Musicology and the Practice of Music: Thoughts from the 
Work of the Schola Canto rum Basiliensis 

Wulj Arlt 

I 
In view of their common subject matter, one can easily see why the 

question ofthe relationship between scholarship and the practice of music has 
been raised time and again since the birth of modern musicology, and why 
the discussion has been conducted essentially from the side of scholarship. 
To begin with, one of the duties of scholarship is to seek perpetually to 
elucidate itself through reflection and thereby to clarify its connections with 
related activities. But beyond that, musicology was born into an era which, 
in its immediate relationship to music, generally tended to value practical 
application above perception and understanding. Also, as the result of an 
estrangement between cognition and application, delineated ever more 
sharply since the middle of the 18th century, these two fields came to stand 
in an opposition which, because it had never been fully argued out, gave 
only the appearance of reconciliation. Accordingly, the various possibilities 
for speaking about music had become more and more widely separated 
because of several factors: (1) the petrifaction of music theory, which was less 
and less fitted to the diversity of the compositional styles of the time; (2) the 
change in social circumstances, which had led to the bourgeois concert 
business and, subsequently, to a related music criticism; (3) the evolution of 
aesthetics under the influence of philosophical systems; (4) the rise of 
acoustics as a result of new developments in the natural sciences; and (5) the 
increase in historical studies and projects. 

In addition, the representatives of the new discipline of musicology were as 
a rule practicing musicians and even composers. Their backgrounds ranged 
from music criticism or classical philology to the science of history. Therefore, 
the question of the relationship between scholarship and the practice of 
music was for them an inherent and peculiarly personal problem, though in 
each case it took on a different form; and their responses, whether system-
atically formulated or deducible from the consequences, produced quite 
different results. These responses ranged from the juxtaposition (peaceful at 
best) of the representatives of "Science of the Arts and Art," as viewed by 
Philipp Spitta,1 to the amalgamation in the work of Hugo Riemann2 of the 
systematic conceptions of the musician and thinker with his music-historical 
observations, an amalgamation at once problematic and stimulating, though 
not easily dissolved. 

We look back into the history of musicology essentially because it helps us 
to understand our present situation, for the problems which became clear at 
the end of the last century decide to this day the relationship between 
scholarship and the practice of music. We must not overlook the fact, how-

88 



ever, that 20th-century discussions of the aim of musicology produced fresh 
points of view concerning the relationship between historical knowledge and 
musical performance.3 In spite of this it must be stated that those encounters 
in which each field attempts to do justice to its particular mission remain 
today the exception rather than the rule. In fact, such encounters, in view of 
the manifold juxtaposition of opinions determined today by the self-under-
standing of practice as well as scholarship, are in most cases to be considered 
neither necessary nor desirable. 

Thus, it is incomprehensible that a historian doing purely philological 
work should seek an encounter with musical performance. In fact, sometimes 
a researcher, whose scholarly work deals with the Middle Ages or the 
Renaissance, will as a practicing musician be inclined rather toward the 18th 
or 19th century. This is not necessarily an anachronism but is due to his per-
sonal interest or professional connections. And this can happen not only in the 
study of sources or in work on early music theory, but even in problems of 
textual criticism, which provide access to the structure of the music but not 
necessarily an idea of the sound of a given piece. Parallel circumstances arise 
in other types of historical inquiry, in sociological investigations, or in works 
dealing with the psychology of music. 

Similarly, within the practice of music, can we really reproach an inter-
preter who takes as his point of departure the score of a Mozart work with but 
little consideration for all the historical circumstances under which the 
composition was created? Can we insist that a performer should discover the 
proper interpretation chiefly through scholarship? The same holds true 
when the interpreter speaks about music from a practical position. When he, 
in an amalgam of psychoanalytical, musical, and historical facts, explains the 
characteristics of a Beethoven movement by means of the "psychic dis-
position" of the composer, the historian can register no complaint, no matter 
how much such commentary may have annoyed him, as long as the per-
former does not claim that his is a definitive historical pronouncement.4 

