrate how EFL modules can be effectively implemented using CMC tools. The ARCS model was developed and validated more than 30 years ago in both face-to- face and online environments, and the online module was developed with an eye to the components of ARCS. The module captured EFL teachers’ attention using multimedia materials, including international news articles, social movement photos, and short clips. To ensure relevance, lesson content featured stories sourced from newspapers, making it more applicable to EFL teachers’ experiences. By sharing collective knowledge on the Wu Current Issues in Comparative Education 58 public forum, participants are expected to build confidence in integrating intercultural topics into EFL classes and to find satisfaction in interacting with peers from different countries. Images that can convey the project’s key ideas were selected. For instance, McArthur’s Universal Corrective Map of the World (1979) illustrated how visual representations and textual information construct our perspectives. Each lesson in the module opens with an introduction, leads participants through an exploration of materials, and closes with an expansion of lessons learned. Different purposes and objectives were broken down for participants to achieve (Figure 1). The objectives of the lessons on intercultural competence for EFL teachers are as follows: • Lesson 1-Language to ideology: Determine how languages influence ideologies • Lesson 2-Ideology to implicit bias: Determine how ideologies influence implicit bias • Lesson 3-Implicit bias to identities: Determine how implicit bias influence identity • Lesson 4-Perspectives: Recognize how cultures influence language interpretation to the same information Each lesson is structured in three phases: Introduction, exploration, and expansion. In the introductory phase, visual images and tutorials get participants’ attention. In this phase, the key learning goals are to (1) recognize how language is influenced in dominant and non-dominant cultures and (2) identify how language and identity are constructed. In the exploration session, theoretical concepts are delivered through academic readings. The learning goals in the exploration phase are to (1) identify the impact of explicit and implicit bias and (2) determine how implicit bias is formed through reading. The expansion session provides a real-life news event for participants to apply concepts from the lesson. In this phase, the goals are to (1) explore the idea that languages sometimes encode meanings that can be difficult to access in other languages from a news article and (2) evaluate how cultural values guide people to form different communication norms. This online module aims to explore how questions grounded in critical literacy pedagogy can facilitate meaningful online communication among EFL teachers. This approach enables EFL teachers to adopt an active role in the reader-author relationship, fostering deeper understanding from a critical perspective that questions, examines, and disputes the power relations between readers and authors (McLaughlin & DeVoogd, 2004). For example, the first lesson introduced the word “oriental,” followed by a tutorial about why this word had a negative connotation and was removed from the federal law. In the exploration session, participants explored the difference between “exotic” and “Asian” through images. Another lesson involved an academic reading on implicit bias and how language reflects one’s mind. During the expansion session, participants analyzed the usage of the term “immigrant” after reading two authentic news articles, one from Taiwan and the other from Germany, which was followed by online discussions. Throughout these lessons, analyzing and interpreting the textual and visual content presented in this module is viewed as a process of interaction not only between the reader, the author, and the information but also between the reader and society. This approach allows for a more engaging method of fostering cultural understanding and communication. The Development of Intercultural Competence for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language through an Instructional Design Project Current Issues in Comparative Education 59 Figure 1. Content Map Literature Review Intercultural competence is widely recognized as an individual’s capacity to operate effectively in diverse cultural contexts (Chen & Starosta, 1998). Hammer et al. (2015) describe it as the capability to think and act in ways appropriate to different cultures. Jia (1997) suggests that intercultural competence is sensitivity and tolerance to cultural differences, dealing with cultural differences flexibly, constructing awareness and competence of the target culture, and helping participants communicate appropriately in an intercultural setting. Intercultural competence is paramount for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers, as it involves understanding, respecting, and effectively communicating with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. This intercultural competence enables EFL teachers to create inclusive learning environments that acknowledge and celebrate cultural differences, thereby offering an alternative model in language education (Fang & Baker, 2018) and enriching the educational experience for students. Previous materials for EFL teachers’ education tend to focus on cultural knowledge such as literature, artwork, customs, history, or taboo. Disregarding their unique cultural differences, these stereotypical and generalized cultural facts may lead to the pre- judgment and categorization of individuals, resulting in misunderstandings and potential conflicts as it overlooks the complexities and nuances of