







































115 

 

The History and Influence of the High School Geography Project 

 

Jayson Evaniuk Jeffrey M Byford 

Eastern New Mexico University University of Memphis 

 

Abstract 

    The 1960s witnessed a significant pedagogical 

reform movement in social studies education 

known as the New Social Studies (NSS) 

movement.  The purpose of this article is to briefly 

examine the rationale for the High School 

Geography Project and its influence during the 

NSS movement and geography education moving 

forward.  Reevaluating foundational ideas in 

geography education can potentially inform the 

present.  

 

Background 

Nineteen sixties era NSS approaches were 

built upon previous advances within social studies 

education.   In 1911, the National Education 

Association (NEA) undertook a five-year review 

of curriculum in the United States.  The 1916 

report noted the lack of citizenship education and 

the absence of problem-based learning in 

American schools. Furthermore, the NEA report 

advanced social studies with the introduction of 

history, civics, geography, economics, and a new 

senior-level course titled “Problems of 

Democracy” (National Education Association 

Committee, 1916), directly resulting in the 

formation of the National Council for the Social 

Studies (NCSS) in 1921 as an advocate for civic 

education.   With NCSS, social studies as a 

bounded curriculum promoted national support for 

professors and schoolteachers along with 

significant support among progressive educators 

 

Curriculum History 2018: 115-123 

during the 1920s and 1930s.  A notable progressive 

era contribution to social studies was that of 

Colombia University professor Harold Rugg.  As a 

disciple of John Dewey's early progressive 

schooling ideology and an early leader within 

NCSS, Harold Rugg believed social studies 

curriculum offered opportunity towards a better 

American society.  Affirming NEA 

recommendations, Rugg placed societal problems 

at the foundation of his conception of social studies 

within the curriculum (Evans, 2007).  Rugg's social 

studies curriculum accompanied with the ideals of 

William Kilpatrick, and George Counts found 

moderate success in the 1930s throughout the 

United States until the progressive-based 

curriculum and ideas came under attack from 

numerous conservative special interest groups due 

to allegations with liberal and communist 

influences (Evans, 2007).  Through the NEA and 

NCSS, they are accompanied by Progressive era 

conceptions of social studies, the subject 

articulated as a bounded subject of multiple 

disciplines with an emphasis on addressing 

societal challenges.  While postwar social studies 

reflected varied and ill-defined approaches, and a 

contested rejection of progressive education, the 

NSS movement of the 1960s offered social studies 

content areas such as geography unprecedented 

levels of curriculum development. 

The context for the High School 

Geography Project emerged out of a larger 

curricular movement known as the New Social 

Studies (NSS) dating from 1958-1970.  The NSS 

movement was prompted by curricular challenges 



HIGH SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY PROJECT 

116 

 

within social studies and a highly charged Cold 

War political environment.  Evans (2010) 

categorized the postwar years (1947-1958) as 

contrary to progressive social studies 

approaches.  Noted political scientist Pendleton 

Herring stated a common criticism of the era when 

he indicated that school social studies lacked “a 

single ordered body of fact and theory, operating 

through an internally consistent generally accepted 

methodology” (as cited in James 1969, 

480).  Echoing similar concerns, Lewis Paul Todd 

(1957) decried social studies education by stating, 

“But the confusion over the meaning of the term 

‘social studies’ is not confined to the matter of 

definition. Thru the years we have added 

ingredient after ingredient to the ‘social studies’ 

brew until it now includes everything from driver 

education to personal grooming, and we are still 

tossing ingredients into the boiling kettle at an 

alarming rate” (245).  Noted concerns in existing 

approaches to high school social studies combined 

with political events stimulated substantive change 

within social studies curriculum development.  

Politically the Cold War era witnessed the 

founding of the National Science Foundation in 

1950 as well as the 1957 Soviet launch of the first 

satellite, Sputnik.  Sputnik and political 

competition with the Soviet Union sounded the 

alarm for increased educational funding at all 

levels prompting authorization of the National 

Defense Education Act in 1958 (Gutek 1986).   

