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† Corresponding author 
© 2016 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

ANALYSIS OF CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS AMONG RICE FARMERS IN BENUE STATE, 
NIGERIA 

 

Mbah,E.N.1† --- Ezeano, C.I2 --- Saror, S.F3 
1Department of Agricultural Extension and Communication, University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria 
2Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria 
3Institute of Food Security, University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria 

 

ABSTRACT 

The study was carried out in Benue state, Nigeria to analyze climate change effects among rice farmers. 

Questionnaire/interview schedule was used to collect data from a sample of 90 respondents in the study area. Data were 

analyzed using frequency distribution, percentage, mean score and standard deviation. Findings of the study revealed that 

majority (82.2%) of the respondents were males; married (96.7%) with a mean age of about 44 years.  Major perceived causes 

of climate change were use of generators which produce fumes (M=2.16), continuous cropping (M=2.11), human activities 

(tillage) (M=1.94), use of inorganic manure (M=1.92), burning of fire wood (M=1.94), bush burning (M=1.82), 

deforestation (M=1.80), increase in population which leads to loose of farmland (M=1.80), land degradation due to soil 

erosion (M=1.60), over grazing of farmland by livestock (M=1.66), and burning of fossil fuel by industries and automobile 

(M=1.50), among others. Results also indicate that unemployment (M=1.74), desertification (M=1.68), loss of farmland to 

flood and erosion (M=1.64), increase vulnerability to soil erosion (M=1.56), increase in pests and diseases infestation in rice 

farms (M=1.52), increase in growth of weeds (M=1.56), easy loss of water from the soil (M=1.48), reduces soil fertility 

(M=1.42), causes stunted growth in rice crops (M=1.42), among others were perceived effects of climate change in rice 

production. Human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing of farmland by livestock, use of inorganic manure, etc. should 

be discouraged in order to cushion the effects of climate change as well as increasing productivity among rice farmers. 

Keywords: Climate change, Effects, Causes, Vulnerability, Rice farmers, Nigeria. 

 

Contribution/ Originality 

This study contributes in the existing literature by indicating effects of climate change which has been a source 

of concern that poses serious environmental threat to mankind. Climate change has been a major challenge for 

stakeholders in agricultural production resulting in poor yields of crops and loss of revenue for farmers. 

 

1. INTRODUCTION 

According to climate change is perhaps the most serious environmental threat facing mankind worldwide. It 

affects agriculture in several ways, one of which is its direct impact on food production. Climate is the primary 

determinant of agricultural productivity. Given the fundamental role of agriculture in human welfare, concern has 

been expressed by federal agencies and others regarding the potential effects and/or consequences of climate 

change on agricultural productivity. Climate change affects crop and livestock production, input supplies and other 

components of agricultural systems. 

Agriculture in Nigeria is mostly rain-fed, and any change in climate is bound to affect its productivity and other 

socio-economic activities generally. The issue of climate change has become more threatening, not only to the 

Current Research in Agricultural Sciences 
2016 Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 7-15 
ISSN(e): 2312-6418 
ISSN(p): 2313-3716 
DOI: 10.18488/journal.68/2016.3.1/68.1.7.15 
© 2016 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

 
 
 
 
 
 

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sustainable development of socio-economic and agricultural activities of any nation but also to the totality of human 

existence [1]. Furthermore, the effect of climate change implies that the local climate variability which people have 

previously experienced and adapted is changing and this change is observed in a relatively great speed. 

According to Kuta [2] local farmers are seriously concerned about weather variations because of the impact on 

food security, availability, stability, accessibility and utilization. The change in weather affects livestock, forestry, 

fisheries and decreases plant species including rice which is the world’s most important crop for ensuring food 

security [3]. 

Climate change is defined as any change in global temperature and precipitation over a time due to natural 

variability or as a result of human activity [4]. Climate change is a long-term change in the statistical distribution 

of weather pattern over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather 

condition or the statistical distribution of weather events. 

