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© 2017 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

ASSESSMENT OF THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THREE 
CONTRASTING SOILS UNDER DIFFERENT LAND USE SYSTEMS   

 

 

Denton O.A1+ 
Alemeru M. S.2 
Fademi I.O.3 
Uthman A. C. O.4 
Oyedele A. O.5 

 

1,2,3,4,5Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Obafemi Awolowo 
University, Moor Plantation Ibadan, Nigeria 
 

 
(+ Corresponding author) 

 ABSTRACT 
 
Article History 
Received: 15 June 2017 
Revised: 10 October 2017 
Accepted: 18 October 2017 
Published: 26 October 2017 
 
 

Keywords 
Land use systems 
Soil series 
Physical 
Chemical properties 
Contrasting soils 
USDA classification. 

 
This study was undertaken to evaluate the physical and chemical properties of three 
contrasting soils under four land use systems. The soil types considered were Vertic 
Cambisol, Haplic Lixisol and Ferric Luvisol while the land use types studied are cocoa 
plantation (CP), grazing land (GL), fallow land (FL) and cultivated land (CL). Soil 
samples were collected at 0-15cm and 15-30cm depths respectively from each of the 
locations. The soil samples were air dried and passed through a 2mm sieve and taken to 
the laboratory for analysis. The result of the study showed a higher sand content being 
recorded in Haplic Lixisol (CL) and Ferric Luvisol 2 (FL) followed by that of Vertic 
Cambisol (CP) and Ferric Luvisol 1 (GL) in the upper 0 to15 cm depth and lower 15-30 
cm. The soil pH within the soil types and depths could be categorized as slightly acidic 
to moderately alkaline. The organic carbon content of the soils was generally low; it 
varied from 0.18% to 1.29 % for 0 to 15 cm depth with Vertic Cambisol (CP) having the 
highest value. The mean available P content was not significantly (P≤0.05) different 
among the soil and land use types. The total nitrogen recorded was generally low 1.006 
- 1.304% at 0-15cm while at the lower depth it ranged between 0.566 – 0.768%. The 
exchangeable bases also decreased following cultivation. The result of the study shows 
that continuous cultivation without adequate management practices causes a decline in 
the physical and chemical properties of the soil. 
 

Contribution/Originality:  This paper contributes to existing literature that agriculture being the main user of 

land is constantly being affected by land use changes. It further seeks to assess how the physical and chemical 

properties of the different soil types are being affected by different land use types. 

 

1. INTRODUCTION 

In most countries of the world today, agriculture is the main user of land; it is one of the major driving forces in 

global and local environment change. Agricultural use of the land is basically affected by the land tenure system 

majorly in the rural areas where land use patterns are governed mainly by the requirements of the agricultural 

industry which is the core factor for the livelihood of the people. The use of land for settlements, construction, local 

markets, roads, churches and mosque buildings are of secondary importance unlike the conversion of agricultural 

land to artificial surfaces which can have several impacts on the soil, water, environment and biodiversity. 

Land-use can be referred to as the use into which a piece of land is put. It center’s on the human activities that 

relate to a particular parcel of land and it varies from one place to another be it a country, state, city or local 

Current Research in Agricultural Sciences 
2017 Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 96-102 
ISSN(e): 2312-6418 
ISSN(p): 2313-3716 
DOI: 10.18488/journal.68.2017.44.96.102 
© 2017 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

 
 
 

 
 

 
 

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97 

© 2017 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

government area. Land use practices vary considerably across the world, its concerns the product and benefits 

obtained from the use of land as well as the management actions (activities) carried out by humans. Land use has a 

major impact on natural resources such as water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals such that land use information 

can be used to develop solutions for natural resources management issues and agricultural sustainability. 

There is an immense pressure on the availability of agricultural land due to increases in population densities in 

Nigeria and the south west in particular. Most of the agricultural lands are continuously been cultivated leading to 

a severe depletion of the fertility status of the soils, once this happen majority of the resource poor farmer uses that 

as an excuse to open up more lands without adequate considerations of the land potentials and appropriate land use. 

The soil being one of the most important determinant factors affecting crop production serves as a resource 

foundation for nearly all land use types thereby playing a key role in agricultural sustainability. In order to meet 

this ever increasing need of human beings for food, it is necessary to come up with strategies aimed at priotizing 

and expanding the ever growing agricultural sector through an assessment of the soil physical and chemical 

properties with respect to land use.  

