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† Corresponding author 
© 2016 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

SYNTHESIS OF BIODIESEL FROM TROPICAL ALMOND  (TERMINALIA CATAPPA) SEED 
OIL  

 

Orhevba, B.A1† --- Adebayo, S. E2 --- Salihu, A.O3 
1,3Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, Federal University of Technology, PMB 65, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria 
2Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang Selangor, Malaysia 

 

ABSTRACT 

The objective of this study is extraction and characterization of oil from tropical almond seed, trans-esterification and 

characterization of tropical almond seed oil biodiesel. All experiments were replicated and average results were evaluated. The 

moisture content of the seed was 2.04 %; the oil was extracted using solvent method and the percentage of oil yield was 50.33 %. 

The physicochemical properties of the oil obtained during the experiment were; density (0.90 g/cm3), specific gravity (0.89), 

kinematic viscosity at 40 oC (14.1 mPa.s), cloud point (16.0 oC), pour point (11.5 oC), smoke point (173.0 oC), flash point (208.0 

oC), fire point (271.0 oC), saponification value (199.19 mgKOH/g), acid value (3.37mgKOH/g), FFA (1.68 mgKOH/g), 

Peroxide value (5.0 meq/kg), and Iodine value (98.0 gI2/100g). The oil was trans-esterified to biodiesel using oil to alcohol 

ratio of 4:1 and KOH as catalyst. The percentage of biodiesel yield was 75.0 % averagely. The physicochemical properties of the 

biodiesel obtained during the experiment were; density (0.96g/cm3), specific gravity (0.90), kinematic viscosity at 40 oC (5.20 

mPa.s), kinematic viscosity at 100 oC (4.30 mPa.s) cloud point (7.0 oC), pour point (6.0 oC), smoke point (161.0 oC), flash point 

(186.0 oC), fire point (216.0 oC), saponification value (182.4 mgKOH/g), acid value (0.84 mgKOH/g), FFA (0.42 

mgKOH/g), Peroxide value (8.0 meq/kg), and Iodine value (109.0 gI2/100g, the calculated cetane number was 51.70. The 

result obtained for the physicochemical properties of the biodiesel were compared with the ASTM standard and it was concluded 

that tropical almond seed oil is a good feedstock for biodiesel production since the result is within ASTM specification standard. 

Keywords: Almond seed, Biodiesel, Physicochemical properties, Cetane number, Pour point, Oil yield, Iodine value, ASTM specification 

standard. 

 

Received: 10 October 2016/ Revised: 28 October 2016/ Accepted: 4 November 2016/ Published: 12 November 2016 

 

Contribution/ Originality 

This study is one of very few studies which have investigated new sources or avenue of novel underutilized 

sources. Biodiesel production from tropical almond seed oil will be a reasonable alternative to petroleum diesel since 

the available petroleum based fuels are exhaustive. Biodiesel will be of great advantage as this will reduce the 

adverse effect caused by the petroleum diesel, which include global warming, air pollution and emission of sulphuric 

compound. This study will also ensure there is good utilization of tropical almond seed. 

 

1. INTRODUCTION 

Tropical Almond (Terminalia catappa) is a tropical tree of the Combretaceae family that grows mainly in the 

tropical region of Asia, Africa and Australia. The tree grows up to a height of 20 – 45m and it is tolerant of salt, 

drought and wind. It produces fruits with a thin flesh surrounding a large fibrous nut which encloses the seed. The 

Current Research in Agricultural Sciences 
2016 Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 57-63 
ISSN(e): 2312-6418 
ISSN(p): 2313-3716 
DOI: 10.18488/journal.68/2016.3.4/68.4.57.63 
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58 

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fruit of Terminalia catappa is classified as a drupe with fleshy mesocarp and stone-like stiffened endocarp, where the 

seed is. The plant is believed to have originated in Malaysia. Terminalia catappa is native to tropical Asia. It was 

introduced to Cote d’Ivoire during colonization for urban ornamentation [1]. The fruit is large (3.05 – 5.84 cm in 

length), it is fleshy and edible, and the unripe fruit is greenish in colour and yellow or red when it is ripe containing 

a single seed. The fruit has a husk, a porous and fibrous pericarp, an exocarp which is relatively thin and smooth 

while the hard endocarp encloses an edible kernel [2]. 

