




































 

 

 
90 

† Corresponding author 
© 2015 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

EFFECTS OF EBOLA (EVD) OUTBREAK ON BUSH MEAT MARKETING AND 

CONSUMPTION IN IBARAPA CENTRAL LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF 

OYO STATE, NIGERIA 

 

Oyediran, W. O.1† --- Omoare, A. M.2 --- Esenwa, A. O.3 --- Omisore, O. A.4 --- Dick 

T. T.5 
1,3Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria 

2Department of Agricultural Education, Federal College of Education, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria 

4Department of Agricultural Extension and Farm Management, Oyo State College of Agriculture, Igboora, Oyo State, Nigeria  

5Rokupr Agriculture Rice Centre (RARC), Sierra Leone Agricultural Research Institute (SLARI) 

 

ABSTRACT 

Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak was a major threat to public health in Nigeria and it adversely affected the 

people’s perception on bush meat as it was revealed that wild animals were host of the virus.  Thus, the study assessed 

the effects of EVD outbreak on bush meat marketing and consumption in Ibarapa Central Local Government Area of 

Oyo State, Nigeria. Multi stage sampling technique was used to select 85 respondents. Data collected with interview 

guide and analysed using with descriptive statistics and chi-square analysis. The results showed that 58.80% of the 

respondents were between 40 – 50 years of age and 73% of the respondents were females. Majority (64.70%) of the 

respondents had been in bush meat business for more than 10 years. Before the EVD outbreak 37.14% of the respondents 

had more than 50 customers while patronage reduced to less than 25 customers in a day after EVD outbreak. Similarly, 

42% of respondents had more than ₦21,000.00 in a day before EVD outbreak as against less than ₦5,000.00 in a day 

after the outbreak. Chi-square analysis showed a significant relationship between the sources of information on EVD 

outbreak and bush meat sales at p < 0.05. It can be concluded that EVD caused reduction in the customers’ patronage 

and income realized from the sales of bush meat after the outbreak. It is hereby recommended that more awareness 

should be created by government and other stakeholders that Nigeria is free of EVD, and bush meat is safe for public 

consumption while Agricultural Extension Agents and Community Health Workers should focus on training and 

capacity building for quality and healthy bush meat business in the study area. 

Keywords: Ebola virus disease, Effects, Outbreak, Bush meat, Marketing, Consumption. 

 

Contribution/ Originality 

This study is one of very few studies which have investigated the setback caused by the 

spread of the news of Ebola virus disease outbreak on bush meat sales and consumption in rural 

communities where cases of Ebola disease virus were not actually reported. 

Current Research in Agricultural Sciences 
2015 Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 90-99 
ISSN(e): 2312-6418 
ISSN(p): 2313-3716 
DOI: 10.18488/journal.68/2015.2.3/68.3.90.99 
© 2015 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

 
 
 
 
 
 

http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.18488/journal.68/2015.2.3/68.3.90.99
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91 

© 2015 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

1. INTRODUCTION 

In West Africa, bush meat is an ancient tradition in proper nutrition because the livestock 

production is low. People often consume bush meat as European societies eat rabbit or deer meat. 

The term bush meat can be referred to as meat from animals in the wild that can be obtained from 

mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds hunted for food in the forests [1]. Hunting of these 

animals in the wild can as well serve as entertaining game. Bush meat is eating as protein source 

and sustenance in rural areas, while major towns and cities treated bush meat as a delicacy in 

their diets [2]. In recent time, it is commonly referred to as meat of terrestrial wild killed for 

home consumption or commercial purposes in Africa and developed countries. However, bush 

meat is a vector of some serious tropical diseases spread to human [3, 4], for instance Ebola Virus 

Disease (EVD). The Ebola virus, for which the primary host has been identified as fruit bats, is a 

major concern in bush meat consumption and public health. Primates which have been suspected 

to be an intermediate host may carry the disease, after contracted the disease from bat droppings 

or remnants of fruits ate by the bats. This is very dangerous for the primates [2] as it can be 

transmitted to man through contact. The largest outbreak happened in 2014 and it was originated 

from south-eastern Guineas which later spread to some West African countries such as Sierra 