The New Social Studies (NSS) illustrated a 

push for curriculum change within the field of 

social studies and the introduction of pioneering 

and at times controversial teaching practices.  The 

convergence of political and educational shifts was 

foundational in the emerging NSS movement.  

Derived from the perceived failures of social 

studies approaches and political events of the 

1950s, NSS reflected a collective re-examination 

of the importance and effectiveness of social 

studies curriculum in the nation’s public 

schools.   The result of such re-examination 

resulted in several curricular meetings where 

prominent and recognized scholars convened to 

investigate how to construct a new social studies 

curriculum to enhance education (Evans 2010).  

Among the most influential meetings of content 

scholars, teachers and curriculum specialists were 

the Woods Hole Conference, which gathered to 

answer the challenge of a collective reexamination 

and implementation of educational curriculum 

under the directive of the National Defense 

Educational Act.  Prominent educational 

psychologist Jerome Bruner’s (1960) Process of 

Education was conceived through conference 

proceedings. Within Bruner’s influential book, he 

placed primacy on the teaching of the “structure” 

of an academic discipline rather than “facts.” This 

book would go on to catalyze numerous NSS 

projects.  

Leading this NSS charge was the National 

Council for Social Studies and their publication 

Social Education.  Early on in 1962 an October 

issue of the journal solicited federally funded 

proposals for social studies research projects and 

curriculum centers (Announcement 1962; Evans 

2010).  Throughout the era, Social Education 

called attention to the numerous social studies 

projects developing at curriculum centers 

throughout the nation (Fenton & Good 1965) as 

well as concerns (Becker 1965).  The goal of the 

curriculum centers was to standardize certain 

aspects found within each particular content area 

(e.g., anthropology, government, United States 

history, geography, etc.) within the social 

studies.  Regardless of the content discipline, each 

newly developed project placed an increased 

emphasis on innovative teaching methods directed 

at the academic structure of the particular subject 



HIGH SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY PROJECT 

117 

 

area.  The result was independent projects which 

shared three common traits: 1) a focus on inquiry 

learning; 2) a focus on values, and 3) commitment 

to the “structure” rather than “facts” of the 

academic disciplines (Bruner 1960; Evans 2010; 

Senesh 1981).  In all the Social Studies Education 

Consortium (1971) reported on 100 projects and 

135 textbooks emerging from the NSS era. 

One of the first leaders in this emerging 

NSS movement was world historian Edwin 

Fenton.  Beyond first articulating the term New 

Social Studies in 1965 (Hertzberg 1981), Fenton 

was instrumental in connecting the ideas within 

Jerome Bruner’s Process of Education into a social 

studies context.  Similar to earlier progressives, 

Fenton affirmed the importance of addressing 

societal challenges within social studies; however, 

he advanced a social science approach to the 

issues.  Fenton (1966) stated, “The type of social 

studies program proposed here is a tough-minded 

scientific approach which presented immediate 

and future conflict situations in the hope of 

inducing the student to utilize social processes and 

to make social predictions and decisions that will 

keep such conflicts within reasonable limits.  This 

approach to social studies objectives garner 

specific content areas and indicates an explicit 

relationship between the basic values and 

assumptions with which we begin and the specific 

objectives and content with which we end” (113).  

Fenton’s secondary world history project 

Carnegie-Mellon University Social Studies 

Curriculum Project utilized archival and primary 

source documents in the same way historians 

approach history.  Many of the NSS projects, 

including the High School Geography Project, 

were inspired by Fenton’s project as well as his 

1967 book, The New Social Studies (Cude 2010). 

As quickly as New Social Studies projects 

were introduced in our nation’s schools, the 

controversy over project successes 

ensued.  Conservative estimates suggested NSS 

projects were embraced, at best, by a third of the 

nation’s social studies classroom 

teachers.  Lecture-based, expository learning 

continued throughout the height of this 

contemporary movement despite innovative 

pedagogical strategies and curriculum materials 

developed. By the late 1970s social studies were 

largely confined with content relegated to 

civics/government and United States history as 

most relevant (Morrissett, Hawke, & Superka 

1980).  Compounding the dwindling public 

perception of the social studies was the Project 

SPAN report funded by the National Science 

Foundation. The result was six major problems 

uncovered from SPAN consultants and staff.  

