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© 2017 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

 

 

 

STAGE SPECIFIC LIFE TABLE OF INVASIVE PEST MEALYBUG, PHENACOCCUS 
SOLENOPSIS (TINSLEY) UNDER COTTON FIELD CONDITIONS 

 

 

Hakim Ali Sahito1+ 
Tasneem Kousar2 
Wali Muhammad  
Mangrio3 
Nisar Ahmed Mallah4 
Faheem Ahmed Jatoi5 
Zafar Hussain Shah6 
Waheed Ali Kubar7 

 

1,2,3,4,5,6,7Department of Zoology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Shah Abdul Latif 
University, Khairpur, Sindh, Pakistan 

 
(+ Corresponding author) 

 ABSTRACT 
 
Article History 
Received: 19 December 2016 
Revised: 21 March 2017 
Accepted: 27 April 2017 
Published: 7 June 2017 
 
 
 
 

Keywords 
Fecundity 
Fertility 
Mortality 
Life span 
Eggs 
Natural enemies 
Ratio 
and mealybug 

 

 
The field study was conducted on at the experimental field of SALU – Khairpur during, 
2016. Two hundred eggs were kept for each replication on cotton plants grown in large 
pots. When eggs hatched, the life table parameters such as; apparent mortality, survival 
fraction, mortality survivor ratio, indispensable mortality and k-value were studied. 
Natural enemies such as; Chrysoperla carneae, lady bird beetles, Spiders and Anasius 
bambawallae were found active on the potted and surrounding cotton plants in the field 
conditions. The total mortality in egg stage went to 19.00%. The mortality percentages 
of 1st instars due to natural enemies recorded was (18.73%) while, in 2nd instars 
(13.13%) mortality was recorded. The total combined mortality in 1st and 2nd instars 
was recorded (26.34%) and (15.64%), respectively. However, the mortality of 3rd instars 
and pupae due to parasitoids were recorded (7.28%) with the total mortality (10.26%) 
and the total mortality (54.83%) in cotton potted plants was recorded. Consequently, 

(45.17%) of adults survived with male and female ratio as ♂1:6.52♀, respectively. The 
highest apparent mortality was (26.34%), indispensable mortality (96.89) and k-value 
(0.13) recorded in 1st instar. The maximum survival fraction was recorded (0.90) in 
third instars/pupae with the total k-value generations (0.35). The study revealed that 
the predators and parasitoids should be encouraged in cotton field when mealybugs 
appear, because predators are highly voracious feeder of 1st and 2nd instars whereas;  the 
parasitoid, A. bambawallae is known as main controlling natural enemy of cotton 
mealybug. 
 

Contribution/ Originality: This study documents over the biological parameters of cotton mealybug to check 

its, egg laying, mortality, survivor ratio, total life span, fecundity, fertility, different life stages, predators activity 

and aboitic factors with the different equations about this vigorous pest under cotton field conditions. 

  

1. INTRODUCTION 

The cotton mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is an exotic mealybug also 

reported as P. solani Ferris by some workers due to identity opinions in India, is widely distributed on ornamentals, 

tobacco, and many other plants in the USA, Central America, Latin America, Africa, Hawaiian Islands, Italy, 

Pakistan and Israel [1-3]. During 2005, the sudden appearance of this pest in cotton in some parts of Pakistan 

destroyed the entire crop within a few days. Control of this pest is gradually becoming difficult with decrease in the 

Current Research in Agricultural Sciences 
2017 Vol. 4, No. 2, 43-50. 
ISSN(e): 2312-6418 
ISSN(p): 2313-3716 
DOI:  10.18488/journal.68.2017.42.43.50 
© 2017 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

 

 
 

http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.18488/journal.68.2017.42.43.50&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2017-01-14


Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2017, 4(2): 43-50 
 

 
44 

© 2017 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

efficacy of insecticides and biological control appears to be a more suitable alternative. The honeydew exuded by 

developing mealybugs induces appearance of sooty mould near the affected region and cause necrosis of the affected 

parts [4, 5]. Sahito and Abro [6] studied the biology of cotton mealybug on okra and China rose under laboratory 

conditions. Sahito, et al. [7] also described the biological and morphological studies of P. solenopsis development 

under laboratory environment. Chong, et al. [8] described that P. solenopsis had longer developmental periods for 

the second instar over the other two instars under laboratory conditions, indicating the influence of weather 

conditions as well as host plants on its development. 