Of course, the above discussion has not dealt with all of the possible 
positions. Thus, the musicologist must enter the realm of practical music in 
some questions of paleography, but he has to go much further when, from his 
standpoint as a historian of the arts, he is concerned with the comprehension 
of that which is specifically artistic in his subject, especially when studying the 
creative process of composition or attempting to approach the sound by 
means of his inner ear. Correspondingly, the practical musician, insofar as he 
is concerned with the special characteristics of the music of the past, cannot 
avoid opening himself up to scholarship. Furthermore, we must remember 
that present-day scholarship has made us all aware that the essence of a 
musical work is not limited to its aural reality. In fact, as Carl Dahlhaus has 
emphasized, the tension between (1) what is "stated by the notation," 
i.e., that which is common to all performances, (2) the "musical sense," i.e., 
the aurally and intellectually perceivable "relationship among the tones 
which make up the work," and (3) the aural realization which changes from 

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interpretation to interpretation, belong, themselves, to the essence of the 
musical work.5 But nowhere does the cooperation of musicology with the 
practice of music become more indispensable than in the performance of 
old music in the light of its historical background. This is the situation at the 
Schola Cantorum Basiliensis. 

II 
The Schola Cantorum Basiliensis was founded in 1933 as an "Institute for 

the teaching and research of old music." Its mission was considered to be 
"the exploration and practical testing of all questions relating to the revival 
of old music," "old" being defined as music dating from the Middle Ages 
through the middle of the 18th century.6 This revival was to take place as a 
continual juxtaposition of the "spirit of the time" on the one hand with the 
artistic claim of "performance with outstanding musical forces" on the other, 
and it required the "cooperation of artist and scholar," with the "goal of 
producing a lively and reciprocal interaction between scholarship and the 
practice of music." 

The director of the first group was Paul Sacher, and he had both practicing 
musicians, such as Ina Lohr and August Wenzinger, and musicologists 
Arnold Geering and Walter Nefto help realize the basic idea of the Schola. 
As it worked out, the differences between the two positions, in self-under-
standing as well as in their common work, became insignificant in the face of 
everyone's enthusiasm for the idea. This was the "lively interaction" 
towards which all were striving. Nevertheless, if one tries to go beyond the 
statements of position made above and to ascertain the relationship between 
scholarship and the practice of music which prevailed in the Schola at that 
time, it cannot be denied that the center of gravity lay with the artists, who 
had themselves become quite deeply involved in scholarship. Accordingly, 
the "nucleus of the school" was to be formed by a "colloquium of teachers," 
composed of "singers and skilled players of all the more important old 
instruments." At the same time, the "representatives of musicology" were 
to "stimulate and support" the discussion by means of "their advice and 
judgment," as well as "by making the group aware of any historical con-
ditions." 

The Schola thus demonstrated that it was being carried along on the wave 
of enthusiasm which the revival of old music had created, especially in the 
1920's. Those who subscribed to this attitude accepted the results of the new 
discipline of musicology with an enthusiasm characteristic of the Youth 
Movement, the efforts at reform in Protestant church music, and the Organ 
Movement. Without such enthusiasm the "Renaissance of Old Music" and 
the secure position which old music enjoys today would never have been 
possible. Yet, as the performance of old music with old instruments became 
even more natural and acceptable in the decades which followed, the aware-
ness of the fact that the results of every occupation with old music could only 

90 



be relative gave way to a preoccupation with didactic and purely artistic 
work, and it was only natural that the Schola reflected this development.7 

In contrast to all of this, the 1960's brought a far-reaching consideration 
of special problems in the revival of old music.s This deliberation led not only 
to thoroughgoing changes in instrument construction and matters of inter-
pretation but also to a redefining of the roles of scholar and performer. The 
effect of this on the Schola was that the original goal of a dialogue between 
the two returned to the foreground. Characteristic of this dialogue is the 
tension between the personal intuition and the creative power of the artist, 
whose obligations to his own time are stronger by nature, and the historian's 
knowledge, which is indispensable but never definitive. This tension, more-
over, is the most essential feature of any performance of early music which is 
done with the consciousness of its historical conditionality. But because the 
practice of art cannot be imagined without knowledge, nor the science of art 
without intuition, the resulting implication for the actual work is that each 
person must ascertain his own position between these two poles and take his 
own individuality into consideration. Furthermore, one's own position is, and 
must always be, subject to change, precisely because of this constant tension. 
Obviously this situation poses its own special problems for the performing 
artist; yet, last but not least, it is this situation from which arises the fascina-
tion of the dialogue between scholarship and practice within their common 
work on old music. 