individual cultural identities (Cojocaru, 2023). Therefore, instructional designers should incorporate authentic situations into lessons and encourage EFL teachers to explore intangible cultural aspect Wu Current Issues in Comparative Education 60 such as attitudes, assumptions, beliefs, perceptions, norms, and values in their EFL classes (Chlopek, 2008). Effective implementation of intercultural competence for EFL teachers can be accomplished using computer-mediated communication (CMC) tools to foster online intercultural communication and intercultural communicative competence (Bennacer, 2019). This increased engagement through CMC tools is attributed to the shift in participants’ roles from passive recipients to active topic contributors, negotiators, and information providers (Yandell, 2013). To sustain such engagement, one critical component is motivation, which drives participants to fully and effectively engage in intercultural exchange. Motivation itself comprises both internal factors as well as external factors. Gardner and Lambert (1972) identify two key motivation types in foreign language learning. Integrative motivation is driven by the aspiration to become a member of society, and instrumental motivation is motivated by practical goals such as securing a desirable job and gaining social recognition. Lalleman (1996) criticizes this binary classification of motivation, arguing that it oversimplifies the concept. Madrid (2021) further refines the definition, describing motivation as a series of processes that stimulate, direct, and maintain behavior. It is a dynamic, cyclical, and process-oriented model of motivation, which takes into account three motivational phases (preactional, actional and postactional). Warschauer (1996) highlights several motivational factors associated with using CMC tools, including the ability to communicate with speakers of diverse mother tongues, feeling empowered and less threatened interacting with others, and making students feel more control over their learning. Meunier (1998) extends this analysis by examining motivation in online chat sessions, considering elements such as anxiety, risk-taking, reaction to teaching styles, and motivation. This research aims to identify factors that motivate EFL teachers to engage in authentic online communication and explore evidence that demonstrates the development of intercultural competence. Understanding motivation’s multifaceted role in intercultural exchange and language learning is key to developing effective teaching and engagement strategies. By leveraging insights into how motivation operates within different educational and communication contexts, educators can better design activities and interactions that sustain long-term involvement. Among current motivational models, Keller’s (1984) Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction (ARCS) model offers a comprehensive framework for understanding motivation by encouraging active participation and meaningful learning. It has been frequently used in web-based, online, and blended learning (Aşıksoy & Özdamlı, 2016; Mirzaei et al., 2024) and emerged as a mainstream method in the post-pandemic era. Fang et al. (2023) reviewed Garzón et al.’s (2020) classification of pedagogical strategies within the context of the ARCS model, identifying five types of pedagogies: (1) collaborative learning, (2) inquiry-based learning, (3) situated learning, (4) project-based learning, and (5) multimedia learning. The review indicated that the majority of the studies (77%) implemented multimedia learning to facilitate student learning. For example, Lin and Wang (2023) explored the impact of integrating the ARCS model into a flipped classroom for EFL learners’ writing. The experimental group used a hybrid and face-to-face approach, while the control group implemented face-to-face instruction. Results showed that the ARCS-flipped group performed better in writing and reported higher motivation. The Development of Intercultural Competence for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language through an Instructional Design Project Current Issues in Comparative Education 61 Learners appreciated the flexibility, learner-centeredness, interactivity, and collaboration of the flipped model, which enhanced their engagement and writing performance. Based on the previous review, this self-designed module incorporates multimedia learning to enhance motivation. While fostering motivation through CMC tools enhances engagement, achieving intercultural competence requires strong media literacy to critically evaluate and engage with content in a meaningful way. In the digital era, participants may struggle to identify credible information and thoughtfully engage with diverse perspectives. Zuckerman (2014) introduces the concept of “participatory civics,” a framework where individuals use participatory media to engage in civic activities. His research highlights that individuals often prefer engaging with like-minded online groups, which can limit exposure to differing opinions and reduce acceptance of alternative viewpoints. This presents challenges for fostering meaningful civic engagement in a diverse and competitive online landscape. To address these issues, this study’s online module is designed not only to impart structured knowledge but also to help EFL teachers perceive the dynamic nature of reality across different cultural contexts. Through cultural comparisons, EFL teachers can potentially become more aware of the cultural components embedded in language and imagery, thereby enhancing their intercultural competence through critical literacy pedagogy. Originating from critical social theory, critical literacy pedagogy encourages students to