







































 

 

 
27 

© 2024 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

Antioxidant properties, antidiabetic activity, and GC-MS phytochemical analysis of wheat-
based bread fortified with celosia argentea seed flour   

 

 

 Lukuman Akande  
Azeez1 

 Kafayat Adebukola 
Babalola2  

 Oludolapo 
Akinyemi 
Osunrinade3+ 

1,2,3Department of Food Science and Technology, The Oke-Ogun Polytechnic 
Saki, Oyo State, Nigeria. 
1Email: azeezlukuman02@gmail.com    
2Email: buki_kay_01@yahoo.com    
3Email: dolaps2004@yahoo.com   

(+ Corresponding author) 

 ABSTRACT 
 
Article History 
Received: 22 April 2024 
Revised: 18 July 2024 
Accepted: 5 August 2024 
Published: 16 August 2024 
 

Keywords 
Antidiabetic 
Bread 
Celosia argentea seed 
Phytochemical. 

 
Pseudocereals like Celosia argentea seed have been indicated to have numerous 
therapeutic and prophylactic potentials that are yet to be incorporated into food 
materials. This study evaluated the antioxidant properties, antidiabetic potential, and 
phytochemicals of wheat-based bread fortified with Celosia argentea seed flour. Bread 
samples were produced using standard methods, fortifying refined and whole wheat 

with 5 and 10% Celosia argentea seed flour. The antioxidant properties and α-amylase 
inhibition of bread samples were determined using standard methods. The 
phytochemicals present in the methanolic extracts of bread samples were identified with 
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GCMS). Statistical significance was tested 

at α0.05. The result of the antioxidant properties for bread samples were Total flavonoid 
content (0.61-0.85 mg/g), Total Phenolic Content (1.1-1.31 mgGAE/g), total 
antioxidant capacity (1.19-3.34 mgGAE/g), Ferric reducing antioxidant power (0.13-
0.54 mg/g) and DPPH (42.58-49.75%). The IC50 values obtained for Celosia argentea 

seed substituted wheat bread ranged between 58.20 and 171.05 μg/mL. The 

antioxidant properties and α-amylase inhibition showed a significant (p<0.05) increase 
as the percentage of inclusion of Celosiae argentea seed increased. Bioactive compounds 
detected in bread samples produced by the fortification of wheat flour (whole and 
refined) with Celosia argentea seed flour include 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid methyl ester; 
Docosanoic acid, methyl ester; E,E,Z-1,3,12-Nonadecatriene-5,14-diol; Linoleic acid 
ethyl ester; and Squalene. The predominant health benefits of phytochemicals detected 
in bread samples fortified with C. argentea seed were anti-inflammatory potentials, 
antioxidant protection, and reduction of lipid peroxidation. Including Celosia argentea 
seed impacted the antioxidant and antidiabetic potential of bread samples.  
 

Contribution/Originality: This study utilised Celosia argentea seed flour to produce bread with functional 

attributes such as antidiabetics and antioxidant potential. 

 

1. INTRODUCTION 

Advances in functional food production is focused on the use of natural food additives and its incorporation into 

commonly consumed food products. The consumer’s awareness of the need to eat healthy foods known as functional 

foods, that is, foods beyond the basic nutritional requirements, has increased [1]. Consumption of functional foods 

Current Research in Agricultural Sciences 
2024 Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 27-38 
ISSN(e): 2312-6418 
ISSN(p): 2313-3716 
DOI: 10.18488/cras.v11i2.3866 
© 2024 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

 
 
 

 
 
 
 

 

 
 
 
 

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9431-6983
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4630-3632
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4534-3798
mailto:azeezlukuman02@gmail.com
mailto:buki_kay_01@yahoo.com
mailto:dolaps2004@yahoo.com
https://www.doi.org/10.18488/cras.v11i2.3866


Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2024, 11(2): 27-38 

 

 
© 2024 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

28 

does not only improve the nutritional status of the general population but also helps those suffering from 

degenerative diseases associated with today’s changing lifestyles [2, 3]. 

Over the years, due to it ready to eat nature, specialty breads have been produced from whole-grain flour and 

other functional ingredients known as functional breads [4, 5]. The nutritional value of the bread depends on the 

type of flour used and on the variety of other ingredients added to the production. 