As reported by Nye and Greenland [1] a soil cannot be productive except it has desirable quality, physical 

characteristics and enough nutrients that will meet the plant needs. Agricultural soil must be kept in aggregated 

and well-aerated conditions so that crop growth will not be adversely affected [2] but this becomes an issue when 

the land is being continuously cultivated with bad management practices which only add to the deterioration of the 

soil. Lal and Kimble [3] reported that continuous cropping and cultivation of many of the world’s soils which had 

previously been under forest or grass land, are the major cause of substantial decline in soil organic matter and soil 

structure. Soil organic matter content is an important indicator of soil productivity in agricultural soils because it 

binds mineral particles into stable aggregates [4]. 

The main aim of this study therefore is to evaluate three contrasting soils types as influenced by land use in the 

derived savannah ecology in South Western Nigeria, while the objectives are to examine the relationship between 

land use and soil properties and also determine the effect of land use on some essential plant nutrient elements and 

their availability. 

 

2. MATERIALS AND METHOD 

2.1. Study Area and Sample Collection 

This study was carried out at four different locations of the Institute of Agricultural Research and Training 

(IAR&T), Ibadan (7° 23' N; 3° 51'E and 160 m above mean sea level), Nigeria (Fig. 1). The area is characterized by 

a tropical climate marked with wet and dry seasons. It is characterized by a bimodal rainfall pattern with rainfall 

peaks occur mostly in June and September. Annual temperature ranges from 21.3 to 31.2°C. 

Four different locations with different agricultural land use types were sampled for the study. The land use 

types considered were:  

 

2.1.1. Cocoa Plantation 

It is a mono cropping system with no other crops planted there asides cocoa, it has been in existence for over 50 

years. It is usually being maintained by manual weeding of the grasses and weeds from time to time. 

 

2.1.2. Cultivated Land 

This is land which is been used for cultivation of arable crops such as maize cowpea, soybean etc. it is cultivated 

yearly in the raining season and in the dry season with the aid of irrigation water. 

 

 

 



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2.1.3. Fallow 

This is land which has not been put to any agricultural use but just has some weeds and grasses growing on it. 

It has been left fallow for about 10 years.  

 

2.1.4. Grazing Land 

This is land which has been used over the years for grazing livestock animals such as cattle, sheep and goat. It 

is filled with tall grasses such as elephant grass and other broad leaf fodder plants,  

 

 
Figure-1. Map Showing Location of Study Area 

      Denton and Gbadegeshin [5] 

 

2.2. Soil Sampling 

Soil samples were taken from four (4) different locations within the Institute of Agricultural Research and 

Training under different land use, they are Cocoa plantation, Grazing land, cultivated land and fallow land. The 

samples were taken with the use of a soil auger at depth 0-15cm and 15-30cm respectively. The samples were taken 

with respect to the dominant soil types in each location while profile pits were dug for further clarification and 

classification of the soil type (Table 1). Three dominant soil types were identified in the location and classified 

according to USDA soil taxonomy as Vertic Cambisol (Egbeda series), Haplic Lixisol (Ibadan series), while the 

other two soils belong to Ferric Luvisol (Iwo and Egbeda series) [6]. 

 
Table-1. Land use type, classification and soil series 

Landuse Type USDA  Classification Soil Series (local)                                                                                                                             
Cocoa plantation  (CP)                      Vertic Cambisol  Egbeda 
Cultivated land    (CL)                      Haplic Lixisol  Ibadan 
Fallow land          (FL)                       Ferric Luvisol 2 Iwo 
Grazing land        (GL)                       Ferric Luvisol 1 Egbeda 

 

 



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 2.3. Soil Analysis 

Physical and chemical analysis was carried out on the soil samples to determine soil pH, soil particle size 

distribution, available phosphorous, potassium, nitrogen and other necessary nutrient elements in the soil. 

 

2.4. Determination of Soil Physical and Chemical Analysis  

The soil samples were air-dried, crushed and allowed to pass through a 2 mm sieve. Particle size distribution 

was determined using hydrometer method [7]. Soil samples were analyzed for soil pH in both water and 0.01 M 

potassium chloride solution (1:1) using glass electrode pH meter [8]. Total nitrogen was determined by the macro-

kjeldahl digestion method [9]. Available P was determined by the method described by Olsen [10]. Total N was 

determined by the Kjeldahl method [11]. Organic carbon content (OC) was measured by the Walkley-Black 

method [12]. Conversions between values of organic carbon and organic matter was made using Van Bemmelen 

factor of 1.724 on the assumption that, on average, SOM contains 58% of organic Carbon. Exchangeable cations 

were extracted with 1 M NH4OAC (pH 7.0) to determine K and Na using flame photometer and exchangeable Mg 

and Ca by atomic absorption spectrophotometer [13]. 