Leone, Congo, Liberia and Nigeria. However, Ghana where large quantity of bats are being 

hunted, consumed and sold to public recorded no case of Ebola outbreak [2]. People sometimes 

get Ebola infection directly from bats due to poor cooking practices. In most cases, the hunters, 

marketers, food vendors and consumers are at the receiving end. The hunters used different skills 

and tools to capture the bats which can make them have contact with the blood of the bats or get 

bitten by the bats and consequently infected with Ebola virus (EVD). Marketers and processors 

also do have direct contact while handling bush meat.  Before the EVD outbreak in year 2014 the 

hunters, processors, marketers, and consumers were not aware of the risks associated with 

handling bush meat; it is generally considered as healthy food. In Nigeria in particular, there was 

no public awareness and enlightenment campaign on EVD not until after the outbreak. Since July 

20, 2014 when the late American-Liberian diplomat, Patrick Sawyer, sauntered into Lagos heavily 

infected with the Ebola Virus Disease (EVD), Nigerians have known no peace [5]; eight (8) 

people out of twenty (20) cases of EVD victims were dead. There have been changes in almost 

every sphere of living. The public are panicking and restraining themselves from eating bush 

meat such as bats, monkeys and even to the detriment of other animals. As part of government 

measures to wage war against EVD there were jingles in the media (radio, television, newspapers, 

Internet etc.) that people should stop eating bush meat. The news of EVD spread like wild fire. 

Also, medical experts, quarantine officers and other stakeholders unanimously joined government 

to eradicate EVD in the country.  Nigeria government has however not encouraged the public to 

consume the bush meat since the country has overcome the EVD and declared as EVD free by the 

World Health Organisation (WHO). Consequently, hunters, bush meat sellers and restaurants 

are not only counting their losses but gradually fading out of the bush meat business. Thus, this 

study finds it important to assess effects of Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak on bush meat 

marketing and consumption in Ibarapa Central Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria. 



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1.1. Specific Objectives Were to 

i. ascertain socio-economic characteristics of respondents in the study area; 

ii. sources of information on the EVD outbreak to the respondents in the study area; 

iii. examine patronage before and after the outbreak in the study area; 

iv. estimate sales before and after the outbreak in the study area; 

v. assess coping strategies by the respondents in the study area;  

vi. identify challenges to bush meat business in the study area. 

 

1.2. Hypotheses 

H01: There is no significant association between the sources of EVD news spread and bush 

meat patronage in the study area. 

H02: There is no significant association between the sources of EVD news spread and bush meat 

sold in the study area. 

 

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 

The study was carried out in Ibarapa Central Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria. 

Ibarapa Central LGA has an area of 440 km² and a population of 102,979 [6]. The LGA has good 

vegetation and landscape that are conducive for wild animals to survive and multiply. Hunters are 

prominent in every household within a large extended family compound. Dry season is a hunting 

festival as hunters move in group from one forest to another on daily basis; it is entertaining as 

hunters display skills to capture preys. Bush meat marketing and food vendors are very popular in 

the study area. There are seven major markets in the LGA and each of the markets there is 

always a section where bush meat from diverse animals is being displayed for sales. Similarly, 

every food vendors offer good and delicious bush meat for customers at a cheaper price compared 

to the cities. Multi stage sampling technique was used in selecting respondents for this study. 

There are ten wards in Ibarapa Central Local Government Area. Five wards were randomly 

selected (Oke-Iserin, Isale-Oba, Saganun/Idofin, Pako/Igbole and Idere). The second stage was 

random selection of seven bush meat sellers and ten food vendors from each of the selected wards 

making a total of 85 respondents for this study.  

The instrument used for the data collection was subjected to face validity by consulting 

experts in the field of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development. Items found ambiguous 

were removed. Test-retest was carried out with ten bush meat sellers in Igangan town to 

ascertain the reliability of the instrument. A reliability coefficient of 0.77 was obtained. Since the 

reliability coefficient of 0.75 and above is termed reliable, it is assumed that the instrument used 

for this study was reliable. Data collected from this study were subjected to both descriptive 

statistics such as percentage, mean score and frequency distribution.  



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Figure-1. Map of Oyo State showing Ibarapa Central Local Government Area 

 

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

3.1. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents  

The results in Table 1 showed that majority of the respondents (58.80%) were between 40 – 

50 years of age while 21.20% of the respondents were above 50 years. About 64% of the food 

vendors and 51.40% of bush meat sellers were within this age bracket. It implies that the 

respondents in the study area are economically active. Majority (73%) of the respondents were 

females while 27% were males. The result indicates the dominance of female in bush meat 

business in the study area. However, 65.70% of bush meat sellers were males. This is possible 

because the hunters sometimes sell the captured animals directly to the consumers or hand it over 

to their counterparts in the markets to help sell it. Similarly, women (100%) were actively 

involved in food vending. Traditionally, women do most food preparation and cooking in Africa.  