engage with texts in an active and reflective manner, fostering a deeper understanding of power dynamics, inequality, and social justice issues present in human interactions. Critical literacy pedagogy has recently been considered an inclusive educational approach (Sullivan, 2017) and has gained increasing attention. Critical literacy involves reading and understanding content as well as analyzing, critiquing, and responding to it in a way that considers multiple viewpoints and cultural nuances. Such an approach might reduce anxiety by reinforcing the social dimension of learning (Selinger, 1998). Researchers have further supported critical literacy pedagogy, advocating for its integration as a tool to promote social justice in language education (Riasati & Mollaei, 2012). The main difference between critical literacy pedagogy and other dominant pedagogies lies in their conceptualization of language, knowledge, module, and content. Mainstream pedagogies often regard language as a direct reflection of reality and view knowledge as universal. The module content is typically determined by the author’s authority This often results in presenting information in binary terms: such as right or wrong, fact or opinion, neutral or biased. On the other hand, critical literacy pedagogy argues that language shapes the lenses through which reality is understood. If the perception of language changes, the concepts of identity, culture, and communication also change. This approach views knowledge as inherently incomplete since each person makes sense of the world through their different cultural backgrounds and experiences. The content of this study’s module aims to help EFL teachers explore the underlying assumptions and implications of the text. In Table 1, Andreotti (2009) presents general differences in question types between traditional and critical literacy pedagogies in EFL classes, emphasizing the need for more critical and reflective approaches. Wu Current Issues in Comparative Education 62 Table 1. Question Types Traditional pedagogies Critical literacy pedagogies Does the text represent the truth? Is it fact or opinion? Is it biased or neutral? Is it well-written/clear? Who is the author, and what level of authority/legitimacy does he or she represent? What does the author say? How are words interpreted differently? What are the assumptions behind the statements? Where are they from? What/whose understandings do they present? How was this understanding constructed? Who decides what is real in this context? In whose name and for whose benefit? Note. Adapted from Andreotti, V. (2009). Global education in the 21st century': Two different perspectives on the post-of postmodernism. International Journal of Development Education and Global Learning, 2(2), 5-22. Gustine (2018) conducts a mixed-methods study involving a survey and follow-up focus group discussions to examine English teachers’ understanding of critical literacy pedagogy. The study sample includes 21 English teachers from a teacher education university. The quantitative data from the questionnaires provide an overview of the teachers’ knowledge of critical literacy as an approach to English language teaching, and the qualitative insights from the focus group discussion reveal that experienced teachers lack sufficient knowledge of critical literacy as a methodological approach. Overall, the research shows that incorporating critical literacy pedagogy into their classrooms can enhance their students’ engagement with texts and foster critical thinking skills. Asanti and Syamdianita (2017) examine how extensive reading is a supplementary activity that can enhance students’ critical literacy in an EFL context. The guidance through critical pedagogy motivates students to engage with texts, question assumptions critically, relate content to global issues, and develop a nuanced understanding of human perspectives and textual intentions. Intercultural competence is vital for EFL teachers to foster inclusive learning environments. While motivation through the ARCS model supports engagement, strong media literacy is needed for critical content analysis. To explore how these concepts can be effectively implemented for EFL teachers, the following methods section outlines the design and approach used to integrate the ARCS model and media literacy strategies into the instructional framework. Methods Recruitment and Participants The goal of this research is to evaluate the impact of the self-designed professional development online module on participants’ intercultural competence and motivation. This research targeted a specific group: EFL teachers at secondary schools. EFL teachers were recruited via recruitment email and confirmation email with a consent form and an The Development of Intercultural Competence for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language through an Instructional Design Project Current Issues in Comparative Education 63 in-person invitation. The recruitment process for this study was carried out using convenience sampling, an approach selected for its efficiency in achieving the required sample size. This method facilitated a relatively quick and straightforward process of gathering participants. I had access to several academic listservs through my affiliation with the University of Hawaii (UH), where these academic listservs serve as vital platforms for connecting scholars, students, and educators across disciplines. Emails were sent to potential participants, and all the teachers who agreed to participate in the study did so willingly, ensuring an ethically sound approach to recruitment. The inclusion criteria (Table 2) were centered on the professional status of the participants, specifically selecting