Issues identified were 1) student learning, 2) 

school culture, 3) teaching practices, 4) social 

studies curriculum, 5) the development of social 

studies teachers, and 6) a lack of public support 

(Morrissett, Hawle, & Superka 1980).  The final 

report indicated despite efforts of the NSS 

movement, social studies curriculum and teaching 

practices remained static over a 60-year period, 

The report suggested, “… that despite numerous 

variations that have occurred, the dominant pattern 

throughout the nation is one that was established 

more than 60 years ago” (Morrissett 1982). 

 

The High School Geography Project (HSGP) 

Geography’s role within the social studies 

faced a tumultuous history since the 1920s.  At 

times the subject was approached as a study of 

commercial and economic functioning within and 

between countries.  At other eras, a more scientific 

physical geography approach was prevalent in the 

high school classroom (Rosen 1957).  By the 

1950’s high school geography was often integrated 

into social studies classes.  Numerous authors of 



HIGH SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY PROJECT 

118 

 

the era communicated concerns regarding 

geography’s status within the high school social 

studies curriculum of the era.  High (1960), Monier 

and Campbell (1963), Pattison (1962), and Scarfe, 

(1959) stated geography most often appeared in 

citizenship or history within high school social 

studies enforcing the belief geography lacked 

recognition as a core subject in high 

schools.  O’Connell (1962) lamented geography’s 

status subsumed within social studies in stating, 

“Geography has disappeared from the curriculum 

of so many schools to be replaced by a variety of 

social studies courses with no identifiable body of 

knowledge” (p.60). Such concerns would be 

addressed by geography’s contribution to the 

growing number of New Social Studies projects. In 

1958, ideas for High School Geography Project 

(HSGP) emerged amongst professional 

geographers at an executive board meeting for 

National Council for Geographic Educators. 

Contemporaneously with calls for changes 

within school geography, within higher education, 

geography experienced a “Quantitative 

Revolution” which pushed many geographers and 

departments to a more systematic and social 

science-oriented approach (James 1969).  Early 

debates focused HSGP on systematic geography 

rooted in the scientific method as opposed to more 

traditional regional geography (Kohn 1982).  High 

school geography specialists began advocating for 

social science-oriented geography over prevailing 

regional geography.  Spatial geography dealing 

with theories and laws related to the spatial 

organization of human patterns received the most 

attention. As topical and spatially oriented 

geography gained popularity within curricular 

ideas, Augelli (1968), James (1969), and Scarfe 

(1959) cautioned against complete abandonment 

of regional geography in schools. Such division 

among geographers in higher education was 

evident in the creation of HSGP.  Noted Middle 

American regional geographer John Augelli 

(1968) lamented,  “Significantly, however, the 

“Settlement Theme Course” of the High School 

Geography Project, on which many of our most 

forward-looking colleagues have spent so much 

effort and NSF money, has paid scant attention to 

regional geography” (68).  

Despite such concerns, social science specialists 

turned attention to spatial geography and 

innovative pedagogy, which would come to 

dominate the era’s crowning curricular 

achievement, High School Geography Project.  A 

systematically focused curriculum closer aligned 

HSGP with emerging social science trends and 

positioned the project well for future National 

Science Foundation (NSF) funding.  

Early in the planning process Gilbert White 

and Clyde Kohn formed a joint committee 

supported through both major professional 

geography organizations, the Association of 

American Geographers and the National Council 

of Geographic Educators, with the purpose of 

improving geography education (Stoltman 2010). 

By 1961, through the work of the Joint Committee 

on Education, HSGP formed under the direction of 

William Pattison with private funding from The 

Ford Foundation (Helburn 1966; Kohn 1964; 

Stoltman 2010).  The High School Geography 

Project received a substantial boost in 1964 when 

Congress revised the 1958 National Defense 

Education Act.  The revisions added geography, 

civics, and history to funded fields of study in 

critical need of improvement; consequently, the 

NSF funded the project (James 1969).   