 

2.5. Statistical Analysis 

This was performed using the GenStat statistical package edition 4 version 10.3. The analysis of variance 

(ANOVA) was determined and the means separated with the LSD at P <0.05. The means of the parameters were 

used in computing the tables.  

 

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

3.1. Soil Physical Properties 

Relatively higher sand content was recorded in Haplic Lixisol (CL) and Ferric Luvisol 2 (FL) followed by that 

of Vertic Cambisol (CP) and Ferric  Luvisol 1 (GL)  in the upper 0 to15 cm depth and lower 15-30 cm though not 

significantly different at p< 0.05, (Table 2) this was followed by the silt fraction with values ranging from 20% to 

24% at both depths and it was significantly different at 15- 30 cm depth with Vertic Cambisol (CP) having the 

highest percentage followed by grazed and fallow, arable land had the lowest percentage of 23 which could be as a 

result of the washing away of fine particle by erosion or attachment to crops during harvest. The clay fractions 

were not significantly different between the soil types and across depth. The soil textures of the different land use 

types at both layers of the different horizons were found to be the same. Although texture is an inherent property, 

the textural observation might be attributed to accelerated weathering as a result of continuous disturbance during 

farm management practices. This suggests that the different land use types did not have effect on the soil texture of 

the study area, since texture is an inherent soil property that is not influenced in a short period of time. The pH 

value of the soil types varied significantly. The highest was found to be under Ferric Luvisol 1 (GL) (6.90) followed 

by Vertic Cambisol (CP) and Haplic Lixisol (CL) (6.68 and 6.26) while Ferric Luvisol 2 (FL) recorded the least. The 

high pH value recorded on the Ferric Luvisol 1 (GL)   could be as a result of the continuous urine deposits of the 

animals. The soil pH within the soil types and depths could be categorized as slightly acidic to moderately alkaline 

following the classification described by Brady and Weil [14]. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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Table-2.  pH, particle size analysis of the soils at 0 to15 and 15 to 30 cm depth. 

Land Use    pH (H2O) % sand % silt % clay Texture 

0- 15 cm Vertic Cambisol (CP) 6.68ab 56a 22a 22a SL 

Ferric Luvisol 1 (GL) 6.90a 56a 20a 24a SL 

Ferric Luvisol 2 (FL) 5.66 58a 22a 20a SL 

Haplic Lixisol   (CL)  6.26b 62a 21a 16a SL 

15-30 cm      

Vertic Cambisol (CP) 6.71a 57a 25a 18a SL 

Ferric Luvisol 1 (GL) 6.73a 57a 4ab 20a SL 

Ferric Luvisol 2 (FL) 5.94b 58a 24ab 18a SL 

Haplic Lixisol (CL) 5.98b 66 23b 11 SL 
Mean values within a column followed by the same letter(s) are not significantly different at  
p < 0.05 

              GL = grazing land, FL = fallow land, CL= cultivated land, CP= cocoa plantation. SL= sandy loam. 

 

3.2. Soil Chemical Properties 

3.2.1. Organic Carbon 

The organic carbon content of the soils was generally low; it varied from 0.18% to 1.29 % for 0 to 15 cm depth 

with CP having the highest value this could be as a result of the large deposits of leaf litter that falls to the ground 

which decomposes and add to the humus content of the soil. While at depth it ranged from 0.37% to 0.95% though 

not significantly different from each other (Table 3). The average content of soil OC along the depth, were lower in 

GL, CL and FL land use types as compared to that of CP. At both depths FL had higher OC content as compared 

with GL and CL. Generally, cultivated soils have low organic matter content compared to native ecosystems since 

cultivation increases aeration of soil, which enhances decomposition of soil organic matter. In addition, most of the 

soil organic matters produced in cultivated lands are always removed. The low content of OC content indicates 

degradation of land under the different land uses.  

 

3.2.2. Available Phosphorus (P) 

The mean available P content was not significantly (P≤0.05) different among the soil types and land use types. 

Available P within depth 0 – 15 cm was highest under (CP), followed by FL while we recorded low available P 

under CL and GL (Table 3). The higher available P content under CP could be associated with increase in microbial 

activity that led to the mineralization of occluded P in this land use system. Relatively higher content of available P 

was found under FL than GL and CL which could be attributed to the renewal of soil nutrients during the fallow 

period.  

 

3.2.3. Total Nitrogen (TN) 

The Total Nitrogen recorded was generally low and it was far below the critical limits expected in soils. The 

low nitrogen could be associated with the low organic matter in the soils. However, in this study, at 0 – 15 cm 

depth higher total nitrogen (TN) was recorded under CP followed by GL and FL, while CP had the lowest. The 

high nitrogen content recorded in the CL at both depths could be as a result of the application of inorganic 

fertilizers to the soil while GL, FL and CP had lower values. (Table 3).The low nutrient recorded under these land 

use and soil types depicts serious nutrient loss under these land uses and soil types and this reflects the extent of 

soil degradation which has occurred under these land uses.   