The seeds are often of small size and difficult to extract and these factors may have contributed to its lack of 

use in many areas. The sun-dried kernel yield 38-54% of a bland, yellow oil that is edible but becomes turbid on 

standing. The oil is used for cooking in some parts of South America and the nuts may be consumed fresh after 

extraction from the shell or preserved by drying or smoking and consumed up to a year later. Tropical almond is 

rich in vitamin E and high in unsaturated fat. Other parts of the plant such as bark, leaves, fruit shell, roots and 

trunks are used for medicinal and other non- food purposes [3].   

Under-utilized seeds, such as tropical almond seed can be used for the production of biodiesel, the seed of 

tropical almond are edible, and has considerable amount of oil, this oil can be converted to biodiesel as an alternative 

to petroleum based diesel. The percentage of the oil yield from tropical almond seed is about 51.80% [4]. Generally, 

oil obtained from some seeds or vegetables generate fuels with lower carbon emissions and lower sulfur compared 

with conventional petroleum-based fuels, biofuel are nontoxic and biodegradable renewable fuel that comprised 

mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids, which are derived from vegetable oils or animal fat.  The most 

commonly used oils for the production of biodiesel are from soyabean, sunflower, palm kernel, rapeseed, cotton seed 

and jatropha. However, there are good numbers of seed-oils that are presently under-utilized for biodiesel 

production among this is tropical almond (Terminalia catappa) seed oil [5]. 

Global warming and other forms of pollution are few of the consequences emanating from over dependence on 

fossil fuels. Different forms of alternative energy are being exploited by researchers on daily basis to provide 

substitutes that are friendly to the environment. Biodiesel is one of the options that are very promising because of 

its lower carbon and sulfur emissions compared with conventional petroleum-based fuels. Basically, biodiesel fuels 

are generated from three sources namely: edible sugars and starches, non-edible plant materials, algae and other 

microbes [6-8].   

Therefore, the objective of this study is extraction and characterization of oil from tropical almond seed, trans-

esterification and characterization of tropical almond seed oil biodiesel. 

 

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Tropical almond fruits were collected from various locations in Minna, Niger state, Nigeria, latitude 9.5836°N 

and longitude 6.5463°E having an annual precipitation of between 1100-1600mm. The outer flesh of the fruits was 

manually removed with a knife.  The initial moisture present in the hard-shelled nuts was 6.74% averagely; they 

were sun-dried for 9 days at an average temperature of 35.5oC and relative humidity of 79.6%. The final moisture 

content at which the hard-shelled nuts were broken without the seed destroyed was 1.94% averagely. The seeds 

(Figure 1) were removed from the dried shell by manually breaking the dried shells with a hammer. 

 

2. 2.1. Determination of Moisture Content of the Seed 

A container where the almond seed is to be placed was weighed and recorded as W, samples of the almond seed 

were placed inside the container both the seed and the container was weighed and recorded as W1, the sample was 

placed in an electric oven and dried for about 24 hours at a temperature of 105oC, the sample was removed after 

every 24hrs and the weight determined. 



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Figure-1. Almond seeds used for the study 

 

It was finally removed from the oven when it was observed that the weight does no longer change which means 

there is no moisture present, the final weight of the sample was measured recorded as W2.  The percentage of the 

moisture content present in the seed was calculated using the formula: 

    
                                                            

                              
     

    
     

     
                1 

 

2.2.2. Oil Extraction  

Almond seeds were gotten after breaking the hard part of the almond. The seeds were ground into fine 

particles with the aid of an electric blender. The weight of the filter paper to be used was taken and recorded as W1.  