Despite efforts made by the federal government of Nigeria to ensure that there is adequate supply of food in the 

country to tackle food insecurity through enacting of various agricultural programs, there is still acute shortage of 

food among the populace. This is as a result of climate change which leads to reduction in crop yield and quality, 

destruction of farmland by flood, high incidence of weeds, increase in pests and diseases, drought as well as decrease 

in soil fertility [5]. 

The impact of climate change on agriculture in Nigeria is an adverse one. Droughts, floods and storms affect 

agriculture in the north, middle belt and in the southern part of the country [6]. Changes in rainfall in terms of late 

arrival, early departure and low amount of rainfall result in poor harvest of crops which consequently affect the 

income of the people and the nation in general. Drought affects the volume of water in the rivers and lakes, used for 

irrigation and fishing activities [7]. According to the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) [8] in the past thirty 

years, over 90% of the Lake Chad water has been lost to drought. This has affected the farming and fishing 

activities on the Lake. 

In Southern part of Nigeria, the impact of climate change on agriculture is seen on the effects of gully erosion 

on land use. A large portion of arable land is lost due to gully erosion in Anambra, Enugu, Ebonyi and Kogi States. 

Sometimes, effects of the erosion are in form of leaching, where agricultural lands are devastated, leaving the land 

to be unproductive, resulting in poor harvest. It is on record that years of drought in Nigeria are years of invasion 

of locusts and pests on tender farm crops with the attendant hunger on the citizens. Floods destroy farm crops close 

to river banks resulting in poor harvests and the destruction of bridges, blocks roads to markets and farm. About 

70% of Nigerians depend on agriculture for their livelihood and any decrease in agricultural production is 

dangerous not only on an individual but on other sectors of the economy [8]. In some places, floods and drought 

could become more frequent and more severe, while local changes in temperature, precipitation and soil moisture 

could severely influence many areas important to human life such as natural ecosystems, agriculture and food 

supplies, human health, forestry, water resources, energy and transportation [9].  

Agriculture is most sensitive to global warming of climate change and its effects leads to stunted growth of 

crops; easy spread of pests; diseases attack on crops, livestock and fish; drying of seedlings after germination and 

transplanting; low yield of crops and/or crop failure; low quality of farm produce; fall in farm revenues/incomes 

(economic losses); isolated location of farms; small farm size; low level of technology adoption; reduced supply of 

raw materials for agro-based industries; impact on water resources; late fruiting of fruit trees [10].  

Human activities have been identified as the major causes of climate change in Nigeria [11]. The oil and gas 

sectors in the Niger Delta and offshore through gas flaring, deforestation through tree cutting for fuel wood and 

timber, expanding slash and burn agriculture as well as developmental projects, gas emission from cars, trucks and 

generators have been identified as contributing to climate change [12]. Other causes are population explosion, 

depletion of natural resources indiscriminate exploitation of renewable and non-renewable resources and 

environmental pollution (introduction of harmful substances into the environment) Ajah [13]. Popoola [14] 



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identified growth in human population, increased consumption of earth’s resources, enhanced technology, economic 

advances and changes in organization of human societies as drivers responsible for climate change. 

This raises these pertinent questions. What are socio-economic characteristics of the rice farmers? What are 

perceived causes of climate change? What are effects of climate change on rice production? 

Specifically, the study sought to:  

1. Describe socio-economic characteristics of the respondents; 

2. Ascertain perceived causes of climate change by the respondents; and  

3. Ascertain perceived effects of climate change by the respondents. 

 

2. METHODOLOGY 

This study was carried out in Benue State, Nigeria. Benue State has a land mass of about 33,955 square 

kilometers with a population of 4, 219244 people [15]. The population for the study consist all rice farmers in the 

study area. Zone C was selected out of the three zones in the state because of proximity and due to the fact that rice 

is one of the major crops grown in the area. Zone C is made up of nine (9) blocks; two out of the nine blocks were 

selected for the study. Also, two (2) circles were selected randomly from each of the blocks. In Agatu block, Obagagi 

and Aila circles were selected using simple random sampling technique. Obagaji had a total population of 200 rice 

farmers, and Aila has 150, while in Apa block, Edikwu and Adijah circles were also selected using simple random 

sampling technique. Edikwu had a total population of 100 rice farmers, while Adija had a total of 50 rice farmers. 