 

3.2.4. Ex. Potassium (K) 

The concentration of exchangeable potassium (K) at 0 – 15 cm depth was higher in CP followed by GL, FL and 

CL soil types though there was no significant difference across all the land use types (Table 3). At depth of 15 – 30 

cm, CP recorded the highest followed by FL) and CL) lands with GL recording the lowest.  Low exchangeable K in 

0 to 15 cm under CL soil type is likely the result of the effect of continuous cultivation and crop removal, whereas 



Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2017, 4(4): 96-102 

 

 
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© 2017 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

the high exchangeable K concentration in FL could be due to accumulation of exchangeable K over time. This result 

indicates intensity of weathering, cultivation and use of acid forming inorganic fertilizers which affects the 

distribution of K in the soil system and influences its depletion.  

 

3.2.5. Sodium (Na) 

The values of exchangeable Na were found to be highest under CL soil type with a value of 0.25 Cmol-1kg while 

all the other soil types had the same value of 0.21 Cmol-1kg (Table 3), while in 15 to 30 cm depth higher available 

Na was recorded in CP soils followed by that of FL and GL, with CL soil types having the lowest. Although there 

were no significant differences in the available Na concentrations of the soils of the different soil types at p< 0.05.  

 

3.2.6. Calcium (Ca) 

For the three soil types and both depths the concentration of exchangeable calcium (Ca) followed the same 

distribution trend in order of FL, CP, GL and CL. In this study, the concentration of exchangeable calcium (Ca) in 

all of the land uses falls below the critical limit expected in soils as described by Agboola and Ayodele [15]. 

 

3.2.7. Exchangeable Magnesium (Mg) 

The exchangeable magnesium (Mg) concentrations recorded in this study were moderate in concentration 

under the different soil types. Highest exchangeable magnesium (Mg) concentrations were recorded under CP 

followed by GL while CL recorded the lowest value at both depths (table 3). The low exchangeable Mg observed 

under CL might be due to leaching, soil erosion and crop harvest. 

 
Table-3. Chemical properties of the soil at 0 to15 and 15 to 30 cm depth under different land use systems. 

  Land Use TN % %OC Ex. K 
mg-1kg 

AV. P 
mg-1kg 

Mg  
Cmol1kg 

Ca 
Cmol-1kg      

Ex. Na 
Cmol-1kg 

0-15 cm        

Ferric Luvisol 1 (GL) 1.060a 0.18a 0.164a 3.3a 1.18a           0.74b 0.21a 

Vertiv Cambisol (CP)  1.006a 1.29a 0.194a 15.9 2.36a           0.83ab 0.21a 

Ferric Luvisol 2 (FL)     1.050a 1.14a 0.126a 4.9a 0.88a            1.11a 0.21a 

Haplic Lixisol   (CL) 1.304 1.04a 0.124a 4.8a 1.31a            0.49b 0.25a 

15-30 cm        

   Vertic Cambisol (CP)  0.638a 0.37a 0.144a 3.0a 1.70ab          0.72a 0.24a 

Ferric Luvisol 1 (GL) 0.572a 0.95a 0.220a 21.7a 2.33a            0.74a 0.30a 

Ferric Luvisol 2 (FL)     0.566a 0.66a 0.150a 2.3a 1.50ab          0.74a 0.25a 

Haplic Lixisol (CL)  0.768 0.42a 0.152a 1.4a 1.20b            0.78a 0.20a 
Mean values within a column followed by the same letter(s) are not significantly different at p < 0.05. GL = grazing land, FL= fallow land, CL= cultivated land, CP= 
cocoa plantation. 

  

4. CONCLUSION  

The result of this study indicates that cultivation diminishes soil nutrients, available P, exchangeable bases, 

organic carbon as well as total nitrogen and cause fluctuations in soil pH. Therefore in order to ensure high 

productivity in the studied soils, appropriate land management practices based on plant and animal residues, 

organic fertilizer(compost) incorporation, planting of cover crops and crop rotation will build up soil organic 

matter, soil nutrients and reduce drastically land degradation 

 

Funding: This study received no specific financial support. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 
Contributors/Acknowledgement: All authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the 
study. 

 

 



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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=Changes%20in%20soil%20after%20clearing%20tropical%20forest
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01373877
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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=Conservation%20tillage%20for%20carbon%20sequestration
https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=Organic%20matter%20and%20water%20stable%20aggregates%20in%20soils
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1982.tb01755.x
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