The ground sample of the almond seed was then poured into a filter paper, the sample was wrapped with the filter 

paper as much as possible and carefully stapled with the aid of a stapler. The weight of the filter paper containing 

the ground sample was taken and recorded as W2. The samples were then carefully inserted in a thimble and placed 

inside a soxhlet extraction apparatus, about 300ml of the solvent (n-hexane) was carefully poured in the round 

bottom flask which was attached to the soxhlet apparatus, the round bottom flask which holds the thimble was 

seated on an electrically connected heating mantle, the heat regulator was adjusted in order to increase the 

temperature of the solvent and hence boil the solvent, immediately the solvent start boiling the regulator was 

adjusted to set the heating mantle temperature base on the boiling temperature of the solvent or the nature of the 

solvent. Plate V shows a soxhlet apparatus for extracting oil. 

Heating was done for about 4 – 6 hours at a temperature of 40 – 60oC at which the n-hexane would not escape. 

The sample was removed from the thimble and oven dried at 50oC for about 4 hours in order to evaporate the 

solvent present in the oil. After oven drying the sample was placed in a digital weighing balance and weighed as 

W3. The percentage of oil obtained from the sample was calculated using the relationship: 

          
      

      
             2 

Where W1 is the Weight of the filter paper; W2 is the Weight of the filter paper + sample before extraction; W3 

is the Weight of the filter paper + sample after extraction and oven dried. 

 

 

 



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2.2.3. Determination of Physical and Chemical Properties of the oil 

The AOAC International [9] Methods of analysis were used in determining the physical and chemical 

properties of the oil extracted from almond seed. The properties are density, specific gravity, kinematic viscousity, 

acid value, free fatty acid value, saponification value, peroxide value and iodine value. 

 

2.2.4. Production of Biodiesel Fuel 

During the production of biodiesel production process, two phases were undergone, they are: Trans-

esterification phase and Separation and washing phase 

 

2.2.5. Trans-Esterification Phase 

The reactions in the trans-esterification phase involve glyceride (oil) and alcohol in the presence of catalyst.  

100ml of the oil was measured with a measuring cylinder, using oil to alcohol ratio of 4:1, 25ml of methanol 

(alcohol) was measured into a beaker and 0.7g of KOH (catalyst) was dissolved inside the methanol. 0.7g of KOH 

was used because for standard 7g of KOH is required for 1 litre of oil. The oil and the methanol and KOH were 

mixed inside a round bottom flask attached to a magnetic stirrer. The magnetic stirrer temperature was set to 50oC 

and stirring was done for 30 minutes. Plate VII shows the mixture of oil, methanol and KOH on a magnetic stirrer. 

 

2.2.6. Biodiesel Separation and Washing Phase 

After stirring the mixture for 30 minutes, it was then poured into a separating funnel.  A 2-phase solution was 

obtained in which the biodiesel is below while the residual catalyst (glycerol) as the by-product is above, the 

biodiesel was removed and washed to purify it, while the glycerol i.e. the byproduct was not utilized. Finally, the 

biodiesel was then dried in an oven for 30 minutes. 

 

2.2.7. Biodiesel Characterization 

In order to test the quality of biodiesel as a diesel fuel substitute, the American Society of Testing Materials 

(ASTM) has set a standard for biodiesel as fuel for use in diesel engines.  Numerous properties are included in the 

standard, such as specific gravity, kinematic viscosity, flash point, cloud point and so on. It is important to control 

the quality of biodiesel to meet the ASTM standards before using it in a diesel engine. The samples of biodiesel 

produced were tested for their fuel properties, the flash point was determined in a pensky-martens closed cup 

method; testing using ASTM D93; cloud point and pour point were determined using ASTM D2500 and ASTM 

D97. 

 

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION  

3.1. Results 

The results obtained from the study are presented in Tables 1 and 2.  