Thus, in its teaching, the Schola Cantorum Basiliensis may not content 
itself with imparting finished results but must help each person to find his 
own standpoint. Accordingly, in instrumental classes, practical instruction 
is accompanied by the joint reading of sources, which has, in fact, often 
revealed the position of the teacher. The encounter between scholarship and 
the practice of music has especially important effects in the so-called "theo-
retical" courses. Ear training, for example, attempts to impart not merely the 
usual general skills but concentrates on the ability to hear the music of 
previous eras in terms of its own structure. This generally means that the 
student who has come from a conservatory must first be led away from 
hearing habits developed by functional tonality and introduced to the 
perception of monophonic and polyphonic modality. In order to awaken the 
understanding of the succession of sounds in Machaut or Monteverdi (an 
understanding which is prerequisite to perception), "Historical Com-
position" (Satzlehre) offers an outline of the practice of composition from the 
13th to the 18th century; analytical and practical exercises are included. 
Thoroughbass is learned at the keyboard, as soon as its most important 
theoretical foundations have been provided, and a realization is to be 
written out only as a method of review and control. Again, the study of 
paleography offers a further point of contact between scholarship and the 
practice of music, in that one of its aims is to make the students thoroughly 
familiar with the authentic performance of music from the 13th to the 17th 
century; this is done by working with original sources. There are also courses 

91 



in organology and in the history and the techniques of tuning. In addition, 
efforts are made to restore the practice of improvisation, not only as em-
bellishment but also as playing over a model bass line. Finally, the Schola 
strives to make the historic dances known, so that the connection between 
music and movement, so essential in deciding questions of tempo in old 
music, can be better understood. We feel, also, that it is always crucial to 
remain open to creative experiments. 

It is assumed that this encounter between scholarship and the practice of 
music can take place only against the background of a historical "instru-
mentarium," which in Basel means the large collection of instruments 
housed in the nearby Historical Museum, and that a library with collections 
of microfilms is available for day-to-day work. Moreover, one must point out 
the close cooperation between the Schola Cantorum Basiliensis and the 
Conservatory (which, like the Schola, is part of the Music Academy of the 
City of Basel) , and between the Schola and the Institute of Musicology at the 
University of Basel. 

III 
The Schola Cantorum BasiIiensis, as was emphasized at the time of its 

founding, stands between "conservatory" and "university," and, because of 
its special purposes, it can be compared with other institutions only in 
certain ways. Nevertheless, in looking back at its historical development as 
we did above, it seems justified to claim that, in fact, the encounter between 
scholarship and the practice of music as undertaken at the Schola has been 
quite beneficial to the conception by each of itself. 

With respect to musical practice, theory which considers itself an aid to 
performers' interpretations and is oriented toward particular works and their 
historical background could stimulate discussion in our schools of music. And 
with regard to university musicology, at least in the German-speaking world, 
one can well ask to what extent systematic music theory, with its still custom-
ary presentation as "harmony" and "counterpoint," can be replaced by a 
theory which is more historically oriented, and therefore better connected 
with musicology. Correspondingly, in the matter of practical exercises-
including score-reading, a skill which is still practiced-one should ask how 
a teaching method proper to musicology should be constituted in the realm 
determined by the tension between musical scholarship and practice. 

Beyond these initial indications of practical consequences, there is still the 
task of determining the extent to which the insights gained from the work of 
the Schola contribute to the understanding of general questions concerning 
the performance of old music and musical life in general. This is true for the 
question of whether temporal boundaries can be drawn in the definition of 
"old" music, as is traditionally done, or whether, in fact, when one considers 
the current receptivity toward history, it should be defined as "the per-
formance of music in the light of its historical conditionality." If so defined, 
we could, on the one hand, delimit the interpretation of Baroque music on 

92 



modern instruments and, on the other, permit the possibility of interpreting 
music of the 19th and perhaps even of the early 20th century as "old music." 
Furthermore, from this point of view questions could be raised as to where old 
music stands in society and how its position has changed along with the 
changes in hearing that have occurred since the 19th century. In connection 
with this, the motivation for reviving music of early times should be clarified. 
Finally, the practice of "old music" in the aforementioned sense leads to the 
fundamental question of the historical dependence of music in general. And 
for these reasons the special task of an "institute for the teaching and re-
search of old music" becomes manifest. 