EFL teachers. This criterion was crucial to ensure that the participants had a direct and practical understanding of the challenges and nuances of teaching EFL. Table 2. EFL Teachers’ Inclusion Criteria Cognitive Physiological • Has basic computer literacy skills • Has little to no knowledge about incorporating the English language with intercultural competence • Has moderate comprehension of the English language • Has knowledge and/or experience completing online surveys • Is over the age of 18 years old • Can be any gender • Is physically and mentally able to use computers Affective Social • Mentally prepared to participate in professional development • Open to possibilities to innovate English classes • Able to engage and communicate with the researcher • Can test an online module individually The selection was based on criterion sampling, as per Dornyei (2007), focusing on participant teachers who met predetermined criteria relevant to our study. These EFL teachers were over 18, and the cognitive, physiological, affective, and social domains were used to screen the target population's characteristics. Sixteen voluntary EFL teachers (14 females and 2 males), mostly aged 25-30, were recruited from the Second Language Studies Department at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. These participants came from six different countries: Taiwan (4), Japan (3), China (2), Korea (1), Vietnam (1), and the USA (5). Two do not have teaching experience, nine have 1-5 years of teaching experience, three have 6-10 years of teaching experience, and two have more than 10 years of teaching experience. Two participants joined one-on-one sessions with me, while the other fourteen tested the online lessons individually. Procedures Wu Current Issues in Comparative Education 64 The participants were contacted via recruitment email. After they replied to the email, the researcher sent the confirmation letter to arrange a mutually agreed time to meet on the UHM campus. The link to the website, the consent form, and the purpose of the research were also included in the confirmation letter. When the researcher met with the participants, they opened the website link using their personal computers. Each participant was guided to click on the pre-lesson questionnaire to fill out their data. The consent form attached to the pre-lesson questionnaire informed participants about the steps, the intent of the study, and potential risks. Once the participants hit the “next” button, it implied that they understood and agreed to participate in the research. The personal data were used specifically to determine the impact of this online module and for educational purposes only, and it will be kept private. After participants completed the questionnaire, they spent around 45 minutes finishing the three lessons and interacting with other international participants online. At the end of the lesson, retrospective survey questions were used to examine participants’ motivation in achieving intercultural competence. The researcher also interviewed participants for any feedback regarding online lessons. Data Collection Data collection was conducted both in person and remotely, accommodating the varying circumstances and locations of the participant teachers. This approach was crucial in ensuring a broad and inclusive collection of data. This research was designed to delve deeply into the teachers’ experiences and perceptions regarding the online professional development module and their intercultural competence. Evaluation Instruments It is important to unpack the complexities of motivation because the course design and learning environment should all be considered. This research utilized quantitative and qualitative measurements to examine which factors increase or decrease motivation. A pre-lesson questionnaire with eight questions and a retrospective survey with 20 questions developed through Google Forms were used to evaluate the impact of this online module on motivation. The retrospective assessment tool was used to decrease the “response-shift bias” in pre-post surveys and effectively eliminate incomplete data sets that usually occur in pre-post tests (Pratt, McGuigan, & Katzev, 2000). The study employed a pre- and post-test design; however, the instruments used in these stages differed significantly. The pre-test comprised a concise questionnaire, whereas the post- test utilized a more extensive survey. This discrepancy raises concerns about the comparability of the data collected, particularly regarding the measurement of ARCS factors. This research collected information from one-on-one interviews, online comments, and open-ended questions. Data access was restricted to the researcher, and all qualitative responses were anonymized by removing any identifying details to ensure individual responses could not be traced back to participants. This approach safeguarded participant privacy while allowing analysis of demographic trends in teaching practices. Results Most participants understood that the English language could incorporate intercultural issues (4.9/5). However, when it comes to inviting students to join social events, EFL The Development of Intercultural Competence for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language through an Instructional Design Project Current Issues in Comparative Education 65 teachers scored the lowest (3.4/5). To understanding this result, it is useful to reference Nõmm’s three components in achieving intercultural competence: cognitive, affective, and operational (2012). Cognitive components focus on cultural differences and their impact on intercultural interaction. Affective components are empathy and the ability to see the world from different perspectives