 

Table-1. Physicochemical properties of Tropical Almond Seed oil 

S/No Properties Result 

1 Moisture content of seed (%) 2.04 

2 Percentage of oil yield (%) 50.33 
3 Colour Yellow 
4 Odour - 
5 Density (g/cm3) 0.90 
6 Specific gravity 0.89 

7 Kinematic viscosity at room temperature (33oC) 18.2 
8 Kinematic viscosity at 40oC (mPa.s) 14.1 
  Continue 



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9 Cloud point (oC) 16.0 
10 Pour point (oC) 11.5 

11 Smoke point (oC) 173.0 
12 Flash point (oC) 208.0 
13 Fire point (oC) 271.0 
14 Saponification value (mgKOH/g) 199.19 
15 Acid value (mgKOH/g) 3.37 

16 Free Fatty Acid (mgKOH/g) 1.68 
17 Peroxide value (meq/kg) 5.0 
18 Iodine value (gI2/100g) 98.0    

                                       

Table-2. Physicochemical properties of the Biodiesel from Tropical almond seed oil 

S/No Properties Result ASTM Standard for Biodiesel 

1 Colour Light yellow - 
2 Odour - - 

3 Density (g/cm3) 0.96 0.86 – 0.90  
4 Specific gravity 0.90 0.88 
5 Kinematic viscosity at 40oC (mPa.s) 5.20 1.9 – 6.0 
6 Kinematic viscosity at 100oC (mPa.s) 4.30 - 
7 Cloud point (oC) 7.0 – 3  – 12  

8 Pour point (oC) 6.0 – 15 – 10  
9 Smoke point (oC) 161 - 
10 Flash point (oC) 186 130 – 170  
11 Fire point (oC) 216 - 
12 Cetane number 51.70 47 – 65  
13 Saponification value (mgKOH/g) 182.4 - 

14 Acid value (mgKOH/g) 0.84 0 – 0.8 
15 Free Fatty Acid value (mgKOH/g) 0.42 - 
16 Peroxide value (meq/kg) 8.0 - 
17 Iodine value (gI2/100g) 109 ≥ 130  

                

3.2. Discussion of Results 

The moisture content of tropical almond seed was 2.04%, this value is lower than that was reported by Matos, 

et al. [4] this may be because before the fruit were gathered sun has naturally remove some of the moisture. The 

percentage of oil yield from tropical almond seed obtained during the experiment was 50.33%, this value is within 

the range specified by Adu, et al. [3] i.e. 38 – 54%. Though the value obtained for the oil yield was slightly lower 

than 51.80% reported by Matos, et al. [4] and 52.11% reported by Barku, et al. [10]. The lower yield may be 

attributed to the duration of oil extraction, differences in variety of plant, cultivation climate, ripening stage, the 

harvesting time of the seeds and the extraction method used, the extracted oil were liquid at room temperature, this 

property makes it good for biodiesel production.  The percentage yield of the biodiesel was 75.0 % averagely. 

The density of the oil is 0.90 g/cm3 while that of the biodiesel is 0.96 g/cm3. The value of biodiesel obtained for 

the biodiesel is slightly higher than the range specified in the ASTM standard; this may be due to contamination. 

The density of biodiesel affects the performance of pumps and atomizers. The specific gravity of the oil is 0.89 this 

value is slightly lower than 0.92 reported by Barku, et al. [10] for tropical almond seed oil. While that of the 

biodiesel is 0.90. The density determines the specific gravity of both the oil and the biodiesel. The Kinematic 

viscosity of the oil at 40 °C was 14.1 mPa.s while that of biodiesel was 5.2 mPa.s. This value is within the range 

specified by ASTM D445. The Kinematic viscosity of the biodiesel at 100 °C was 4.30 mPa.s, the higher the 

temperature the lower the kinematic viscosity. The viscosity at 40 °C and 100 °C can be used to compute the 

viscosity index of the biodiesel, viscosity is an important property of biodiesel since it affects the operation of fuel 

injection equipment, particularly at low temperatures when the increase in viscosity affects the fluidity of the fuel or 

leakage at high temperature when too thin [11].  



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The cloud point and pour point of the oil were 16.0 °C and 11.5 °C respectively, this result shows that when the 

oil cool to a temperature of 16.0 °C a wax or cloud is formed, and that if the temperature keep reducing to about 

11.5 °C the oil will seize to flow and become semi-solid.  The cloud point and pour point of the biodiesel were 7.0 °C 

and 6.0 °C respectively, the result shows that at 7.0 °C a wax is formed and the biodiesel will seize to flow at 6.0 °C. 