Due to the enormity of the population not all the respondents were selected for the study. In Obagaji, 36 rice 

farmers were selected, 27 rice farmers were selected in Aila, while in Edikwu and Adija, 18 and 9 rice farmers were 

selected, respectively using 18% of the population, giving a total sample size of 90 respondents used for the study. 

Data were collected using questionnaire which was divided into three (3) sections (A to C) based on the specific 

objectives of the study. Section A sought information on socio-economic characteristic of the respondents. Section B 

focused on perceived causes of climate change, while section C centered on perceived effects of climate change on 

rice production. Data obtained for the study were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency 

distribution, percentage, mean score and standard deviation 

 

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

3.1. Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Respondents 

3.1.1. Sex 

Table 1 shows that majority (82.2%) of the respondents were males, while the remaining 17.8% were females. 

This implies that more males were involved in rice production than females in the study area. The finding is in 

agreement with FAO [16, 17] who found that agricultural production is a male dominated profession in the third 

world countries. This is not surprising as rice production in the study area is dominated by males.   

 

3.1.2. Age (Years) 

Data in Table 1 show that 40.0% of the respondents were between the ages of 31 and 40, while 40.0% were also 

aged 41 and 50 years with a mean age of 43.7 years. This indicates that rice farming was dominated by able-bodied 

young men with capacity and experience to cope with the stressful nature of production. 

 

3.2. Marital Status 

Result in Table 1 show that majority (96.7%) of the respondents were married, while 2.2% were single. It 

shows that a greater percentage of the respondents were married, having members of their families hence greater 

involvement in rice production in order to feed members of their families.  

 



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3.3. Educational Qualification (Years) 

Entries in Table 1 show that 50.0% of the respondents had primary school education, 32.2% had secondary 

education, while about 12% had no formal education, among others. This implies that a good number of the 

respondents were literate in order to cope with climate change effects. This is similar results with Maddison [18] 

who stated that better education can help in improving awareness of potential benefits and willingness to 

participate in local natural resources management and conservation activities. Educated and experienced farmers 

are expected to have more knowledge and information about climate change and agronomic practices that they can 

use to respond to climate change effects. 

 

3.4. Farm Size (Hectares) 

About 58% of the respondents had a farm size of between 2 and 4ha, while 21.2% had a farm size of 5-7ha, 

among others (Table 1). This implies that rice production is relatively practiced on a large scale in order to be 

economically stronger and improve the standard of living of the respondents. This is in contrast with Nwalieji [19] 

who stated that rice is produced under uplands, swamps and irrigated low lands and is dominated by small-scale 

farmers who cultivate small hectares of land between 1-2 hectares. 

 

3.5. Contact with Extension Agents 

Data in Table 1 also show that majority (68.9%) of the respondents had extension contacts, while 31.1% of the 

respondents did not have extension contacts. This implies that majority of the respondents obtain information on 

agricultural information from extension agents. This is in agreement with a study carried out by Kandlinkar and 

Risbey [20] which stated that availability of agricultural information on climate change helps farmers to cope with 

changes in climate. 

 

3.6. Farming Experience (Years) 

Entries in Table 1 show that 42.2% of the respondents had farming experience of less or equal to 10 years, 

about 26% had a farming experience of between 11 and 20years, while 21.1% of the respondents also had a farming 

experience of 21-30years. This indicates that the respondents had been involved in rice production for a long period 

of time. The long period of involvement in rice production will enable them to adapt to changes in climate. 

 

3.7. Household Size (Numbers) 

Data in Table 1 revealed that 41.1% of the respondents had household size of between 6 and 10 persons, while 

37.8% and 12.2% had a household size of 11-15 persons and 16-20 persons, respectively. The mean household size 

was about 10 persons. This implies that the respondents had relatively large household size which could provide 

source of farm labour for rice production. This finding agrees with Ajani and Igbokwe [21] who stated that large 

household size enables farmers to take up labour intensive adaptation measures of climate change. 