and overcome stereotypical reactions to another culture. Operational components are the ability to help solve the failure in intercultural communications. Like mainstream teaching pedagogies, the result showed that participants focused more on the cognitive domain (i.e., English can incorporate intercultural issues. I incorporate intercultural issues into English classes), while skill and affective domains were focused less upon (i.e., I taught students how cultures influence opinions. I invited students to participate in social events. I encourage students to comment on the news.) Motivation in Incorporating Intercultural Issues in EFL Classes This research explores to what extent this online module influences participants' motivation to become interculturally competent. In the overall module design, most participants thought this module was presented in an interesting manner (4.6/5) however, when asked if they felt prepared to incorporate intercultural issues into their English classes, the score was relatively lower (4/5). This may result from the fact that this online module was designed for professional development rather than a teaching resource website. Much of the existing motivation research focuses on teachers’ roles and responsibilities in stimulating students’ motivation. In contrast, this self-paced professional development module is designed to empower teachers to incorporate intercultural issues in EFL classes. This study utilized the ARCS model to determine whether participants increased their attention to intercultural issues, relate these issues to their lives, be confident in promoting intercultural issues, and feel satisfied during the process. The result showed notable improvements in all ARCS model domains from pre- to post-assessment. The attention domain demonstrated the most significant increase, rising from a pre-score of 4.1 to a post- score of 4.7, representing a 14.6% increase. The relevance domain showed substantial improvement, moving from a pre-score of 3.8 to 4.4, marking a 15.8% increase. In the confidence domain, scores increased from 3.75 to 4.6, a 22.7% increase, indicating that participants felt more assured in discussing language and identity after engaging with the module. The satisfaction domain, while scoring the lowest, still increased from 3.7 to 4.2, showing a 13.5% increase. These findings illustrate overall growth in participants’ motivation and readiness to engage with intercultural content after completing the module. These post-test results illustrate how participants’ engagement with the module translated into tangible improvements across all domains. The high score in the attention domain (4.7/5) was evident in their active participation and thoughtful comments during online discussions, showcasing an increased focus on intercultural issues. For instance, participants used nuanced language and demonstrated awareness in their responses, reflecting their attention to detail and understanding of complex cultural topics. The Wu Current Issues in Comparative Education 66 strong relevance score (4.4/5) was supported by participants’ ability to connect the module’s content to their personal experiences. This was exemplified by responses regarding “Asian food.” One participant mentioned that “Asian food” in the United States often refers to Chinese cuisine, whereas in England, it usually means Indian food. The confidence score (4.6/5) suggested that participants felt more empowered to discuss intercultural topics. This newfound confidence could be seen in their willingness to contribute diverse viewpoints and initiate conversations on language and identity, indicating that the module effectively bolstered their confidence in navigating intercultural dialogue. The satisfaction domain, which scored the lowest (4.2/5), reflects that as a motivational component, it often deepens over time with continued practice and reflection. In the qualitative analysis, data were clustered into recurring patterns. Task attractiveness and the online environment emerged as important themes in the feedback. This research initially focuses on comments related to the overall attractiveness of the task, as attractive tasks are known to enhance intrinsic motivation. One participant indicated that the module was well-designed and expressed favorable attitudes toward learning other topics such as language and gender equality. Another participant shared that the module encouraged deeper reflection on often-overlooked issues and expressed interest in adapting content from the website for personal use. Besides module design, participants offered suggestions specifically on the instructions provided within the module that can support a more effective learning experience: I think it would be good to start with a very simple, factual definition first- -one with no inherent positive or negative biases--and then elicit opinions or imagery from the students to identify any biases or preconceived notions they may have. Participants not only commented on the overall website design but also actively engaged in thinking about how to make these ideas applicable in the EFL classroom. Secondly, the online environment is crucial in discussing sensitive intercultural issues and investigating the roles of confidence and anxiety in this online setting. MacIntyre et al. (1998) determine that confidence or a perceived lack of confidence can influence willingness to communicate. For example, one participant mentioned that the anonymity of online comments allows them to conceal their identity, thereby increasing their confidence when discussing sensitive issues. On the other hand, another participant mentioned that the lack of identifiable context made it difficult to fully understand