







































 

 

 
62 

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Cultivation practices of leafy vegetable production during the wet season in Ambon, 
Indonesia   

 

 

 Reginawanti 
Hindersah1+ 

 Agustinus Marthin 
Kalay2 
Rion Suaib Salman3 
Wilhelmina Paays4 

 Saon Banerjee5 

 

1Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang 45363, Jawa 

Barat, Indonesia. 
1Email: reginawanti@unpad.ac.id  
2Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Pattimura, Ambon 97233, Maluku, 
Indonesia. 
2Email: marthin.kalay@faperta.unpatti.ac.id  
3,4Meteorologi Station of Pattimura, Ambon 311751, Maluku, Indonesia.  
3Email: ioniuq@gmail.com  
4Email: emhypaays@gmail.com  
5Department of Agricultural Meteorology & Physics, Bidhan Chandra Krishi 
Viswavidyalaya, Mohapur, West Bengal 741252, India. 
5Email: sbaner2000@yahoo.com  

 

 
(+ Corresponding author) 

 ABSTRACT 
 
Article History 
Received: 7 October 2023 
Revised: 10 December 2023 

Accepted: 20 December 2023 
Published: 29 December 2023 
 

Keywords 
Climate 
Disease incidence 

Planting distances 
Rain shelter 
Rainfall 

Yield. 

 
Green cabbage, water spinach, and spinach are important vegetables in the diet of the 
Ambonese communities, so the vegetables have economic value and contribute to the 
inflation of Ambon City. The main obstacle for optimizing leafy vegetables in urban 
farming of Ambon City in Ambon Bay neighborhood is excess water during the rainy 
season which possibly induces plant diseases and reduces the yield. The purpose of this 
study was to verify the 11-year weather of Ambon Bay; and the adaptation of vegetable 
farmers in Ambon City to the change of rainy season as well as precipitation in the 
study location The research was conducted using a qualitative descriptive method 
based on interviews with farmers supported by climate data for 11 years. This study 
explains that the rainfall was variable during 10 years; In 2010-2013 and 2017-2020, 
the annual rainfall was 3.950-5.264, while in 2014-2016 it ranged from 2.017-2.995 mm.  
Farmers adapt to high rainfall by installing plastic rain shelters, shortening the 
planting distance from 20 cm to 10 cm, and changing the planting calendar. However, 
in general growers install rain shelters during vegetable cultivation in the wet season 
resulting in high productivity of leafy vegetables.  
 

Contribution/Originality: This is the first published-study related to the adaptation of vegetable grower in 

Ambon Bay to the change of rainfall. High rainfall in Ambon is suggested to change the leafy-vegetable cultivation 

practice but the rainfall data was not published; and the way of farmer change their cultivation in order to mitigate 

high precipitation has not been published. The results of study contribute to the improving method of growing 

vegetable in rainy season. 

 

1. INTRODUCTION 

The main livelihood of Maluku Province is agriculture, which is practiced in almost every district, even though 

the land area is limited compared to Java Island. The total area of Maluku Province is 712,480 km2 but 2.4% is the 

ocean. In 2010, the population of Maluku was 1.533.506 and there was an increase of approximately 22.7% 

population resulting to 1.881.727 people in 2022. Currently, Maluku still imports raw food particularly vegetables 

and meats from outside the province including North Sulawesi, South Sulawesi, and East Java. However, Maluku 

Current Research in Agricultural Sciences 
2023 Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 62-69 
ISSN(e): 2312-6418 
ISSN(p): 2313-3716 
DOI: 10.18488/cras.v10i2.3583 
© 2023 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

 
 
 

 
 
 
 

 

 
 
 
 

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0281-2363
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0875-040X
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8213-1036
mailto:reginawanti@unpad.ac.id
mailto:marthin.kalay@faperta.unpatti.ac.id
mailto:ioniuq@gmail.com
mailto:emhypaays@gmail.com
mailto:sbaner2000@yahoo.com
https://www.doi.org/10.18488/cras.v10i2.3583


Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2023, 10(2): 62-69 

 

 
63 

© 2023 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

province is self-sufficiency in leafy vegetables; the consumptions of green cabbage (Brassica juncea L.), water spinach 

(Ipomoea Aquatica Forsk), and Indonesia’s spinach (Amaranthus spp.) become a food habit.  

Commonly, farmers grow leafy vegetables throughout the year with a monocropping system on small -scale 

vegetable farms.  The vegetable production in Ambon Bay stretches from Paso, Nania, and Waiheru to Hative Besar 

village. Vegetable production throughout the Ambon Bay has a significant impact on communities’ revenue and the 

local economy.  The challenges for maintaining and increasing the vegetable yield in the study area are low soil 

properties, high rainfall in certain months, and changes in the rainy season that increase the soil and air-borne 

disease intensity. The high demand for leafy vegetables during the wet season caused inflation in two cities of 

Maluku, namely Ambon and Tual due to its limited production and supply.  