In ecological study, life table is a most important analytical tool, which provides detailed information of 

population dynamics to generate simple but more informative statistics. It also gives a comprehensive description of 

the survivorship, development and expectation of life [9]. The collection of data on life-table at different 

temperature gives an important task for pest management in different environmental conditions [10]. Cohort life 

tables give comprehensive information on the mortality, survivorship, and development of a population and as such 

are fundamental to both theoretical and applied population ecology [11]. The expectancy of life exhibited a 

continuous decline with advancement of age. As far as stage specific life table is concerned, the developmental 

stages showed highest survivor fraction and lowest apparent mortality, mortality survival ratio, indispensable 

mortality and k-values with regard to temperature [12]. The present investigations were carried out to ascertain 

the mortality and survival percent and the factors responsible for mortality of cotton mealybug, a vigorous pest of 

cotton crop. The out put of the present investigations will be utilized for integrated pest manage. 

 

2. MATERIAL AND METHODS 

The experiment on “Age and stage specific life table studies of invasive pest mealybug, Phenacocus solenopsis 

(Tinsley) under cotton field conditions” was conducted at the experimental field Shah Abdul University, Khairpur - 

Sindh during, 2016. Three cotton plants were grown in large pots at experimental field the eggs of mealybug were 

collected from infested cotton field. Six hundred eggs were kept (200 for each replication) in cotton plant which 

grown in pots and replicated three times to ascertain the age and stage specific of life table cotton mealybug. The 

pots of cotton plants were regularly examined to observe hatching of the eggs. After hatching, the 1st instar 

nymphs/crawlers were regularly examined to observe the subsequent stages of cotton mealybug and also recorded 

the day‟s duration of various stages of cotton mealybug. For this purpose a (cv. Bt.) variety was grown in pots as 

well as surrounding of the pots whereas, one acre of the field was kept under observation. Those pots of cotton 

plant were put separate from each other and took distance about 10 feet. The pot of cotton plants were regular 

observed for presence of arthropods and non arthropods. The experimental field was kept under control plot in 

which the applications of pesticide were forbidden except the water wash and neem oil sprays were done to enhance 

the natural enemies. It was done in connection to reduce the chance to the test instars that they would not move to 

the adjacent or touching to other pot plants and even for easily viewing and counting the test instars for their 

mortality and survivorship. 

Observations were made on alternate days for age and stage specific life table study of cotton mealybug, while 

counting of dead, missing and alive mealybug instars in potted plants. Activities of predators and parasitoids were 

also recorded around the instars on potted plants. The environmental factors i.e., temperature and relative humidity 

were also recorded during the study of research work.  

Age specific life table: Observations on number of alive and dead instars out of replicated two hundreds eggs 

were recorded daily. The following assumptions were used in the construction of age specific life table of P. 

solenopsis therefore, the prescribed formula and equations are described as under:  

Preparation of life table: Data on age and stage specific survival and mortality of eggs, 1st instar, 2nd instar, 

3rd instar / pupae and adults of P. solenopsis were recorded. Following standard heads were used to complete stage 

specific life table. 



Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2017, 4(2): 43-50 
 

 
45 

© 2017 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

x      = Stage of the insect. 

Lx     = Number surviving at the beginning of the stage x.  

dx    = Mortality during the stage indicated in the column x.  

The data calculated through above assumptions were used for computing various life parameters as given below: 

Apparent mortality (100 qx): It gives the information on number dying as percentage of number entering 

that stage and was calculated by using the formula: 

Apparent Mortality = [d x / l x] x 100  

Survival fraction (Sx): Data obtained on apparent mortality was used for the calculation of the stage specific 

survival fraction (Sx) of each stage by using the equation: 

Sx of particular stage = [Lx of subsequent stage / [Lx of particular stage].             

Mortality survivor ratio (MSR): It is the increase in population that would have occurred if the mortality in 

the stage, in question had not occurred and was calculated as follows: 

MSR of particular stage = [Mortality in particular stage] / [Lx of subsequent stage]. 

Indispensable mortality (IM): This type of mortality would not be there in case the factor (s) causing it is not 

allowed to operate. However, the subsequent mortality factors operate. The equation is solved under given formula: 

IM = [Number of adults emerged] x [M.S.R. of particular stage].                               

K-values: It is the key factor, which is primarily responsible for increase or decrease in number from one 

generation to another and was computed as the difference between the successive values for "Log Lx". However, 

the total generation mortality was calculated by adding the k values of different development stages of the insect, 

which is designated/ indicated as "K" [13, 14]. 

k-values: K = k E + k L1+ k L2+ k L3 / k pp + kp. 

Where, k E, k L1, k L2, k L3 / k pp and kp are the k-values at egg, first instar, second instar, third instar / pupae 

and adults stage of P. solepnopsis. 