others’ perspectives. This data shows that participants were concerned about the safety and trustworthiness of this online group, contributing to a certain level of anxiety in interacting with others. Interestingly, one participant stated that as an EFL teacher, they feel obligated to think the right way, deterring them from exchanging their genuine viewpoints. The participant shared, “I am not sure whether people will judge me the way I think. As an EFL teacher, I feel that I need to be the model of my students and convey the right concepts.” This anxiety may have been exacerbated by the absence of an online The Development of Intercultural Competence for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language through an Instructional Design Project Current Issues in Comparative Education 67 team-building activity prior to the module. To address these concerns, future research could incorporate critical literacy pedagogy that encourages learners to share their constructed knowledge with peers. Enhanced Learning of Deep Culture This online module utilized two international news articles and images about immigrants from Taiwan and Germany as authentic teaching materials. International news draws on stories from diverse and global sources, which can lead learners to identify deep-rooted social aspects and social struggles that they may not be aware of (Frank, 2013). Visual and textual materials with different political or cultural perspectives can be a rich source to promote interculturalism. To arouse participants’ attention to assumptions and implications, critical literacy pedagogy was used in designing questions. The guiding questions focus on discovering where the assumption comes from instead of a fixed statement. For example, the instructional design asked questions like “How is the word immigrant interpreted differently in different countries’ contexts?” rather than “Does the text represent the truth?” and “What are the assumptions behind the use of the word immigrant?” instead of “Is this statement a fact or opinion?” The questions interestingly illicit participants’ multiple perspectives: In the Taiwanese news article, the word immigrant was neutral and portrayed as the correct technical term. However, in the German news article, Ozil felt immigrant was othering and it threatened his identity as a German. ... I don't see these two interpretations as very different. In both cases, people labeled as immigrants are viewed as perpetual foreigners… It isn't necessary to label them as immigrants every time we refer to them. Bartlett (2005) describes this type of critical dialogue as a “pedagogical process” where participants actively engage in learning through discussion and debate of sociopolitical realities. This highlights how an online forum can expose participants to diverse perspectives through international dialogue. Another participant compared cultural differences,“Calling someone an immigrant might be disrespectful, but I always remember feeling distinctly bothered when I learned the color black in Spanish, was the word "negro” For a comprehensive education on the word, it is not complete without the proper context.” In this example, “negro” in Spanish refers to dark color rather than a negative connotation. This illustrated how a particular worldview was constructed by language and history. These insights modify “the interactional habits that enact authoritarian relations,” (Shor, 2012) and make critical literacy possible. This online intercultural setting allowed participating EFL teachers to communicate with others whose first language, culture, and ethnicity were different from their own, and it enhanced their intercultural competence. Still, language learning may include both word and contextual levels, and it can be challenging to design materials to capture the complexity of deep culture. Two participants mentioned, Wu Current Issues in Comparative Education 68 Although it is important to use politically correct language in EFL classes, what's more important is the language user's intention. That is, it would probably be fine if sometimes politically incorrect language is used without the intention to degrade others. ...I would tell students that "African American" is correct and "Black" is also correct. Different people want to be called different things. Also, it is okay for some people to use a word and not for others because context matters. Some words are just simply outdated, like "stewardess" instead of flight attendant... Besides using interactive dialogic approaches to engage participants online, future research might consider creating flexible tasks and tools for knowledge sharing. As it is not realistic for an instructional designer to develop materials that can cover different cultural components, it is important to give participants more control in contributing their own cultural knowledge to this module. Raised Attention to Language Choices According to Dörnyei (2001), one self-motivational strategy is metacognitive control. This refers to conscious techniques used by the learner to monitor their own learning. This module designed several tasks for participants to reflect upon the topic of language and identity to motivate them to pay greater attention to language choices. For example, Japanese, especially older people regard the term "immigrant" in a negative way. They view immigrants as outsiders coming into Japan, but this is just personal observation. I think in the same way as you did. When I studied History, I learned that I am an immigrant, and Taiwan is an immigrant society. Although I am quite aware that no picture will be able to depict the immigrants, the education and advertisements in Taiwan might shape my image of an