The agricultural area at the low altitude of Ambon Island is adjacent to the coast; the soil is formed from 

Alluvial parent material [1] so the soil texture is loamy sand with good drainage. In general, the soil area in 

Waiheru is Entisols with low soil fertility; the soil contained low organic-C (1.6-1.76%), low total N (0.12-0.14%) 

with low P2O5 availability; The pH is slightly acidic 5.5-5.8 [1]. Farmers depend on inorganic fertilizers to increase 

soil N and P availability during vegetable cultivation. Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) are the major essential 

macronutrients that increase the above-ground biomass, growth and productivity of crops. It is well known that 

nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization correlate significantly with chlorophyll and the biochemical constituent of 

leaves [2-4]. 

High rainfall in Ambon Bay is strongly related to plant diseases; according to the local Meteorological Office, 

changes in the rainy season and dry season as well as higher rainfall have occurred.  Southeast Asia as well as the 

Pacific Islands will be affected by climate change in the next decades due to the growing population, long coastlines, 

and low altitude area [5]. Farmer's reliance on the agricultural sector and high dependency on natural resources 

increase the impact of climate change in such areas. Climate change has a severe impact on the average temperature 

and precipitation; increases of floods and droughts, hence the economic growth [6]. 

A small discussion with vegetable farmers in Ambon Bay in 2018 and 2021 revealed lower yield and revenue 

during rainy-season vegetable cultivation. At that time small communities of farmers installed rain shelters to avoid 

high precipitation but the plastic price was not affordable so they depended on the Corporate Social Responsibility 

program of the Central Bank of Indonesia. The intensity of certain diseases in tropical agricultural areas in the 

rainy season is higher than in the dry season due to the high rainfall [7-9]. Despite the constraint of vegetable 

production in rainy seasons, the farmer's adaptability to high precipitation in maintaining vegetable productivity in 

Ambon Bay has not been studied. The objective of this descriptive research was to 1) confirm the climat ic variation 

– mainly related to the rainfall – in the Ambon Bay area over 11 years, 2) get information from the farmers 

concerning the way to cope up with the change of wet season, and 3) inventory the plant diseases in the wet season. 

 

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 

The study was conducted in the Waiheru village in Ambon City at an altitude of 4 m above sea level with the 

geographical coordinates of -3.628805, and 128.2214317 (Figure 1). To confirm the change in rainy season and 

rainfall, the Pattimura Meteorological Station at Laha of Ambon provided sets of daily weather data from 2010 -

2020. The station measures the daily weather of Ambon Bay and is located in the geographical position of -

3.7110876 S, 128.0828262 E. The office provides temperature, humidity, rainfall, rainy days, and days of sunshine 

data. The annual weather elements and monthly rainfall are calculated based on daily data and depicted in the 

Tables.  

Primary data related to the productivity of green cabbage, water spinach, and spinach was collected from 10 

vegetable farmers of Waiheru Village. A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was done involving farmers in Waiheru 

Villages in 2018 and 2023. The information obtained from FGD was the general method of vegetable cultivation, 

mainly the use of rain shelter and organic matter application, as ways to reduce the disease attack and crop growth 



Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2023, 10(2): 62-69 

 

 
64 

© 2023 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

failure during the rainy season. The discussion also included the vegetable production and quality during higher 

precipitation; and their profit compared to the dry season. A field survey has been conducted to identify common 

diseases in the vegetable areas of Ambon during the rainy season.  

 

 
Figure 1. Study location in Waiheru Village of  Ambon Bay , Maluku Province.  

Source: ArcGis online. 
 

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 

3.1. Annual Weather in Ambon Bay 

Weather in Ambon Island for 10 years has been quite consistent with minor changes in t emperature and 

humidity throughout the year, however there is a major change in the rainfall variation (Table 1). The average 

temperature is constant 26-270C but the maximum temperature was likely decreased in 2019 and 2020. The annual 

rainfall in Ambon was huge; during ten years, the annual rainfall was approximately 3.617 mm. The rainy  day 

lasted approximately 250 days, which is almost two-thirds of the year. 

 

Table 1. The annual weather in Ambon Bay from 2010-2020 calculated from daily data. 

Weather elements 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 

Av. temperature (0C) 26.7 26.2 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.5 27.3 26.5 26.9 26.7 27.05 

Max.  temperature (0C) 30.7 29.7 29.9 29.8 30.2 30.8 31.9 30.8 30.9 28.3 28.7 
Humidity (%) 86 86 86 86 84 83 84 86 83 83.25 84 
Days of sunshine (%) 56 50 55 56 59 66 63 48 57 55 52 

Rainfall (mm) 3,932 4,610 5,042 5,147 2,592 2,017 2,995 5,435 3,948 2,303 4,518 
Rainy day   257 257 232 235 229 210 215 280 252 261 265 
Source:  Pattimura meteorological office of Laha, Ambon. 