Potent antioxidants and hypoglycemic properties have severally been reported to be a major components of 

plant families [6-9]. The discovery of new compounds from plants with therapeutic value against most common 

and very prevalent disease emphasized the importance of plants in human diet. Majority of the plants that have 

therapeutic application possess bioactive composites viz., alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, 

phenolics and vitamins [10-12].  

Celosiae argentea L. is an annual herb that belongs to the Amaranthaceae family [13]. In folklore practice, C. 

argentea seeds' decoction has been reported to be helpful in diabetes mellitus [14, 15]. C. argentea seed has a 

theoblate, black, or reddish black seed. Findings have reported that semen Celosiae possesses miscellaneous 

pharmacological functions, which include antioxidant, hepatoprotection, antitumor, antidiarrhea, and antidiabetes 

[14, 16, 17].  

Diabetes mellitus has become a global burden, affecting around 25% of the world population of both developed 

and developing countries [18, 19]. It has been projected that diabetes will be among the leading causes of death in 

2030 [20, 21]. Diabetes cases are exponentially increasing due to societal influence and lifestyles, which can related 

to food products [22, 23]. In modern medicine, there is still no reasonably effective therapy or drug to cure diabetes 

[24]. One practical therapeutic approach to managing diabetes is by controlling postprandial hyperglycemia 

through daily meals [25, 26].  

Functional bread-making aims to create bread fortified with physiologically functional ingredients [27]. 

Scholars [28-30] have highlighted concerns regarding the potential degradation or alteration of bioactive 

compounds in various flours during heat treatment and the baking process. The antioxidant capacity of bakery 

products is heavily influenced by factors such as manufacturing techniques, recipes, dough mixing, and kneading 

[27]. Additionally, research suggests that incorporating ground seeds may offer enhanced access to the bioactive 

compounds' benefits [31, 32]. Existing literature reveals investigations into the antioxidant and antidiabetic 

properties of Celosiae argentea L seed. However, there is a notable gap in understanding its utilization in fortifying 

wheat flour for bread production. 

 

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS  

2.1. Materials  

Bakery facilities at the Department of Food Technology, The Oke-Polytechnic Saki, were used. Celosia argentea 

seed was obtained from local vegetable farmers in Saki, Oyo State, Nigeria. Bread-making raw materials such as 

yeast, sugar, refined wheat flour, salt, and margarine were obtained from local markets in Saki, Oyo State, Nigeria. 

All chemicals used were of analytical standard. 

 

2.2. Sample preparation 

2.2.1. Preparation of C. Argentea flour 

Fresh whole plants of C. argentea were uprooted when the plants were in full bloom. The plants were identified 

and authenticated by a botanist at the Department of Crop Production, the Oke-Ogun Polytechnic Saki. The seeds 

were collected from the mature plants, shade-dried, and milled (80 mesh) using the laboratory manually operated 

attrition mill. 

 

 



Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2024, 11(2): 27-38 

 

 
© 2024 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

29 

2.3. Bread Production 

Bread samples were prepared following a standard formulation adapted from [33] using flour percentages, 

including Celosiae argentea seed flour of 5 and 10%, as presented in Table 1 The dough was prepared using an 

optimised straight-dough bread-making method [34]. The ingredients (Table 1) were mixed (for 10 min) in a stand 

mixer (Rohnson stand mixer, SC-623, Italy). The resulting dough was cut (200 g pieces), kneaded and shaped into a 

cylindrical shape prior to placement in baking pan (13 cm x 6 cm x 9.5 cm). Dough proofing was done in a proofing 

cabinet for 40 min at 38 °C. A static oven operated for 45 min at 220 °C was used for the baking operation. The 

resulting bread samples were carefully placed on the table in a clean cooling chamber until they reached room 

temperature. The cooled bread samples were packaged in a low-density polyethylene bag for further analysis. 

 

Table 1. Bread formulation for Wheat based bread fortified with C. argentea seed. 

Samples  HHT LTF TTS FHC WET RWO 

Whole wheat (g) 900 950 -- -- 1000 -- 

Refined wheat (g) --- --- 900 950 -- 1000 

C. argentea flour (g) 100 50 100 50 -- -- 

Yeast (g) 30 30 30 30 30 30 
Sugar (g) 40 40 40 40 40 40 
Margarine (g) 50 50 50 50 50 50 
Salt (g) 15 15 15 15 15 15 
Water (ml) 600 600 600 600 600 600 

Note: WETF – Whole Wheat Flour, RWOF – Refined Wheat Flour, CCSF – Celosia Argentea Seed Flour, WET – 
Whole Wheat Bread,  RWO - Refined Wheat Bread, LTF – 95% Whole Wheat + 5 %  Celiosia argentea seed, HHT 
– 90% Whole Wheat + 10 % Celiosia argentea seed, FHC – 95% Refine Wheat + 5 % Celiosia argentea seed, TTS -  
90% Refine Wheat + 10 % Celiosia argentea seed. 