immigrant. Human relations are built around language, and EFL class is about using English that enables relations with others who are different from us. Therefore, EFL classes should provide opportunities to reflect on the language we use and its effect on others. The conversations above provide evidence that participants have become more aware of their linguistic choices. For example, one participant from Japan pointed out that he can’t speak for all Japanese people to avoid overgeneralization. Another participant mentioned that her viewpoints may be shaped by advertisements in the media. These participants reflected on their feelings and tried to establish fair relationships by choosing proper language. The attitude people have when they interact with each other also serves as evidence of learning about deep culture. Raised Attention to Teaching Intercultural Issues The Development of Intercultural Competence for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language through an Instructional Design Project Current Issues in Comparative Education 69 EFL teachers also became more mindful of intercultural issues in EFL classes. After the module, participants admitted to not paying attention to these intercultural issues enough in EFL classes. Three speakers stated that helping students become more aware of other cultures is important: It's important to teach the most commonly used politically correct words, but even more so to teach the reasons behind why certain words are used or not used--particularly when a word is acceptable to some groups but politically incorrect when used by others. Normally I've seen EFL teachers often just explain the meaning of the word, but don't go further into the contexts (good and bad) where the words are used. It is necessary to teach students politically correct words for the purpose of broadening their knowledge. However, it is necessary to inform students about the possible confusion and the unintended consequences that these words might bring in a real conversation. The data indicates that EFL teachers have become more mindful of incorporating intercultural issues in their classes. The attention serves as a safeguard against potential negative attitudes students may encounter when they are exposed to a new set of norms and helps them appreciate cultural differences. Discussion and Implications This instructional design project aimed to motivate EFL teachers to cultivate intercultural competence through an online module, so content and concepts related to values, attitudes, and actions are provided. By integrating the ARCS motivational design model into an online professional development module, the study provides a unique approach to cultivating EFL teachers’ intercultural competence. Korkmaz and Korkmaz (2013) suggest that decontextualized practices cannot effectively achieve language acquisition. Creating context helps take learners’ attention to the lesson. Therefore, teachers can incorporate lessons from these online modules to perceive language holistically, advocating for meaningful contexts that enrich language practice. In answering the first research question, the results show that two factors impacted participants’ motivation for this online module: task attractiveness and the online environment. Using authentic materials enabled EFL teachers to relate intercultural issues to EFL classes. Multi-dimensional resources such as textual, audial, and visual information were used to fit the needs of learners in the digital era. After taking this module, the result of the ARCS model showed that this module drew participants’ attention, related their experiences, and improved their confidence and satisfaction in incorporating English language and intercultural issues, thereby fostering a deeper understanding of cultural dynamics in language learning. As for the online environment, the online module maximizes participants’ opportunities for intercultural learning by Wu Current Issues in Comparative Education 70 using CMC tools to overcome distance and construct social environments. Foreign language learners have limited opportunities to interact with people from the target culture (Jin, 2015), so CMC tools can facilitate a shift in focus from formal traditional classrooms to long-distance, informal, and intercultural collaboration. These studies collectively highlight how CMC tools and online modules can maximize opportunities for intercultural learning in English language acquisition, facilitating the development of intercultural competence. With the possibility of constructing knowledge online, this interactive instructional design may decrease participants’ anxiety about online tools and contribute to their intercultural competence. The second research question, which focuses on participants’ intercultural competence, is crucial to understanding how different values can shape English language interpretation. To explore this, this research used critical literacy pedagogy to design guiding questions for discussion. Critical literacy pedagogy is closely connected to intercultural learning, as both approaches emphasize engaging with and questioning diverse perspectives. Although it is regarded as an inclusive educational method for understanding media sources meaningfully, critical pedagogy is often under-practiced in EFL settings (Gustine, 2018). In this research, participants compare other’s viewpoints to their own culture’s viewpoint. Rather than focusing on the surface definition of the words “orient,” “exotic,” and “immigrant,” critical literacy pedagogy encourages participants to explore underlying assumptions, implications, and socio-cultural contexts of language use. For example, “How do different usages of the word immigrant affect