 

3.8. Primary Occupation 

Majority (63.3%) of the respondents had farming as their primary occupation, while 20% and 11.1% were 

involved in trading and civil service, respectively (Table 1). This implies that the study area is agrarian community, 

engaging in farming as a major occupation. 

3.9. Annual Income (Naira) 

Findings in Table 1 revealed that 57.8% of the respondents had annual income of more than N70,000, while 

21.1% and 15.6% had annual income of 60,000-69,999 and 40,000-59,999, respectively. The mean annual income of 

the respondents was about ₦51999.4. This implies that the respondents earned reasonable amount of money from 



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rice production. This is in contrast with the general characteristics of traditional farming system practiced in the 

rural areas where returns from farming are low due to low investment by subsistence farmers. 

 

3.10. Membership of Formal Organization 

Data in Table 1 show that majority (92.2%) of the respondents belonged to one formal organization or the 

other, while 7.8% of the respondents did not belong to any formal organization.  About 48% of the respondents 

belonged to cooperative society, 44.4% belonged to farmers association, while 7.8% of the respondents were 

members of thrift (Bam). This implies that the respondents were members of formal organization which will enable 

them to obtain information on adaptation strategies to climate change. This will also boost their activities on rice 

production since they can easily have access to credit facilities provided by the government for increased 

production. 

 

Table-1. Distribution of respondents according to socio-economic characteristics (N=90) 

Socio-economic characteristics Frequency Percentage 

Sex   

Male 74 82.2 
Female 16 17.8 

Total 90 100 

Age (years)   

21-30 5 5.6 
31-40 36 40.0 
41-50 36 40.0 
51-60 9 10.0 
Above 60 4 4.4 

Total 90 100 

Marital status    

Single  2 2.2 
Married  87 96.7 
Widow 1 1.1 

Total 90 100 

Educational qualification (years)   

No formal educational  11 12.2 
Primary education 45 50.0 
Secondary education  29 32.2 
Tertiary education 5 5.6 

Total 90 100 

Farm size (hectares)   

2-4 52 57.8 
5-7 19 21.1 
8-10 8 8.9 

Above 10 11 12.2 

Total 90 100 

Farming experience (years)   

<10 38 42.2 
11-20 23 25.6 

21-30 19 21.1 
31-40 5 5.6 
Above 40 5 5.6 

Total  90 100 

  Continue 

Household size (numbers)   

1-5 7 7.8 
6-10 37 41.1 
11-15 34 37.8 
16-20 11 12.2 



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Above 20 1 1.1 

Total 90 100 

Primary occupation    

Civil service 10 11.1 
Farming 57 63.3 
Trading 18 20.2 
Teaching 4 4.4 

Total 90 100 

Annual income (naira)    

<20,000 0 0 
20,000 – 39,999 5 5.6 
40,000 – 59,999 14 15.6 

60,000 – 69,999 19 21.1 
Above 70,000 52 57.8 

Total 90 100 

Membership of formal organization    

Yes 83 92.2 

No 7 7.8 

Total 90 100 

Types of formal organization   

Cooperative society 43 47.8 
Farmers association 40 44.4 

Thrift (Bam) 7 7.8 

Total 90 100 

Contact with extension agents   

Yes 62 68.9 

No 28 31.1 

Total 90 100 

Number of extension contact   

1-5 76 84.4 
6-10 13 14.4 

Above 10 1 1.1 

Total 90 100 

                             Source: Field survey, 2015 

 

Table-2. Distribution of respondents according to perceived causes of climate change 

Causes of climate change Mean score (M) Standard deviation  
(SD) 

Bush burning 1.82 0.943 
Human activities such as Tillage 1.94 0.952 
Deforestation 1.80 0.767 
High temperature 1.46 0.795 
Global increase in carbon(iv)oxide concentration 1.43 0.671 
Burning of fossil fuels by industrial and automobiles 1.50 0.640 

Land degradation due to soil erosion 1.60 0.715 
Building up of green house gases in the atmosphere 1.27 0.492 
Increase in release of methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide and Ozone 
(O3) 