 

2.4. Bread Sample Extraction for Analysis 

The method outlined by Akinyemi, et al. [35] was employed to extract flour and bread samples for antioxidant 

analysis. In brief, bread samples were sliced into pieces with dimensions of 3 cm width and 1 cm thickness, then air-

dried for a duration of 24 hours. Subsequently, the dried bread samples were finely ground using a hand-operated 

attrition mill. Flour and bread samples weighing 1g each were then subjected to extraction with 20 mL of 80% 

ethanol for a period of 48 hours, with intermittent agitation. The mixture was immediately filtered with Whatman 

No. 1 filter paper, and the resulting filtrate was kept at 4°C in a refrigerator for the analysis of samples’ antioxidant 

properties. 

 

2.5. Antioxidant Properties of Bread Samples 

2.5.1. Determination of the Total Phenolic Content (TPC) 

The TPC of bread samples was determined by the method of Akinyemi, et al. [35]. Briefly, the extract (0.2 mL) 

was allow to react with 1 mL of Folin–Ciocalteu's reagent previously diluted five times, prior to that addition of 

7.5% Na2CO3 (0.8 mL). The reacting mixture was kept in the dark for 20 minutes at ambient temperature, and the 

absorbance was measured at 765 nm against a blank mixture. The TPC results were determine in mg of gallic acid 

equivalent (GAE) per gram of samples’ dry weight. 

 

2.5.2. Determination of Total Flavonoid Content (TFC) 

The bread samples TFC determination was done according to Saikia, et al. [36]. Specifically, the bread sample 

extract (0.25 mL) and a standard catechin solution in triplicate were diluted with distilled water (1.25 mL). While 

75 µL of a 5% NaNO3 solution was added to each sample, before incubation for 6 minutes at ambient temperature. 

Then, 10% AlCl3 (150 µL) was introduced to the reacting mixture prior to further incubation for 5 minutes. This as 

followed by the addition of 0.5 mL of 1 M NaOH solution to the reacting mixture which was immediately made up 

to 3 mL with distilled water. The resulting mixture absorbance was read at 510 nm using a spectrophotometer 



Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2024, 11(2): 27-38 

 

 
© 2024 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

30 

(JENWAY, Model 7305). Standard catechin solution was used in place of samples to construct calibration curve 

that was used to determine the concentration of TFC in the bread samples in milligrams per gram. 

 

2.5.3. Total Antioxidant Capacity of Milled Rice 

The total antioxidant capacity of bread samples was determined using the method described by Akinyemi, et al. 

[35]. Briefly, the phosphomolybdenum reagent was prepared by thorough mixing of sulfuric acid (3.3 mL), sodium 

phosphate (335 mg), and ammonium molybdate (78.4 mg) in 100 mL of distilled water. The bread sample extract 

(0.5 mL) was mixed with the phosphomolybdenum reagent (7.5 mL), and the mixture was placed in water bath that 

operated at 95°C for 90 minutes. The resulting mixture was cooled and the absorbance read at 695 nm using a 

spectrophotometer. A standard curve was constructed using various concentrations of gallic acid as substitute for 

the bread extract. The equation derived from the standard curve was used to estimate the total antioxidant capacity 

of the bread extract milligrams of gallic acid equivalents per gram.  

 

2.5.4. 1,1, Diphenyl-2-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Radical Scavenging Assay for Bread Samples 

The DPPH radical scavenging assay reported by Akinyemi, et al. [35] was used to determine the radical 

scavenging potential of flour and bread samples. Breiefly, 4 mg of DPPH was thoroughly dissolved in 100 mL 

methanol. Sample extract (0.1 mL) was mixed with DPPH (0.3 mL) solution and the resulting mixture was placed 

in the dark for 30 minutes. The absorbance of the resulting mixture was measured at 516 nm. A control mixture 

was prepared using the DPPH reagent without the sample extract. The extract inhibition of DPPH reagent was 

determined in percentage using Equation 1. 