me?” or “Where do I see evidence of this intercultural issue in my community?” Unlike traditional EFL teaching methods primarily focusing on enhancing linguistic skills, this study explores the intersection of culture, politics, and language interpretation. Through critical dialogue, participants could capture the non-tangible intercultural components and examine themselves from multiple perspectives. Integrating critical literacy pedagogy into EFL instruction not only improves linguistic competence but also promotes intercultural competence. It encourages learners to critically analyze and question language, viewing it as a tool for conveying cultural and social meanings. This research paper contributes to the existing literature on critical literacy pedagogy in EFL classes on intercultural competence. This research can prepare teachers to talk about intercultural issues in their English classes and make language input more relevant to learners through contextualization. Moreover, it is important for teachers to refine their pedagogies and practices to meet the academic and social needs of a culturally diverse student population. This refinement process involves a deep understanding of the cultural dynamics within the classroom (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011). Newton (2016) introduces intercultural communicative language teaching as a culturally responsive, socially sensitive pedagogy oriented towards making the most of linguistic and cultural diversity in the EFL classroom. This research encourages teachers to reflect on languages and cultures to effectively address interculturality in their teaching practices. This approach emphasizes the role between languages and cultures, thereby enhancing students’ comprehension of cultural similarities and differences. It requires a reflective approach that shifts the emphasis away from transmitting cultural facts and towards The Development of Intercultural Competence for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language through an Instructional Design Project Current Issues in Comparative Education 71 exploring how culture is embedded and expressed in communication. Limitations One limitation of this research is the recruitment and sampling strategy employed. While it is efficient to gather participants using convenience sampling, it may not provide a comprehensive representation of the broader EFL teacher population. This approach could potentially limit the generalizability of the findings to other contexts or populations. Furthermore, the participant demographic, primarily consisting of teachers from a specific academic institution with varying teaching experience, introduces another layer of constraint. Their experiences and perceptions might not fully encapsulate the diverse challenges and opportunities EFL teachers face in integrating intercultural competence into their teaching practices. Additionally, the reliance on self-reported measures for evaluating changes in motivation and intercultural competence might introduce biases, as participants’ responses could be influenced by their perceptions of social desirability or their interpretation of the questions. Lastly, while the instructional design project aimed to enhance intercultural competence and motivation through carefully curated content and activities, the short duration of the intervention and the online mode of delivery may not fully mimic the complexities and dynamics of real-world classroom interactions, potentially influencing the depth of the intercultural learning experience. The field continues to explore new ways to effectively integrate intercultural competence into EFL teaching, such as using literary texts in virtual spaces (Sharma et al., 2023), which has implications for understanding how online interactions influence students’ cultural perceptions and identities. Conclusion This study contributes to the growing body of literature on the integration of critical literacy pedagogy in EFL classrooms to enhance intercultural competence. By developing an online module that blends the ARCS motivational design model with CMC tools, this research demonstrates that the module effectively increased EFL teachers’ attention, relevance, and confidence, and provided a basis for satisfaction in addressing intercultural issues in their teaching. Through guided questions and reflective tasks, teachers were prompted to consider underlying assumptions and cultural nuances, encouraging them to view language as more than just a set of linguistic skills but as an embodiment of cultural and social perspectives. Feedback from EFL teachers via questionnaires, online comments, and interviews indicated that task attractiveness and the online setting were key motivators for critical literacy development. It also highlights the use of multimedia elements to capture participants’ attention and the importance of fostering motivation for intercultural competence among EFL teachers. Despite the positive outcomes of this research, this research acknowledges its limitations in fully capturing the motivational spectrum and suggests further investigation into how cultural dynamics within groups might shape online intercultural communication. This project offers preliminary results to help EFL teachers from different countries examine the assumptions and beliefs in the English language that are often hidden. This module is expected to raise participants’ attention to their language choice and illuminate the intercultural issues that are present in learning the English language. By doing so, it can Wu Current Issues in Comparative Education 72 be a good start to make the world a more inclusive place. 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