        Similar to numerous NSS project of the era, 

High School Geography Project found pedagogical 

inspiration in the work of noted education 

psychologist Jerome Bruner and his 1960 

publication, The Process of Education.  As did 



HIGH SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY PROJECT 

119 

 

progressive educators of the early twentieth 

century, Jerome Bruner emphasized inquiry within 

the classroom.  Bruner’s inquiry approach 

distinguished itself from previous progressive 

educators by emphasizing the structure of the 

academic discipline.   Known as discovery 

learning, Bruner’s approach promoted student 

explorations of content theories and principles in 

the same manner as behavioral and social science 

professionals (Takaya 2008).  Moreover, 

discovery learning engendered deep levels of study 

within the discipline of a subject in an age-

appropriate manner. Within HSGP, discovery 

learning involved observation, spatial analysis of 

maps, prediction, theoretic models such as central 

place theory, aerial photograph study, and analysis 

of social data (Helburn 1965; Stoltman 2010). 

          New Social Studies advances, increased 

professional geographer support, Jerome Bruner’s 

influence, National Defense Education Act 

funding, and private funding converged in the 

development of the High School Geography 

Project (HSGP).  In the years from 1961-1963, 

William Pattison served as director of the project 

in its formative stages.  William Pattison and the 

joint committee’s foundational work on HSGP 

fully developed under the leadership of Nicholas 

Helburn from 1964 to 1970 (Stoltman 

2010).  From 1964-1969, the American 

Association of Geographers steering committee 

oversaw the project, with 1966 considered a 

landmark year due to project leaders agreeing on 

settlement as an underlying theme for all units 

(Stoltman 2010).  Over the next three years, 

academic scholars and teachers developed and 

published classroom materials incorporating 

student inquiry and spatial geography approaches 

for grades 9-12.  After eight years of research and 

development, extensive field-testing, the 

involvement of nearly 100 teachers and thousands 

of students (Patton 1970), Macmillan published 

Geography in an Urban Age (HSGP 1970).  

Pedagogically original materials became 

an enduring legacy.  Each unit included a detailed 

teacher’s guide, student resources, student manual, 

and opaque transparencies.  Additional hands-on 

and data-rich materials were numerous including 

maps, simulation games, role-playing scenarios, 

aerial photographs, and case study vignettes 

(Stoltman 2010).  Additionally, HSGP changed the 

traditional roles of students and teachers.  Unlike 

traditional attempts to dictate instruction, lessons 

were student-centered with teachers commonly 

acting as coordinators and sequencers of the 

curriculum (Helburn 1998). To facilitate 

characteristics of Bruner’s (1960) Process of 

Education, students engaged in inductive methods, 

through the study of data, testing hypothesis, and 

drawing conclusions based on self-discovery 

(Helburn 1968; Kohn 1970).  As Nicholas Helburn 

(1968) was leading the project to fruition, he 

summarized, “The students’ ability to formulate 

questions …, to collect information and to select 

the relevant from the mass, to hypothesize 

answers, to recognize the tentativeness of those 

answers this is the primary objective of the High 

School Geography Project” (281). 

A noteworthy unit of study, which 

demonstrated such inquiry approaches, was the 

“Geography of Cities” unit (HSGP 1970).  Within 

the unit were six lesson activities, each included 

content readings, and inquiry-oriented activities.  

The lesson “City Shape and Structure” engaged 

students in applying theories of city growth to 

predict growth patterns within the city of 

Chicago.  Sources such as age distribution, 

physical features, population maps, graphs, 

income, and other demographic data were included 

to support skills of prediction, abstraction, and 

verification.  In “New Orleans,” students analyzed 



HIGH SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY PROJECT 

120 

 

aerial and topographic maps to evaluate land use as 

well as hypothesized about relationships between 

urban features and social and economic facets of 

the city.  Perhaps the most popular lesson within 

the unit was “Portsville: Building a Hypothetical 

City” based on the city of Seattle (Helburn 1998).  