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑒

𝐴𝑐
 × 100%     (1) 

Where Ac = Absorbance of control. 

      Ae = Absorbance of extract. 

 

2.5.5. Determination of Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP)        

The method described by Sukrasno, et al. [37] was used to determine the FRAP of flour and bread samples. 

Briefly, the mixing of Acetate buffer, tripyridyltriazine TPTZ, and FeCl3.6H2O at a ratio of 10:1:1, respectively was 

used to prepare the FRAP reagent.  

Sample extract (0.3 mL) diluted with distilled water (0.7 mL), was mixed with the FRAP reagent (2.85 mL). 

The resulting mixture was incubated for 20 minutes at 50°C before measuring its absorbance at 700 nm. A standard 

curve was constructed using ascorbic acid, to estimate the antioxidant power of the bread samples. 

 

2.6. In-Vitro Alpha-Amylase Inhibitory Assay of Bread Samples  

The method described by Shettar, et al. [38] was used to determine the Alpha-amylase inhibitory potential of 

methanolic extract of bread samples. In this method the sample extract (0.5 mL) mixed with 0.5 mL of α-amylase 

solution (0.5 mg/mL) in 0.02 M sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.9 with 0.006 M NaCl) was incubated at ambient 

temperature for 10 minutes.  

Then 0.5 mL of starch solution (1%) in 0.02 M sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.9 with 0.006 M NaCl) was 

added, and the resulting mixture was incubated for another 10 Minutes at ambient temperature. The reaction was 

terminated by the addition of dinitrosalicylic acid (1 ml) color reagent. Subsequently, the test tubes were placed in a 

water bath at 100°C for 5 minutes and then allowed to cool to room temperature. The mixture was diluted with 10 

mL of deionized water, and the absorbance was measured at 540 nm. The absorbance of blank samples (buffer 

instead of extract and amylase solution) and control samples (buffer instead of extract) were also determined. 

Acarbose was used as a standard drug for comparison. The inhibition of α-amylase was calculated using Equation 2. 



Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2024, 11(2): 27-38 

 

 
© 2024 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

31 

% inhibition of α − Amylase =  
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙− 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙
 x 100     (2) 

Where  

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 = absorbance of the solution without bread extract (buffer instead of extract) and with α 

− amylase solution  

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 = absorbance of solution with  bread extract extract and α – amylase solution 

 

2.7. GC-MS Profiling of Bread Samples Extracts   

The analysis was performed using the Shimadzu Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) 

instrument, specifically the Pegasus 4D model from LECO Corporation, based in St. Joseph, MI, USA. A fused silica 

column was utilized, and helium served as the carrier gas at a constant flow rate of 1 mL/min. A 1 μL bread sample 

extract was injected into the instrument for analysis. The temperature parameters were set as follows: the initial 

temperature was maintained at 100°C, while the injector temperature was set to 250°C. Throughout the analysis, 

the temperature ramped up at a rate of 10°C/min. Separation of components occurred, and at the 24th minute, the 

final temperature was adjusted to 280°C, where it was held for 5 minutes [38]. Compounds were identified by 

comparing their mass spectra with library spectra databases, particularly those provided by the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology (NIST). The biological activity of all identified compounds was determined through an 

extensive literature survey. 

 

2.8. Statistical Analysis 

All experiments were performed in triplicates (n= 3), and the data are presented as the mean ± standard error. 

Differences between the means of the individual groups were analysed for variance using SPSS software version 20 

(IBM). The significance of differences was defined at the p <0.05 level. 

 

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION  

3.1. Antioxidant Properties of Flour and Bread Samples 

To assess the antioxidant properties of bread produced from whole wheat flour fortified with Celosia argentea 

seed flour, various parameters, including total antioxidant capacity, total flavonoid content, ferric reducing 

antioxidant power (FRAP), total phenolic content, and DPPH were evaluated, and the results are presented in 

Table 2. Analysis of the flour samples revealed that Celosia argentea seed flour exhibited the highest antioxidant 

properties, followed by whole wheat flour. Conversely, refined wheat flour demonstrated the lowest values for all 

evaluated antioxidant properties in this study, except for total phenolic content. These findings align with previous 

research indicating that phenolic compounds are primarily concentrated in the outer layers of grains [39]. 