 

According to Oldeman Climate Classification, the wet month is a month with rainfall over 200 mm, the dry 

month is a month with rainfall less than 100 mm, and the humid month has rainfall in between [10]. The average 

of the wet and dry months in a row is 7.5 and 1.6 respectively; the  Climate type of Ambon Bay according to 

Oldeman climate type is B1. 



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Indonesia’s Meteorological Office classified the monthly rainfall into three categories: low (0 – 100 mm), 

medium (100 – 300 mm), high (300 – 500 mm), and very high (>500 mm). Table 2 shows that precipitation in 

Ambon Island is dominated by medium to high rainfall. In the wet season, the rainfall was mostly very high. The 

pattern of rainfall during 10 years was changed (Table 2).  

 

Table 2. Annual rainfall in Ambon Bay from 2010-2020 calculated from daily data. 

Month 
Rainfall (mm) 

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 

January 166 228 100 252.1 307 160 71 284 236 234.8 98.6 

February 32 202 119 194.8 177 196 34 152 120 47.1 81.8 
March 109 127 298 77.6 62 120 153 143 203 221.4 176.8 
April 113 240 80 166.9 155 298 355 129 292 315.5 87.3 

May 353 1468 908 295.1 418 180 239 753 797 267.7 679.5 
June  833 691 1252 359.6 386 718 199 1430 847 534.4 960.2 

July 763 694 1157 1923.1 225 164 914 1046 542 272 842.1 
August 849 323 639 629.3 448 70 347 452 299 95.9 302.2 
September 213 304 254 360 117 3 342 501 411 101.6 573.6 

October 106 143 136 128.5 128 67 185 180 29 171.8 440.6 
November 146 44 25 91 32 14 37 18 27 27.4 137.1 
December 276 147 75 220.2 137 118 119 176 146 14.2 138.3 

Total 3,959 4,611 5,043 4,698.2 2,592 2,108 2,995 5,264 3,949 2,303.8 4,518.1 
Note: *According to Oldeman classification.  

Source: Pattimura meteorological office of Laha, Ambon. 

 

The monthly rainfall in 2014-2016 was lower than other years of 2010-2020. The wet season lasted for 8 

consecutive months with 3 months in a row of very high rainfall in 2020. However, heavy rainfall in 2010 lasted for 

4 months between May to August. There are only two seasons in Ambon: wet (rainy) season (West Season) and dry 

season (East Season) with two transition periods. During 10 years, the transition period from the wet to dry season 

was November-December; and from the dry to wet season was March to April.   

 

3.2. Cultivation Methods 

3.2.1. Planting Distance 

The farmers in Ambon transplanted the green cabbage seedlings with a shorter planting distance (Figure 2) 

compared to the recommended distance given by the Research and Development Institute of the Indonesia, 

Ministry of Agriculture. They preferred shorter distances (20 cm x 20 cm) since the green cabbages were harvested 

on 19-21 days instead of 30 days. This is related to the preference of consumers who like low-content fiber 

vegetables in their daily diet. In the rainy season, the planting distance of green cabbage becomes shorter (10 cm x 

10 cm) to avoid the water splashing from the soil surface to the leaves. Some growers planted water spinach in rows 

of 10-15 cm but usually water spinach and spinach were grown by broadcasting method with various planting 

distances ranging from 1-2 cm resulting in dense population (Figure 2).  

 

3.2.2. Rain Shelter  

The productivity of leafy vegetables grown without rain shelter were lower compared to that grown under a 

plastic rain shelter; the green cabbage yield reduced up to 77%, water spinach by 51%, and spinach  by 43%. 

However, the productivity of leafy vegetable under a plastic rain shelter (Figure 2) was still lower compared to that 

in the dry season since the light intensity is lower and reduces photosynthesis. If the green cabbage is grown in the 

wet season and without any rain-shelter, its yield is observed to be reduced by 50% compared to the wet season 

crop grown under rain shelter. 

 



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© 2023 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

 
Figure 2. Dense population of green cabbage (b) under the rain shelter. 

 

3.3. Plant Diseases 

The pathogens as shown in Table 3, are most common pathogens attacking leafy vegetables throughout the 

year in Ambon. Disease intensity during wet-season vegetable cultivation was high mainly in the field without rain 

shelter.  

 

Table 3. Common diseases during vegetable cultivation in the wet season. 