Most of the respondents (82.35%) were married while some of the respondents (17.65%) were 

separated. None of the respondents was single. This may be due to the fact that they are all adults 

and economically empowered. The results also revealed that 47.10% of the respondents had 6 -10 

people in their households while 49.40% of the respondents had more than 10 people. The reason 

for this could be as a result of the fact that bush meat business requires more hands in processing, 

cooking and marketing especially in food vending where there may be too much customers to 

attend to at a time. Most (64.70%) of the respondents had been in bush meat business (direct 

selling/food vending) for more than 10 years while 23.60% of the respondents had spent 6 – 10 



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years. The respondents are full of experience due to the long staying in bush meat buying, 

preparation and selling. 45.90% of the respondents attended secondary school while 2.30% of the 

respondents went to tertiary institution. It shows that the bush meat sellers and food vendors 

have certain level of formal education that can help them in their bush meat business venture in 

the study area. 

 
Table-1. Socio-economic characteristics of respondents (n = 85) 

Variables Bush meat sellers 
(n = 35) 

Food vendors  
(n=50) 

Total 
(n = 85)  

Age (years)    

≤ 30 0 (0.00) 02 (4.00) 02 (2.40) 
31 – 40 09 (25.70) 06 (12.00) 15 (17.60) 
40 – 50 18 
51.40) 32 (64.00) 50 (58.80) 

˃ 50 08 (22.9
) 10 (20.00) 18 (21.20) 

Sex    
Male 23 (65.70) 0 (0.00) 23 (27.00) 
Female 12 (24.30) 50 (100
 6
 (73.00) 

Marital statu
    
Single 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) 
Married 32 (91.40) 38 (76.00) 70 (82.35) 
Separa
ed 3 (8.60) 12 (24.00) 15 (17.65) 
Household size(no. of people)    

≤ 5 03 (8.60) 0 (0.00) 03 (3.50) 
6 – 10 26 (32.50) 14 (28.00) 40 (47.
0) 

˃ 10 06 (17.10) 36 (72
00) 42 (49.40) 

Years of experience (years)    
≤ 5 04 (11.40) 06 (12.00) 10 (11.70) 
6 
 10 07 (1.75) 13 (26.00) 20 (23.60) 

˃ 10 24 (28.30) 31 (62.00) 55 (
4.70) 

Educational status ( school 
level) 

   

No formal education 21 (
0.
0) 04 (8.00) 25 (29.40) 
Primary education 09 (25.70) 10 (20.00) 19 (22.40) 
Secondary education 05 (14.30) 34 (
8.00) 39 (45.90) 

Tertiary education 0 (0.00) 02 (4.00) 02 (2.30) 
 

Source: Field survey, 2014 
Values in brackets are percentages 

 

3.2. Sources of the Information on EVD Outbreak 

The results in figure 2 showed that all (100%) the respondents received the information on 

EVD outbreak through radio broadcast while 81.20% of the respondents got it from friends and 

family, and 65.90% of the respondents viewed it in the television. This is in line with the findings 

of Lawal [7], that radio is still „a means of disseminating agricultural information to farmers in 

developing countries because it is widely accessible to rural dwellers. Meanwhile agricultural 

extension agents (4.70%) and newspapers (8.20%) were not effective in spreading the EVD news 

to rural dwellers. The low participation of extension agents in EVD awareness may be as a result 

of low coverage due to staff shortage and poor funding of the sector. Community health workers 



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however passed the information to the people (28.20%) in the study area. This implies that the 

respondents and people have access to information on EVD through many channels. 

 

 
Figure-2. Distribution of respondents based on sources of the information on EVD outbreak 

 

3.3. Customers’ Patronage of Bush Meat 

The results revealed that before the EVD outbreak, 62.90% of bush meat sellers had 25 – 50 

customers patronizing the bush meat while 37.14% of bush meat sellers had recorded more than 

50 patronages in a day in the study area. Whereas after the outbreak none of the bush meat sellers 

had up to 51 customers in a day, just only 20% of the bush meat sellers had 25 – 50 customers and 

80% of bush meat sellers had less than 25 customers in a day. In a similar vein, before the EVD 

outbreak the patronage of food vendors was very high (82%) and a few food vendors (8%) even 

had more than 100 customers in day. On the other hand, the food vendors did not get up to 51 

and above patronage immediately the EVD struck the nation and the news was spread to the 

study area. 74% of the food vendors however had less than 25 customers and 26% of the food 

vendors had 25 – 50 customers at most in a day. This implies that patronage of bush meat reduces 

due to EVD outbreak and it has influence on the quantity of bush meat sold and livelihood of the 

respondents and their households.   