(Translated from the German by Thomas W. Baker) 

NOTES 

1 Philipp Spitta's view is well characterized in his article "Science of the Arts and Art" 
("Kunstwissenschaft und Kunst"). In it he says: "A mutual and more fundamental influence 
could only lead to the stunting and atrophy of the best which artist and scholar carry within 
themselves, each according to his gifts and goals in life. Such an influence would take from 
the artist his feeling of freedom and attenuate the energy of his creative strength; such an 
influence could easily seduce the scholar into wanting to see a whole where, in reality, 
there are only fragments before him. Each would thus become untrue to his spirit." And 
further: "If there is a clear recognition of the goals of both scholar and artist, a crossing of 
their paths without any hostile encounter is possible. They will arrange matters so that in 
subjects to which both can lay a claim, 'light and air' will be divided equally between them. 
A situation is quite conceivable in which they would get along peacefully side by side, each 
one devoted to his own purpose: the creation of beauty for one, the struggle for truth for the 
other." In Zur Musik (Berlin: Gerbrtider Paetel, 1892), pp. 6, 14. 

2 The best presentation of Riemann's mixture of systematic and philosophical ideas on the 
one hand and historical ideas on the other is to be found in the studies of Wilibald Gurlitt: 
"Hugo Riemann und die Musikgeschichte," Zeitschrift fur Musikwissenschaft (1918-19) I: 
571-87; Hugo Riemann (1849-1919), Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften und 
der Literatur (Sitz Mainz), geistes- und sozialwiss. Klasse, 1950, No. 25 (Wiesbaden: Franz 
Steiner Verlag, 1951; Riemann Musiklexikon II, 12 (Mainz: B. Schott's Siihne, 1961), pp. 505-
10. 

3 See, for example, Glen Haydon, "The Scope and Function of Musicology," Proceedings of 
the Music Teachers National Association, 41st Series (1947) 71: 67-71. 

4 See Jacques Wild berger, "Versuch tiber Beethovens spate Streichquartette," Schweizerische 
Musikzeitung (1970) 110: 1-8; and the appended discussion with Willy Hess (ibid., pp. 122-23, 
195-96). A revised version of the "Versuch" was published in Beethoven '70 (Frankfurt/Main: 
S. Fischer/Verlag, 1970), pp. 31-44. 

I; C. Dahlhaus, Musikiisthetik (Cologne: Musikverlag H. Gerig, 1967), p. 113; also pp. 23-24 
et passim; see idem, Ana{yse und Werturteil (Mainz: Schott, 1970), pp. 62-65. 

6 This and the following quotes are taken from an unpublished Prospectus which was 
written before the official opening of the Schola on 1 December 1933. Its fundamental 
thoughts and wordings were carried over into the official texts and describe the goals of the 
Institute to this day. 

7 It is significant that the necessity for a "continuing cooperation" between artist and 
scholar was emphasized at the founding of the Institute, not only for the reasons given but 
also because it was assumed that "questions of conception and style" were going to "go 
through various changes." In contrast, the Review for the twenty-fifth anniversary of the 

93 



Schola stated that "the attempt to reproduce the original methods of performance is less a 
historical than an artistic concern," and the scholars at the Schola were characterized at the 
same time as an "advisory board," which could "also contribute to the understanding of old 
music." In Walter Nef, "Fiinfundzwanzig Jahre Schola Cantorum Basiliensis," Musik-
Akademie der Stadt Basel, 92. Jahresbericht (1958-59), pp. 30 and 36. 

8 They were reflected at the 1967 convention in Kassel: Alte Musik in unserer Zeit, Musik-
alische Zeitfragen XII (Kassel/Basel: Barenreiter, 1968), and in the colloquium of the same 
year in Brno: Musica Antiqua. Colloquium Brno 1967. On the Interpretation of Old Music, Colloquia 
in the History and Theory of Music at the International Music Festival in Brno II (Brno: 
International Music Festival, 1968). 

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