Diseases Target organs  Pathogens 

Damping off Stem base Rhizoctonia solani (Fungi) 

Leaf blight Leaves Rhizoctonia solani (Fungi) 

Wilt disease Stem base Sclerotium rolfsi  and fusarium oxysporum (Fungi), 
Pseudomonas solanacearum and Erwinia caratofora (Bacteria) 

White rust Leaves Albugo sp. (Not true fungi; eumycota) 

 

Damping off and leaf blight are soil-borne diseases commonly found in leafy vegetables; both of them were 

caused by Rhizoctonia solani fungi. Vascular wilt disease is caused by soil potential pathogens that results in plant 

wilting and loss of vigor. White rust is mainly found in water spinach leaves grown in Ambon; this is an important 

disease of Cruciferous vegetables (Family Brassicaceae) caused by Albugo candida; the oomycetes.  

 

4. DISCUSSION 

A dense plant population reduces the risk of splashing soil droplets to the leaves that might contain pathogenic 

microbes. Even though most of the bacteria were removed by runoff water, soil-borne microbes might cause plant 

pathogens [11].  Moreover, warmer temperatures in the tropics increase the proliferation of soil and air-borne 

potential plant pathogens [12]. The yield of leafy vegetables largely depends on the light intensity and day of 

sunshine; the benefits of using rain shelter for growing vegetable is reported to improve crop performance 

compared to the outdoor environment [13-15]. However, in Ambon the high rainfall results in cloudy days that 

reduce the light intensity. For vegetable cultivation, the light intensity is prominent to increase plant height, leaf 

numbers, leaf area, net assimilation rate, and relative growth rate of spinach, Spinacia oleraceae L [14].   



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The weight of a 50 cm bunch of green cabbage under a rain shelter was 100-150 g, but in the dry season about 

300 g. Based on the FGD with farmers in Waiheru, the vegetable price in the rainy season was lower compared to 

6-7 years ago since most farmers in Ambon now use rain shelters in the high-precipitation season. The Chinese 

cabbage growers in Mississippi operate small- to medium-sized farms by using polyethylene (plastic) tunnels in 

winter producing the highest marketable yield than those without tunnels [16]. In Indonesia, rain shelter in the 

wet season causes higher shoots and more branches of chili [17]. However, the production of leafy vegetable in 

Ambon during the rainy season under rain shelter was reduced. 

Plant pathogen virulence, survival, and reproduction are influenced by temperature and humidity; the concept 

in plant pathology is the result of interaction between pathogens, host plants, and the environment [18]. The 

severity of damping-off in Ambon increased in the rainy season; the higher virulence and reproduction of R. solani is 

likely caused by the alternate low-high temperature combined with soil water availability. The temperature range 

for R. solani growth is 20 to 30oC with optimal temperature at 25oC [19] which is actually observed prevailing 

temperature of Ambon. In the wet season soil water is ample; even though the virulence of R. solani was not 

determined by soil moisture; the pathogen could not survive even in the extremely dry soils [20].  The soil in the 

study area is loamy sand with good drainage. Puddled situation is not common in the study area, even during high 

rainfall events. 

In general, plant disease intensity is increased by high air humidity, and high soil moisture which occurs in the 

rainy season [18]. The virulence of the fungus Sclerotiorum has a positive correlation with the air humidity 

increases [21]. In the rainy season, the duration of the water presence in the leaves is longer; resulting in disease 

development on the leaf's surface [22]. In general, sunny weather is observed after the rainy days in Ambon, this 

increase the disease development in leaves. Rain shelters significantly reduce the soil and air humidity and the 

pathogen proliferation in soil and hence reduce the disease intensity.  

 

5. CONCLUSION 

According to the monthly climate data, high climatic variability has occurred in Ambon; there was a fluctuation 

of rainfall during 11 years (2010-2020). The rainfall ranged from 2,108 in 2015 to 5,264 in 2017, and the average 

rainfall was 3.617 mm.  The low productivity in the rainy season in Ambon is likely not only caused by high rainfall 

but also by cloudy days that induce low light intensity. Rain shelter installation and shorter planting distances are 

local cultivation practices to avoid high disease intensity, but it doesn’t increase the yield during the wet season. 

Nonetheless, by using both cultivation practices, vegetable cultivation can be conducted all year round, either in the 

dry season or wet season.   

 

Funding: This research is supported by Universitas Padjadjaran (Grant number: 542/UN6/WR3/2018). 

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. 
Transparency: The authors state that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key 
aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been 
clarified. This study followed all writing ethics. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 
Authors’ Contributions: The concept and design of the study, R.H., M.K. and S.B.; provide and analyzed 
the weather data, R.S.S. and W.P.; wrote the manuscript, R.H. and S.B. All authors have read and agreed to 
the published version of the manuscript. 

 

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