 

 
Figure-3. Distribution of respondents based on customers‟ patronage of bush meat 

             Source: Field survey, 2014 

 



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3.4. Bush Meat Sales 

The results in figure 4 showed that before the EVD outbreak 54.30% of bush meat sellers 

realized ₦11,000.00 – ₦20,000.00 and more per day as against 34.30% of bush meat sellers that 

got ₦5,000.00 – ₦10,000.00 and less after the EVD outbreak. Also, 42% of food vendors had more 

than ₦21,000.00 in a day before EVD outbreak as against 78% of the food vendors that got less 

than ₦5,000.00 per day. The results indicate high proportion decline in sales of bush meat as a 

result of EVD outbreak in Nigeria despite the fact that no victim of EVD was recorded in the 

study area. It means that people in the study area restrained themselves from eating bush meat 

which forms major part of their diets at home, food vendors and ceremonial parties as a result of 

information passed across in the various communication media to control EVD spread in Nigeria. 

In line with this finding is a comment of a bush meat seller in Ondo State, Nigeria that “I am 

married and have five children in higher institutions. I have been in this business for 30 years and have been 

taking care of my children through this business. I was able to build a house while doing this business. But 

ever since this Ebola issue started, the business has not been the same. Before the Ebola issue started, I used 

to make sales of about ₦100,000.00 daily but now, I hardly make ₦3,000.00” [5]. 

 

 
Figure-4. Distribution of respondents based on bush meat sold 

         Source: Field survey, 2014 

 

3.5. Coping Strategies by the Respondents 

The results revealed that majority of the respondents adjusted to the effect of EVD outbreak 

on the patronage and sales by increasing the quantity of beef that were prepared for the 

customers with mean score of 2.29. The second prominent coping strategy adopted by the 

respondents was the replacement of bush meat with catfish (eja tutu/eja odo) (  = 2.00) to cushion 

the effect of decline in bush meat demand. Also, respondents shifted to goat meat (ogunfe) (  = 

2.06) in order to retain their customers and to get more income. Some of the respondents adopted 

the cooking of frozen turkey for their customers (  = 1.91) while majority of the respondents 

extended the closing time (  = 1.42) to allow for more customers that will come for food at night 

most especially the travellers. Other coping strategies adopted were selling of dried and roasted 

catfish (  = 1.19) and charcoal business (  = 1.10).     
 
 



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Table-2. Distribution based on the coping strategies of the respondents (n = 85) 
Coping strategies Regularly Occasionally Never  Rank 

Diversification into charcoal 
business 

0(0.00) 09 (10.60) 76 (89.40) 1.10 7th 

Replacement of bush meat with 
cat fish (eja tutu) 

44 (51.80) 02 (2.30) 39 (45.90) 2.06 2nd 

Shifted to goat meat (ogunfe) as 
alternative to bush meat 

36 (42.30) 13 (15.30) 36 (42.40) 2.00 3rd 

Cooking of frozen turkey for the 
customers 

28 (32.90) 21 (24.70) 36 (42.40) 1.91 4th 

Increased quantity of beef meat  47 (55.30) 16 (18.80) 22 (25.90) 2.29 1st 
Moved into dried and roasted cat 
fish marketing 

06 (7.10) 04 (4.70) 75 (88.20) 1.19 6th 

Extension of closing time from 
9.00p.m. – 10.00p.m. 

12 (14.10)  12 (14.10) 61 (71.80) 1.42 5th 

 

 Source: Field survey, 2014    
 Values in parenthesis are percentages 

 

3.6. Challenges to Bush Meat Marketing 

There are many challenges confronting bush meat business in the study area. Most of the 

respondents (96.50%) indicated that epileptic electricity supply is a major problem in the study 

area. Irregular power supply is national problem in and it affects all sectors in Nigeria. Above 

ninety percent (92.90%) of the respondents also indicated that lack of training and capacity 

building on improved food handling and hygiene affected their food vending business. Some other 

problems that inhibited bush meat business were high cost of fuel wood (87.10%), high cost of 

food ingredients (85.90%) and poor transportation system (82.40%). Similarly, lack of storage 

facilities (71.80%) and portable water supply (70.60%) were impediments to bush meat marketing 

and food vending in the study area. 
 