Borrelli, et al. [39] noted that 83% of the total phenolic compound in whole meal flour is located on the 

bran/germ fraction. The TPC (1.21 mgGAE/g) obtained for refined wheat flour in this work is lower but not 

significantly different from 1.26 mgGAE/g obtained by Ali, et al. [33] but higher than 0.64 mgGAE/g reported by 

Paucar-Menacho, et al. [40]. The total flavonoid content of refined wheat flour obtained by Ali, et al. [33] was 

lower than that obtained in this work. However, the result of TPC obtained for the whole (1.42 mgGAE/g) and 

refined wheat (1.21 mgGAE/g) flour in this study were within the range (0.896 – 1.61 mgGAE/g) reported by 

Borrelli, et al. [39] for different species and genotype of wheat flour. The TPC (1.63 mgGAE/g) of Celosia 

argentea seed flour obtained in this work is higher than that of amaranth (0.12 – 0.72 mgGAE/g), within the range 

of buckwheat products (1.46 – 6.78 mgGAE/g) and Quinoa (0.97 – 2.26 mgGAE/g) reported by Škrovánková, et al. 

[41] work on polyphenol and antioxidant activity in pseudocereals and their products. The TPC (1.45 mgGAE/g) 

of sprouted kiwicha (pseudocereal) flour reported by Paucar-Menacho, et al. [40]  was lower than that obtained for 

Celosiae argentea seed flour. 



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32 

The total antioxidant capacity of bread samples increased with the inclusion of Celosia argentea seed flour from 

1.28 to 3.34 mgGAE/g for whole wheat-based bread and from 1.19 to 1.45 mgGAE/g for refined wheat-based 

bread. An Increase in Celosia Argentea seed flour percentage from 5 to 10% led to a significant increase in the TAC 

of bread samples. In contrast, there was no significant difference in TAC between bread samples produced from 5% 

and 10% inclusion of C. argentea seed flour in refined wheat flour. The result of TFC showed that the highest value 

(0.85mg/g) was obtained from bread produced from whole wheat flour supplemented with 10% Celosia argentea 

seed flour. At the same time, the lowest value (0.63mg/g) was from a bread sample baked with refined wheat flour. 

The increase in the percentage inclusion of C. argentea seed caused a significant increase in the TFC for whole and 

refined wheat flour bread. Celosia argentea seed addition to both whole and refined wheat flour increased the FRAP 

of whole wheat flour bread from 0.21 mg/g to 0.54 mg/g, while refined wheat flour bread from 0.13 to 0.37 mg/g. a 

marked increase in FRAP value was also reflected in the increment of inclusion of C. argentea seed from 5% to 10% 

for both whole and refined wheat flour. The TPC of the bread sample from whole wheat flour supplemented with 

10% C. argentea seed flour had the highest value (1.31 mgGAE/g), while the lowest value of 1.10 mgGAE/g was 

from refined wheat flour. Generally, the addition of C. argentea seed flour to whole wheat and refined wheat flour 

significantly increased the TPC of bread samples produced. However, bread samples from whole wheat flour had 

significantly (p<0.05) higher values compared with C. argentea-supplemented refined wheat flour bread. The 

highest value of whole wheat bread is an offshoot of the high phenolic content of whole wheat flour. The result of 

this work agreed with the output of inclusion of pseudocereals like sprouted kiwicha and cañihua by Paucar-

Menacho, et al. [40] who observed a significant increase in the TPC of bread samples up to 1.23 mgGAE/g and 

2.51 mgGAE/g, respectively at 15% level of inclusion.  The DPPH of the bread samples varied from 42.88 to 

49.75%. Including C. argentea seed flour increased the DPPH of bread samples for whole wheat and refined wheat 

flour. There was a significant increase in DPPH as the percentage inclusion of C. argentea seed flour increased from 

5% to 10% for whole wheat flour. In contrast, an increase in the percentage inclusion of C. argentea seed flour to 

refined wheat flour did not cause a significant increase in the percentage of DPPH value of the bread sample. The 

result of this work agrees with the work of Chlopicka, et al. [42] who recorded an increase in the TPC, TFC, 

FRAP, and DPPH as the percentage of pseudocereals (Buckwheat, amaranth, and Quinoa) inclusion in bread 

formulation increases. The findings of Keshani, et al. [43] also indicated higher antioxidant capacity and TPC of 

quinoa-wheat bread compared to wheat bread.  

 

Table 2. Antioxidant properties of flour and bread samples. 