The activity involved a simulation, which 

consisted of students utilizing historical data and 

building blocks to construct a map model of 

Portsville at three different periods.  Portsville 

included considerable data sheets and narrative 

information for students to make logical decisions 

based on a geographic knowledge base.  Despite 

the financial expense of keeping Portsville, 

Helburn (1998) recalled, “We seriously considered 

throwing it out entirely. What finally secured the 

decision to keep it was an affective gain, the sense 

on the part of the student that she or he had the 

power to change the city, to reach across and add a 

shopping center or some other building to that 

corner of the city. Most of our lives we have to 

adapt to the urban landscape. Here was student 

empowerment, a sense of being able to change the 

city” (p. 214). 

Similar to other New Social Studies era 

projects, High School Geography Project (HSGP) 

did not experience widespread adoption in the high 

school geography classroom (Helburn 

1998).  Before HSGP’s publication, noted 

geographer Preston James (1969) cautioned 

against moving forward with professor led 

scientifically oriented geography stating, “It could 

be that the “new geography” we so loudly proclaim 

may be just another swing of the pendulum. 

Unprepared teachers who have never been exposed 

to geographical concepts could continue to select 

facts about places and require young people to 

commit them to memory” (481).  Affirming 

James’ (1969) concerns, numerous authors 

attributed HSGP’s lack of sustained success to 

teachers unprepared for such a drastic shift and the 

ever-changing foci within geography.  Overall, the 

newness of the inductive pedagogy and systematic 

topical study of geography represented too 

significant of a shift from traditional regional 

geography for teachers (Kohn 1982; Stoltman 

2010; Winston 1986). 

                                                                     

The Legacy of the High School Geography Project   

Despite High School Geography Project’s 

(HSGP) short publication cycle and limited usage 

nationwide, the enduring influence within the 

academic field of geography education outweighed 

limited classroom usage.  Kohn (1970), indicated 

HSGP awakened many academic geographers to 

the importance of high school geography.  In the 

midst of such awakenings, Pattison (1962) stated 

“But the high school has remained, for most of us, 

somebody else's business. Still, there are signs of a 

change in attitude …” (280). Consequently, HSGP 

narrowed the gap between academic geography 

and high school geography (Natoli 1986).  Helburn 

(1965) indicated that before HSGP, high school 

geography was behind college geography 20-50 

years.  Former project director Nicholas Helburn 

(1998) recounted, “Although not often stated, the 

primary criterion for the HSGP steering committee 

was academic respectability--the demonstration 

that good analytical geography could be taught at 

the secondary level. Often this goal was stated as 

closing the 50-year lag between the graduate 

seminar and secondary school classroom” (p. 

217).  Natoli (1986) suggested that the High 

School Geography Project enabled students to “do 

geography”; a concept deeply embedded in later 

geography education reforms of the 1980s and 

1990s and one entrenched within current 

Geography for Life National Geography 

Standards (Gallagher & Downs 2012).   



HIGH SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY PROJECT 

121 

 

High School Geography Project materials 

gained popularity primarily at a grassroots 

level.  Geib (1972) found dissemination of the 

project occurred principally through teachers 

involved in experimental and developmental 

stages of HSGP.  Geib’s study spoke to the appeal 

of HSGP, as teachers with first-hand knowledge of 

HSGP spread the word about the curriculum.  

Similarly, Stoltman (1980) reported that HSGP 

professional workshop participants were vital in 

diffusing the curriculum among teachers and 

leadership in schools.  At the tertiary level, Hill 

(1970) reported adaptation of HSGP material in 

introductory college geography courses.   The 

project also garnered an impact internationally.  In 

the 1970s, 12 countries modeled their geography 

curriculum on HSGP (Gunn 1975; Helburn 1998).  

Angus Gunn (1975) noted “… that HSGP’s 

greatest contribution to curriculum development in 

other countries is its teaching approaches” (p. 

220).   