1.32 0.633 

Use of inorganic manure 1.92 0.810 

Continuous cropping 2.11 0.813 
Increase in population which leads to loss of farm land 1.80 0.901 
Use of generators which produce fumes 2.16 2.258 
Burning of fire wood for cooking 1.94 0.826 
Over grazing of farmland by livestock 1.66 0.876 

Source: Field survey, 2015 

 

 



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3.11. Perceived Causes of Climate Change 

Use of generators which produce fumes (M=2.16), continuous cropping (M=2.11), human activities (tillage) 

(M=1.94), use of inorganic manure (M=1.92), burning of fire wood (M=1.94), bush burning (M=1.82), deforestation 

(M=1.80), increase in population which leads to loose of farmland (M=1.80), land degradation due to soil erosion 

(M=1.60), over grazing of farmland by livestock (M=1.66), and burning of fossil fuel by industries and automobile 

(M=1.50) were perceived by the respondents as  major causes of climate change (Table 2). Others include high 

temperature, (M=1.46) global rise in CO2 concentration, (M=1.43) build up of green house gases in the atmosphere, 

increase in release of Methane (CH4) Nitrous oxide and Ozone (O3), (M=1.32), among others. The finding agrees 

with Intercontinental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [4] who observed that human activities are very likely the 

causes of global warming. 

 

3.12. Perceived Effects of Climate Change 

Perceived effects of climate change as indicated by the respondents include unemployment (M=1.74), 

desertification (M=1.68), loss of farmland to flood and erosion (M=1.64), increase vulnerability to soil erosion 

(M=1.56), increase in pests and diseases infestation in rice farms (M=1.52), increase in growth of weeds (M=1.56), 

easy loss of water from the soil (M=1.48), reduces soil fertility (M=1.42), causes stunted growth in rice crops 

(M=1.42), increase in prices of rice (M=1.38), low yield in rice production (M=1.41),  increase in hunger/famine 

among family members (M= 1.30) and reduction in supply of raw materials to agro-allied industries (M= 1.29), 

among others (Table 3). The finding is in line with Zhu [22] who stated that climate change has both positive and 

negative effects on farming, but there could be a more negative influence in the long run which may lead to food 

insecurity. 

 

Table-3. Distribution of respondents according to perceived effects of climate change on rice production 

 Perceived effects of climate change Mean score (M) Standard deviation (SD) 

Reduces soil fertility 1.42 0.719 

Low yield in rice production 1.41 0.685 
Reduction in farm income/revenue 1.32 0.667 
Increase hunger/famine among family members 1.30 0.678 
Leads to food insecurity in household 1.40 0.667 
Desertification 1.68 0.493 

Increase vulnerability to soil erosion 1.56 0.582 
Increase in pest and disease infestation in rice farms  1.52 0.64 
Unemployment 1.74 0.758 
Causes stunted growth in rice crops 1.42 0.636 
Increase in prices of rice 1.38 0.605 
Loss of farmland to flood and erosion 1.64 0.605 

Increase in growth of weeds 1.56 0.601 
Reduction in supply of raw materials to agro-allied industries 1.29 0.525 
Easy loss of water from the soil 1.48 0.524 

Source: Field survey, 2015 

 

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

Majority of the respondents were males, middle aged, having large household size and long period of farming 

experience. Major causes of climate change were deforestation, bush burning, human activities such as tillage, 

burning of firewood for cooking, overgrazing of farmland by livestock, use of inorganic manure and increase in 

population which leads to loss of farm land. Desertification, increase vulnerability to soil erosion, unemployment, 

increase in pests and disease infestation in rice and increase in growth of weeds, among others were perceived 

effects of climate change on rice production. 



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Human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing of farmland by livestock and use of inorganic manure, 

among others should be discouraged in order to cushion the effects of climate change as well as increasing 

productivity among rice farmers.  Efforts should be geared towards cushioning the effects of climate change on rice 

production by the stakeholders such as the government, extension agencies, research institutions, 

climatological/metrological institutes, disaster management agencies, higher institutions, local farmers and other 

stakeholders by giving out first hand information on weather forecast so that rice farmers will know the right and 

best time to plant and harvest crops.  

 

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