 Samples Total antioxidant 
capacity 

mgGAE/g 

Total flavonoid 
content 
mg/g 

FRAP 
mg/g 

Total phenolic 
content 

mgGAE/g 

DPPH 
% 
 

Flour samples 
WETF 1.42c±0.03 0.73d±0.04 0.56b±0.09 1.47a±0.05 46.46cd±1.00 
RWOF 0.64b±0.02 0.57h±0.05 0.51b±0.09 1.21c±0.03 43.25e±1.20 
CCSF 1.63b±0.13 1.14a±0.04 0.70a±0.05 1.35b±0.02 62.30a±2.32 
Bread samples 

WET 1.28cd±0.20 0.69de±0.02 0.21a±0.06 1.25c±0.03 45.18de±1.28 
RWO 1.19d±0.11 0.63fg±0.01 0.13a±0.02 1.10e±0.04 42.88e±1.59 
LTF 1.35cd±0.03 0.81c±0.01 0.34c±0.02 1.15d±0.01 44.69de±1.5 
HHT 3.34a±0.05 0.85b±0.01 0.54b±0.03 1.31b±0.01 49.75b±1.10 
FHC 1.42c±0.03 0.61g±0.01 0.18a±0.00 1.13de±0.01 47.86bc±0.50 
TTS 1.45c±0.03 0.67ef±0.01 0.37c±0.01 1.20c±0.01 48.98b±0.41 

 

Note: Means followed by the same letter down the column are not significantly different (p˂0.05) from one another 
WETF – Whole Wheat Flour, RWOF – Refined Wheat Flour, CCSF – Celosia Argentea Seed Flour, WET – Whole Wheat Bread, RWO - Refined 
Wheat Bread, LTF – 95% Whole Wheat + 5 %  Celiosia argentea seed, HHT – 90% Whole Wheat + 10 % Celiosia argentea seed, FHC – 95% Refine 
Wheat + 5 % Celiosia argentea seed, TTS -  90% Refine Wheat + 10 % Celiosia argentea seed. 

 

 

 



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33 

3.2. α-amylase Inhibition Activities of Celosia Argentea-Wheat Flour Bread Extracts 

α-amylase is a digestive enzyme responsible for breaking down carbohydrate foods within the human body. 

The activity of these enzymes results in hyperglycemia, i.e., the amount of glucose within the bloodstream, 

resulting in a metabolic disorder known as diabetic mellitus. Prolonged digestion as a result of inhibition of α-

amylase activity on carbohydrates results in low availability of glucose for absorption and ultimately low blood 

glucose level. As such, this could be a helpful technique in the management of diabetic mellitus [44]. However, this 

extension has been reported to be associated with health-related conditions such as flatulence resulting from 

carbohydrate fermentation within the system [45]. 

The IC50, i.e., the concentration of extract containing the enzyme inhibitor that inhibited the activity of α-

amylase by 50% for all the bread sample extracts, is presented in Table 3. The IC50 values obtained for Celosia 

argentea seed substituted wheat bread ranged between 58.20 to 171.05 μg/mL for 10 and 5% inclusion in whole 

wheat bread, respectively. These values were lower than 198.4μg/mL reported for Stevia rebaudiana extract 

functional bread [46].   

The refined wheat bread extract had the highest value of 312 μg/mL and the corresponding lowest percentage 

inhibition value (3.35%). This was followed by whole wheat bread extract with the values of 201.61μg/mL and 

10.73% for IC50 and percentage inhibition, respectively. 

Inclusion of Celosia argentea seeds in wheat bread results in a reduction of IC50 with a proportionate increment 

in percentage inhibition of α-amylase activity, 10% Celosia argentea seed substitution in refined wheat flour bread 

produced extract that requires double the concentration (132.06 μg/mL) of IC50 than the value for the standard 

acarbose (56.44 μg/mL). In contrast, approximately the same concentration of IC50 is necessary for the extract of 

10% Celosia argentea seed flour inclusion in whole wheat flour bread (58.20 μg/mL) when compared with the 

standard acarbose; this value was higher than the value of 51.84 μg/mL documented for aqueous extract of Ximenia 

Americana [38]. 

The 28.15% and 30.79% inhibitions were obtained for 10% of Celosia argentea seed flour substituted in refined 

wheat and whole wheat bread extract, respectively. These values were compared favourably with the reference 

acarbose value (33.68%) α-amylase percentage inhibition value. The inclusion of Celosia argentea seeds reduces the 

activity of α-amylase, thereby slowing down the rate at which carbohydrate metabolism occurs; hence, this seed 

could be a raw material in the management of diabetes mellitus. 