 

3. RESULTS 

The field study was conducted on at the experimental field, SALU – Khaipur during, 2016. During the life table 

study of cotton mealybug, P. solenopsis the apparent mortality, survival fraction, survivor mortality ratio, 

indispensable mortality and k-value were ascertained. The results in table-1 indicated that the apparent mortality in 

eggs of P. solenopsis was (19.00%), while (15.64%) mortality was recorded in second instar. However, the highest 

mortality (26.64%) was noted in first instars and lowest apparent (10.26%) mortality was observed in third instars 

and in pupae of P. solenopsis. 

The survival fraction of P. solenopsis in egg stage (0.81) was recorded and (0.84) in second instars. However, the 

maximum survival fraction was recorded (0.90) in third instars/pupae, while the minimum survival fraction was 

recorded as (0.74) in first instar.  

The mortality survivor ratio (0.23) was noted in the egg stage while, mortality survivor ratio (0.19) was 

recorded in second instars. The highest mortality survivor ratio (0.36) was noted in first instars and minimum 

(0.11) was recorded in third instars/ pupae.   

The indispensable mortality (63.57) was observed in egg stage P. solenopsis while, (50.25) was recorded in 

second instars. The maximum indispensable mortality (96.89) was recorded in first instars and minimum (31.00) 

was recorded in third instars/ pupae. Similarly, the k-value in egg stage was recorded (0.09). The k-values at (0.07) 

and (0.05) was recorded in second and third instars/pupae. However, the maximum k-value (0.13) was observed in 

first instars. However; the total generation of cotton mealybug mortality „K‟ was recorded (0.35). 

 

 

 



Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2017, 4(2): 43-50 
 

 
46 

© 2017 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

Table-1. Life table of cotton mealybug on cotton potted plants under field conditions 

Stage 
x 

Number 
surviving at 
the 
beginning of 
stage (Lx) 

Number 
dying in 
each stage 
(dx) 

Apparent 
mortality 
(100qx) 

Survival 
fraction 
(Sx)   

Mortality 
survivor 
ratio 
(MSR) 

Indispensable 
mortality 
(IM) 

Log 
(Lx) 

K-
value 

Eggs 
 

600 114 19.00 0.81 0.23 63.57 2.78 0.09 

1st 
Instar 

486 128 26.34 0.74 0.36 96.89 2.69 0.13 

2nd 
Instar 

358 56 15.64 0.84 0.19 50.25 2.55 0.07 

3rd 
Instar/
pupae 

302 31 10.26 0.90 0.11 31.00 2.48 0.05 

Adult 271 271 100.00    2.43 0.35 

 

3.1. Stage-Specific Mortality of P. solenopsis 

The data in table- 2 depicts the stage wise dx and dxf. The dxf in egg stage were failure of hatching due to 

unknown reasons, and mortality was recorded (12.00%) however, some of the eggs were seen abnormal (Squeezed, 

shrunken, discolored etc.). The percent of such abnormal eggs was observed (7.00%) with the total mortality in egg 

stage (19.00%).  

The first and second instars of cotton mealybug are known as crawlers; they were seen moving almost on 

potted plants. This behavior made them vulnerable to be attacked by natural enemies such as; Chrysoperla carnae, 

lady brid beetle, spider and Aenasius bambawallae etc. were found active on or around the cotton potted plants. 

However, the remaining body parts of cotton mealybugs instars were seen on the cotton potted plants, which were 

considered as invaded or eaten by the predator and the mummies of parasitoids of P. solenopsis were also observed 

there. Hence, the mortality percentage of 1st instars due to predator and parasitoids was recorded (18.73%) and 

missing crawlers (7.61%). While, in 2nd instars due to predator and parasitoids (13.13%) were recorded however, the 

missing crawlers (2.98%) were recorded. The total mortality in 1st and 2nd instars recorded up to (26.34%) and 

(15.64%), respectively. 

 

Table-2. Stage specific life table of P. solenopsis on cotton potted plants during, 2016 

X Lx DXF Dx 100qx 

Egg 600 Not hatched due to unknown 
reason 

72 12.00 

Seen abnormal 42 7.00 
Total 114 19.00 

1st Instar 486 Predators/ Parasitoids 91 18.73 
Missing 37 7.61 
Total 128 26.34 

2nd Instar 358 Predators/ Parasitoids 47 13.13 

Missing 09 2.51 
Total 56 15.64 

3rd Instar /  pupae                 
 

302 Predators/ Parasitoids 22 7.28 
Missing 09 2.98 
Total 31 10.26 

Adult 271    
 ♂1:6.52♀    

  Total Mortality 329  
  Mortality % 54.83%  
  Survivorship % 45.17  

     



Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2017, 4(2): 43-50 
 

 
47 

© 2017 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

However, the mortality percentage of 3rd instars and pupae due to predator and parasitoids (7.28%) and missing 

(2.98%) was recorded while the total mortality was recorded (10.26%) in 3rd instars and pupae. The total mortality 

percentage (54.83%) in cotton potted plants was also recorded. Consequently, (45.17%) of adults survived with male 

and female ratio as ♂1:6.52♀, respectively. 