Table-3. Challenges to bush meat marketing and consumption (n = 85) 

Challenges Frequency Percentage Rank 

Lack of training and capacity building 79 92.90 2nd 
Epileptic power supply 82 96.50 1st 
High cost of fuel wood  74 87.10 3rd 

High cost of food ingredients 73 85.90 4th 
Poor transportation system 70 82.40 5th 
Lack of storage facilities (e.g. electric oven) 61 71.80 6th 
Lack of clean and portable water 60 70.60 7th 

 

  Source: Field survey, 2014 
 *Multiple responses recorded 

 

3.7. Hypotheses Testing 

3.7.1. Test of Association between Sources of EVD News and Bush Meat Patronage 

There is no significant association between the sources of EVD news spread and bush meat patronage 

in the study area. The result of chi-square analysis showed a significant relationship between radio 

(χ2 = 4.20, df = 1, p = 0.04), television (χ2 = 34.90, df = 1, p = 0.00), newspapers (χ2 = 9.70, df = 1, 

p = 0.01), friends and family (χ2 = 8.94, df = 1, p = 0.03), community health workers (χ2 = 40.23, 

df = 1, p = 0.00)  and bush meat patronage at p < 0.05 level of significance. It could be inferred 

from the results of this study that the news of EVD outbreak reached the Nigerians from diverse 

media and consequently restrict the populace from touching or eating wild animals. However, 



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agricultural extension agents (χ2 = 0.69, df = 1, p = 0.41) were not significant to the bush meat 

patronage at p < 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis that “there is no 

significant association between the sources of EVD news spread and bush meat patronage” is rejected. 

 
Table-4. Test of association between sources of EVD news spread and bush meat patronage 

Variables χ2 df p-value Decisio
 

Radio 4.20 1 0.04 S 
Telev
sion 34.90 1 0.00 S 
Newspapers 9.70 1 0.01 S 
Friends and family 8.94 1 0.03 S 

Agricultural Extension Agent 0.69 1 0.41 NS 
Community Health Workers  40.23 1 0.00 S 

 

Source: Field survey, 2014 
               S – Significant at p < 0.04 

 

3.7.2. Test of Association between Sources of EVD News and Bush Meat Patronage 

There is no significant association between the sources of EVD news spread and bush meat sold in the 

study area. The result of chi-square analysis in Table 5 showed a significant relationship between 

radio (χ2 = 6.44, df = 1, p = 0.01), television (χ2 = 27.26, df = 1, p = 0.00), newspapers (χ2 = 46.20, 

df = 1, p = 0.00), friends and family (χ2 = 10.50, df = 1, p = 0.01), community health workers (χ2 = 

51.47, df = 1, p = 0.00)  and bush meat patronage at p < 0.05 level of significance. The results 

indicate that sources of information on EVD outbreak greatly affect the income realized from 

quantity of bush meat sold. It is very possible because the more the public are getting the jingles 

on EVD the more they are scared and reject bush meat. Meanwhile, agricultural extension agents 

(χ2 = 0.21, df = 1, p = 0.65) were not significant to the bush meat sales at p < 0.05 level of 

significance. Hence, the null hypothesis that “there is no significant association between the sources of 

EVD news spread and bush meat sold” is rejected. 

 
Table-5. Test of association between sources of EVD news spread and bush meat sales 

Variables χ2 Df p-value Decision 

Radio 6.44 1 0.01 S 
Television 27.26 1 0.00 S 
Newspapers 46.20 1 0.00 S 
Friends and family 10.50 1 0.01 S 
Agricultural Extension Agent 0.2
 1 0.65 NS 

Community Health Workers  51.47 1 0.00 S 
 

Source: Field survey, 2014 
       S – Significant at p < 0.04 

 

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

From the findings of this study, it has shown that EVD caused reduction in the customers‟ 

patronage and income realized from the sales of bush meat after the outbreak. Also, challenges to 

bush meat and its consumption affect effective bush meat business in the study area. It is hereby 

recommended that more awareness should be created by government through mass media that 

Nigeria is free of EVD and bush meat is safe for public consumption while the electricity problem 

should be urgently resolved to facilitate bush meat processing and storage. Agricultural 



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Extension agents and Community Health Workers should focus on training and capacity building 

for quality and healthy bush meat business in the study area. 

 

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[2] M. Hogenboom, "Ebola: Is bush meat behind the outbreak? BBC News." Available 

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