 

Table 3. α-amylase inhibition activities and IC50 of Celosia argentea-wheat flour bread extracts. 

Samples % inhibition IC50 (μg/mL) 

5% C. argentea-refined wheat  19.21 ± 0.61e 171.05 ± 1.94c 

10% C. argentea-refined wheat  28.15 ± 0.24c 132.06 ± 1.81d 

5% C. argentea- whole wheat  24.01 ± 0.33d 121.83 ± 1.48e 

10% C. argentea- whole wheat  30.79 ± 0.47b 58.20 ± 0.35f 

Whole wheat  10.73 ± 0.01f 201.61 ± 0.52b 

Refined wheat  3.35 ± 0.32g 312.00 ± 0.79a 

Acarbose 33.68 ± 1.48a 56.44 ± 1.72f 

Note: Means followed by the same letter down the column are not significantly different (p˂0.05) from one another 
WETF – Whole Wheat Flour, RWOF – Refined Wheat Flour, CCSF – Celosia Argentea Seed Flour, WET – Whole 
Wheat Bread, RWO - Refined Wheat Bread, LTF – 95% Whole Wheat + 5 %  Celiosia argentea seed, HHT – 90% 
Whole Wheat + 10 % Celiosia argentea seed, FHC – 95% Refine Wheat + 5 % Celiosia argentea seed, TTS -  90% 
Refine Wheat + 10 % Celiosia argentea seed 

 

3.3. Phytochemicals Detected by GCMS Profiling 

Bioactive compounds Table 4 detected in bread samples produced by the fortification of wheat flour (Whole and 

refined) with Celosia argentea seed flour include 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid methyl ester; Docosanoic acid, methyl 

ester; E,E,Z-1,3,12-Nonadecatriene-5,14-diol; Linoleic acid ethyl ester; and Squalene. However, decanoic acid, 



Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2024, 11(2): 27-38 

 

 
© 2024 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

34 

methyl ester was detected in bread samples produced from whole wheat bread and bread samples produced by 

fortification of whole and refined wheat flours with Celosia argentea seed flour. The functionality of decanoic acid, 

methyl ester reported are improvement of blood lipids, antioxidant protection, reduction of lipid peroxidation, and 

enhancement of insulin oral absorption [47]. 

 

Table 4.  Compounds identified in bread samples. 

S/N 
Compound  

Retention 
time 

% peak 
area 

Similarity Sample  Reported activities  

1 

9,12-
Octadecadienoic 
acid, methyl  
ester 

11.271 35.75 93 HHT 
Essential fatty acids, 
cardiovascular health, 
anti-inflammatory 

11.806 3.16 99 TTS 
11.243 14.6 96 FFC 
15.553 0.33 91 TTS 

2 
Decanoic acid, 
methyl ester 

5.778 1.87 96 FFC Improve blood lipids, 
antioxidant protection,  
reduce lipid peroxidation, 
oral absorption 
enhancer for insulin 

5.778 0.54 94 HHT 
5.778 0.36 97 LTF 
5.778 1.61 95 TTS 
5.778 1.66 94 WET 

3 
Docosanoic acid, 
methyl ester 

15.243 0.23 91 FFC Cardiovascular health, 
cognitive function, reduced 
inflammation, joint health, 
reduced cancer risk, type 2 
diabetes prevention. 

15.215 1.13 95 HHT 
15.271 0.17 90 LTF 

15.243 0.1 91 TTS 

4 
Dodecanoic acid, 
methyl ester 

6.905 7.71 97 FFC 

Anti-inflammatory and anti-
fibrotic effects 

6.905 3.04 98 HHT 
6.905 1.81 94 LTF 
6.877 7.88 96 TTS 
6.905 4.06 97 WET 

5 
E,E,Z-1,3,12-
Nonadecatriene-
5,14-diol 

10.849 0.06 81 HHT Severe acute respiratory 
syndrome coronavirus 2 
(SARS-CoV-2) inhibition, 
antibacterial and antifungal 
properties 

16.821 1.51 86 LTF 

6 
Hexadecanoic acid, 
methyl ester 

9.694 10.38 98 FFC 
Anti-inflammatory and anti-
fibrotic effects: 
  
  