The value obtained for the cloud point and the pour point is within the range specified by the ASTM standard, 

which means biodiesel from almond has a good cloud and pour point property. The cloud point and pour point are 

the two most important property of the biodiesel as frozen fuel may cause blockage of the fuel lines and filters and 

starve the engine of fuel. These results also show that the biodiesel cannot be used where the average temperature 

is lower than 7.0 °C, as this will cause the diesel to freeze during usage.  

The smoke point, flash point, and fire point of the oil are 173.0 °C, 208 °C, and 271.0 °C respectively while that 

of biodiesel are 161 °C, 186 °C, and 216 °C respectively. The flash point is above the maximum value specified by 

ASTM for biodiesel. The flash point is a measure of the flammability of fuel and thus an important safety criterion 

in transport and storage. The flash point of pure biodiesels is usually higher than the ASTM limits, but fall rapidly 

with increasing amount of methanol [11]. The result also shows that at 216 °C the biodiesel will ignite on 

application of an ignition source. 

The result obtained from the experiment indicates that the cetane number of the biodiesel from tropical almond 

is 51.70; this value is within the range specified by ASTM , the higher the cetane number the quicker the engine 

will start, less wear and improved fuel efficiency. The result obtained for Saponification value of the oil was 199.19 

mgKOH/g, this result is higher than 168.27 mgKOH/g reported by Barku, et al. [10]  for tropical almond this may 

be due to the method of extraction of the oil, and the method at which the saponification value was determined. 

These shows that more alkali would be required to enable it neutralize the available free fatty acid liberated by the 

oil. The higher the saponification value, the more easily the oil can be used for soap making, shampoos, and lathers 

shaving creams. The saponification value of the biodiesel was 182.4mgKOH/g, slightly lower than that of the oil, 

there is no specific standard value for saponification value of biodiesel and it is an insignificant property of biodiesel. 

The acid value and free fatty acid of the oil are 3.37 mgKOH/g and 1.68 mgKOH/g respectively. This acid 

value is higher than 0.78mgKOH/g and FFA is higher than 0.38mgKOH/g reported by Barku, et al. [10] but the 

acid value of the oil is lower than 15.37 mgKOH/g reported by Bello and Agge [11] for groundnut oil. The acid 

value of the biodiesel is 0.84 mgKOH/g this value is slightly higher than 0.8mgKOH/g specified by ASTM but less 

than 3.366 mgKOH/g reported by Bello and Agge [11]. The FFA of the biodiesel is 0.42mgKOH/g. Jaichandar 

and Annamalai [12] reported that the nature of fatty acids can have influence on the characteristics of the biodiesel. 

Romano, et al. [13] reported that basic transesterification is viable if the value of free fatty acids (FFAs) is less than 

2%, in the case of highly acidic raw materials.  

The peroxide value obtained for the oil is 5.0meq/kg, this value is slightly higher than 4.073meq/kg reported 

by Barku, et al. [10] but lower than 18.0meq/kg reported by Bello and Agge [11] for groundnut oil and 8.33 

meq/kg reported by Ofoefule, et al. [14] for tiger nut oil. The peroxide value of the biodiesel is 8.0 meq/kg there is 

no specific standard value for peroxide value of biodiesel. 

The iodine value of the oil is 98.0 gI2/100g; this value is lower than 121.19 gI2/100g reported by Barku, et al. 

[10]. While that of the biodiesel is 109.0 gI2/100g, this value is within the range specified in the ASTM standard. 

 

4. CONCLUSION 

Tropical almond seed oil was converted to biodiesel and characterized majority of the properties fall within the 

ASTM standard limits for biodiesel. The pour point is 6 °C which means it cannot be used when temperature fall 

below this value. The value of the flash point 186 °C is above the maximum specified by ASTM, though the flash 

point of pure biodiesel is usually higher than the ASTM standard limit. Hence, since the properties of biodiesel from 

tropical almond seed oil meet the standard for biodiesel, it can be used as alternative fuel in diesel engines. 



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Funding: This study received no specific financial support. 
 

Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 
 

Contributors/Acknowledgement: The authors will like to acknowledge the contribution of Mr. Peter Obasa of the Department 
of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, who assisted in the Laboratory analysis aspect of the work. 

 

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