        High School Geography Project (HSGP) 

demonstrated long-term inspiration in the United 

States.  The project connected hundreds of college 

professors with teachers through professional 

development opportunities.  Consequently, 

professional geographers took a more significant 

interest in school education as reflected in the 

subsequent development of geography education 

specialties at numerous universities after HSGP 

(Helburn 1998).  Helburn (1998) also indicated 

that National Geography Standards and the 

National Assessment (NAEP) test in 1994 

demonstrated HSGP inspiration.  Russell and 

Byford (2008) demonstrated effective adaptation 

of HSGP materials forty years later.  In retrospect, 

High School Geography Project’s contributions to 

geography reform in the areas of systematic 

inquiry-based learning and a concentration on the 

structure rather than facts of geography are an 

enduring legacy in geography education of the late 

20th century and beyond.  

         

Conclusion 

High School Geography Project’s (HSGP) 

role in geography education cannot be fully 

understood without contextualizing academic and 

political forces at work during the late 1950s and 

1960s.  The post-Sputnik Cold War era placed 

substantial political demand and funding towards 

curriculum reform in the sciences and social 

sciences serving as an impetus for change.  In 

addition, the New Social Studies curriculum 

movement renewed previous demands of 

progressive educators for social studies to directly 

address societal challenges. The NSS era under the 

influence of Jerome Bruner and Edwin Fenton 

expanded upon progressive ideals by advocating 

for a social science approach to the study of 

history, geography, economics, political science, 

anthropology, and sociology.  Such approaches 

facilitated students studying the structure of the 

subject as a historian or geographer would.  

Amongst early NSS projects, HSGP emerged at a 

time of much debate among systematic and 

regional geographers within academic geography.  

Aligning more with a systematic approach, 

Geography in an Urban Age (1970) reflected 

collaboration among geographers of the major 

professional organizations and eight years of 

research and development.  Inquiry activities 

within the curriculum facilitated student learning 

through “doing geography” as a geographer would 

while addressing societal challenges.  Though the 

curriculum project garnered limited success in 

high school classrooms, the curriculum influenced 

similar projects globally while leaving an indelible 

mark on the entire academic field of geography 

education as well as later standards-based 

curriculum reforms.         



HIGH SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY PROJECT 

122 

 

References 

 

Announcement for Project Social Studies. 1962. 

Social Education, 26: 300. 

Augelli, J. P. 1968. Regional Geography in 

Revolution. Journal of Geography, 67, no. 2: 

68-69.  

Becker, J. M. 1965. Prospect for Change in the 

Social Studies. Social Education, 29: 20-22. 

Bruner, J. 1960. The Process of Education. 

London: Oxford University Press. 

Cude, M. D. 2010. Can You Still Catch Fish With 

New Social Studies Bait. In B. S. Stern (Ed.), 

The New Social Studies, 75-94. Charlotte, NC: 

Information Age Publishing. 

 Evans, R. W. 2007. This happened in America: 

Harold Rugg and the censure of social studies. 

New York, NY: Information Age. 

Evans, R.W. 2010. National Security Trumps 

Social Progress: The Era of the New Social 

Studies in Retrospect. In B. S. Stern (Ed.), The 

New Social Studies, 1-37. Charlotte, NC: 

Information Age Publishing. 

Fenton, E., & Good, J. 1965. Project Social 

Studies: A Progress Report. Social Education, 

29: 206-208. 

Fenton, E. 1966. Teaching the new social studies 

in secondary schools: An inductive approach. 

New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 

Fenton, E. 1967. The New Social Studies. New 

York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 

Gallagher, S., & Downs, R. (Eds.). 

2012. Geography for life: National geography 

standards. National Council for Geographic 

Education. 

Geib, R. 1972. High School Geography Project: 

From Boulder to Boondocks. M.A. thesis. 

Department of Geography, Western Michigan 

University. ERIC 10 ED096201.  

Gunn, A. 1975. The Role of the High School 

Geography Project in Geographic Education 

Reform Worldwide. The Professional 

Geographer, 37, no. 2: 218-221. 