9.778 5.6 86 LTF 
9.694 4.45 97 RW 
9.665 8.7 98 TTS 
9.694 3.39 98 WET 

7 
Linoleic acid ethyl 
ester 

11.806 2.93 99 FHC Reduce total and low-
density lipoproteins (LDL) 
cholesterol levels 
  

11.863 4.01 90 LTF 

14.905 0.31 96 TTS 

8 
Methyl 5,9,12-
octadecatrienoate 

14.004 1.11 87 LTF Hypertension prevention, 
anti-inflammatory 
properties calcium 
absorption and osteoporosis: 
antitumor potential 

13.187 0.26 92 WET 

9 Squalene 

17.553 4.77 99 FHC 
Anticancer effects, improve 
the immune response to 
vaccines. 

17.553 3.48 99 HHT 
17.637 3.29 98 LTF 
17.553 21.65 99 TTS 

Note: WET – Whole wheat bread, RWO - refined wheat bread, LTF – 95% Whole Wheat + 5 % Celiosia Argentea Seed, HHT – 90% whole wheat + 10 % Celiosia 
Argentea Seed, FHC – 95% Refine Wheat + 5 % Celiosia Argentea Seed, TTS -  90% Refine Wheat + 10 % Celiosia Argentea seed 

 

The detection of 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid methyl ester in bread samples produced from 5% and 10% Celosia 

argentea seed flour supplemented with whole and refined wheat is an indication of its potential for several health 

benefits, which include cell membrane and prostaglandin synthesis, cardiovascular health and anti-inflammatory 

properties [48]. 9, 12-Octadecadienoic acid methyl ester was also reported as the predominant compound in 

Helleborus bocconei subsp. Intermedius [48] and Jatropha curcas [49].  The therapeutical and antioxidant  potential 



Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2024, 11(2): 27-38 

 

 
© 2024 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

35 

of Docosanoic acid, methyl ester found in bread samples fortified with C. argentea seed flour, has been reported to 

be present in crinum defixum ker-gawler leaves [50] and different extracts of Haloxylon stocksii (Boiss.) Benth [51].  

Dodecanoic acid, methyl ester, which possesses the ability to cure diseases that are caused by oxidative stress 

[52] was found in whole wheat flour bread samples. The presence of Dodecanoic acid, methyl ester was also 

detected in all bread samples produced with flour fortification at 5 and 10% of C. argentea seed flour. 

The addition of Celosia argentea seed flour to whole wheat flour at 5% (LTF) and 10% (HHT) levels caused the 

presence of E,E,Z-1,3,12-Nonadecatriene-5,14-diol to bread samples produced. This compound has been reported 

for its potential inhibitory effects against SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19. The antibacterial and 

antifungal properties of E,E,Z-1,3,12-Nonadecatriene-5,14-diol has also been reported [53]. 

Linoleic acid methyl ester reported for its health benefit in reducing total and LDL cholesterol levels [54] was 

found in all bread samples supplemented with Celosia argentea seed. Squalene was found only in bread samples 

supplemented with Celosia argentea seed flours. Squalene is an intermediate for cholesterol biosynthesis, has been 

proposed to act similarly to statins via inhibition of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) 

reductase in the liver [55]. The anticancer effect and improvement of immune response to the vaccine have been 

reported as the significant benefit of squalene [49, 56]. 

 

4. CONCLUSION 

The increase in the percentage inclusion of C. argentea seed caused a significant increase in the antioxidative 

content and activities of whole and refined wheat flour bread. Also, the inclusion of Celosia argentea seeds reduces 

the activity of α-amylase, thereby slowing down the rate at which carbohydrate metabolism occurs; hence C 

argentea seed could be a raw material in managing diabetes mellitus. The predominant health benefits of 

phytochemicals detected in bread samples fortified with C. argentea seed were anti-inflammatory potentials, 

antioxidant protection, and reduction of lipid peroxidation.   

 

Funding: This research is supported by Tertiary Education Trust Funds Institutional Based Grant by the 
Nigerian government (Grant number: TETF/DR&D/CE/POLY/OKE-OGUN/IBR/2019/VOL1). 
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. 
Transparency: The authors state that the manuscript is honest, truthful, and transparent, that no key 
aspects of the investigation have been omitted, and that any differences from the study as planned have been 
clarified. This study followed all writing ethics. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 
Authors’ Contributions: All authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. All 
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. 

 

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