 

3.2. Age Specific Life Table Parameter of Female and male of P. solenopsis 

During research study, it was observed that the first instar of cotton mealybug took (3.82) days with the second 

instar (7.64), third instar (5.78) and an adult stage (17.56) thus, the overall days consumed by the female of 

mealybug (34.80) (Fig. 1). Whereas; the male of cotton mealybug first instar stage took (5.54), pre-pupae (3.64), 

pupae (5.23) and an adult (4.56) with the overall days (18.97), respectively (Fig. 2). The analysis of the varrience 

showed the significant difference among the all stages of female and male of cotton mealybug at (P<0.05). 

 
Figure-1. Age specifie life table of cotton female mealybug. 

 

 
Figure-2. Age specifie life table of cotton male mealybug. 

                    

4. DISCUSSION 

The life table indicated that the stage specific mortalities were recorded in all life stages of cotton mealybug 

kept in potted plants. The factors influence the survival were: hatching failure and abnormal egg in egg stage; 

predators and parasitoids invasion also recorded and missing in subsequent first, second and third/pupae cotton 

mealybug stage also noted. However, the number of cotton mealybugs was found missing from the cotton potted 

plants. Chrysoperla carnea lady beetle and cotton mealybug parasitoid Aenasius bambawallae were recorded most 



Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, 2017, 4(2): 43-50 
 

 
48 

© 2017 Conscientia Beam. All Rights Reserved. 

active predators and parasitoid around the cotton potted plants. The finding are in agreement with those of 

Agounke, et al. [15] who mentioned that the coccinellids; Chilocorus nigrita Exochomus and E. troberti and the 

lycaenids, Spalgis spp. as the most important among the predators on cotton mealybugs in Togo. 

The findings on stage specific life-tables also revealed that the mortality parameters viz., apparent mortality, 

mortality survival ratio, indispensable mortality and k-value of cotton mealybug [16] who have reported that the 

high mortality magnitude at the all subsequent stages of mealybug. The high magnitude of apparent mortality, 

mortality survival ratio, indispensable mortality and k-value were recorded at first instars stage followed by 

subsequent stages to last nymphal/pupal stage. Our findings almost similar to [17, 18] when pre-pupal and pupal 

stages were examined, the respective highest MSR figures were evaluated as 0.04 and 0.06 and lowest (0.01) 

observations on the mortality performance of above coccinellid species. The k-value was recorded almost in all 

stages, similarly, Omkar and Pervez [19] reported that the total generation mortality „K‟ was recorded maximum 

(0.2676) and minimum (0.1079) Propylea dissecta. Schulthess, et al. [20] mentioned that the mealybugs reared on 

leaves of different ages showed little differences in rm, and the higher occurrence of P. manihoti on plant tips and 

oldest leaves could not be explained with better nutritive value of these plant parts alone. Awmack and Leather 

[21] mentioned that host plant quality affects the fecundity of herbivorous insects at both the individual and the 

population scale. Plant nutrition greatly influences insect survival, development, and fecundity [22]. The survival, 

body size and development rate of the species were adversely affected on nutrient-deficient host plants. Whereas, 

the findings of Sandra [23] also endorsed to the Huberty [24] that herbivore population dynamics can be 

influenced significantly by heterogeneity in plant quality. Birth and death rates of herbivores are influenced by 

plant-induced changes in parameters such as; growth, survival and fecundity. Similarly, Ali and Rizvi [25] and 

Rizvi, et al. [26] recorded high mortality on Indian mustard followed by yellow sarson, gobhi sarson and 

cauliflower in all life stages of P. brassicae due to difference in nutritional values of host plants. The maximum 

survival fractions were recorded at later stage of development on cabbage as compared to other cole crops [27]. 

 

5. CONCLUSION 

It is concluded that more apparent mortality, mortality survivor ratio, indispensable mortality and higher K-

value were recorded 1st instars of cotton mealybugs on potted plants. The 1st and 2nd instars were found vulnerable 

to be attacked by Chrysoperla carneae, lady bird beetle, spiders, and maximum parasitoids ratio was recorded in third 

instars. Significantly mean mortality was recorded in 1st instars as compared with other life stages of P. solenopsis. 

 

Funding: This study received no specific financial support. 
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 
Contributors/Acknowledgement: All authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the 
study. 

 

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