Gutek, G. 1986. Education in the United States: An 

Historical Perspective. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: 

Prentice Hall 

Helburn, N. 1965. Improving Communication 

Between the Teacher and the Geographer: The 

role of the High school Geography Project. 

Journal of Geography, 64, no. 4: 149-153.  

Helburn, N. 1966. High School Geography and 

What is Being Done About I. Social Education, 

Dec.: 631-632,645.  

Helburn, N. 1968. The Educational Objectives of 

High School Geography. Journal of 

Geography, 67, no. 5: 274-281.  

Helburn, N. 1998. The High School Geography 

Project: A Retrospective View. Social Studies, 

89, no. 5: 212-218. 

Hertzberg, H.W. 1981. Social Studies Reform 

1880-1980. SSEC Publications, 855 

Broadway, Boulder, CO 80302. 

High, J. (1960). Geography: Coordinating Element 

in Secondary Social Studies. Journal of 

Geography, 59, no. 6: 270-278.  

High School Geography Project. 1970. Geography 

for an Urban Age. New York: Macmillan. 

Hill, D. A. 1970. Strategies of the High. School 

Geography Project for the Colleges: A New 

Heresy. Journal of Geography, 69, no. 9: 544-

551.  

James, P. E. 1969. The Significance of Geography 

in American Education. Journal of Geography, 

68, no. 8: 473-483.  

Kohn, C. F. 1964. Selected Classroom 

Experiences: High School Geography. 

Geographic Education Series Number 4. C. F. 

Kohn (Ed.). Oak Park, IL. Retrieved from 

ERIC: ED096184. 



HIGH SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY PROJECT 

123 

 

Kohn, C. F. 1970. A Decade of Progress in 

Geography Research and Instruction. Annals of 

the Association of American Geographers, 60, 

no. 2: 211- 219. 

Kohn, C. F. 1982. Looking back; working ahead. 

Journal of Geography, 81, no. 2: 44-46.  

Monier, R. B., & Campbell, C. B. 1963. The Status 

of Geography in The Secondary Schools of 

New Hampshire. Journal of Geography, 62, 

no. 9: 397-406.  

Morrissett, I. & Project SPAN Staff. 1982. The 

Current State of Social Studies: A Report of 

Project SPAN. Boulder, CO: Social Science 

Education Consortium. 

Morrissett, I., Superka, D., & Hawke, S. 1980.  Six 

Problems for Social Studies in the 

1980s.    Social Education, 7, 561-569. 

Natoli, S. J. 1986. The Evolving Nature of 

Geography. In S. P. Wronski, , & D. H. Bragaw 

(Eds.), Social Studies and Social Sciences: A 

Fifty-Year Perspective, Bulletin No. 78, 28-42. 

Washington D.C.: National Council for Social 

Studies.  

National Education Association. 1916. The social 

studies in secondary education: Report of the 

Committee on Social Studies of the 

Commission cm the Reorganization of the 

Secondary Education of the National 

Education Association.  

O’Connell, A. C. 1962. Social Scientists Bury 

Geography. The Social Studies, 53, no. 2: 60-

61. 

Pattison, W. D. 1962. Geography in the High 

School. Annals of the Association of American 

Geographers, 52, no. 3: 280- 284. 

Patton, D. J. 1970. From Geographic Discipline to 

Inquiring Student.  The High School 

Geography Project. The Final Report. D. J. 

Patton (Ed.). Washington DC. Retrieved from 

ERIC: ED087676. 

Rosen, S. 1957. A Short History of High School 

Geography (To 1936). Journal of Geography, 

56, no. 9: 405-412.  

Russell, W., & Byford, J. 2008. Revisiting the high 

school geography project. The Geography 

Teacher, 5, no. 1: 21-23. 

Scarfe, N. V. 1959. Geography Across the 

Curriculum. Journal of Geography, 58, no. 3: 

111-121.  

Senesh, L. 1981. The New Social Science 

Movement of the 1960s. Educational 

Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 3, no. 5: 63-

73. 

Social Science Education Consortium, 

1971. Social studies curriculum materials data 

book. Social Science Education Consortium, 

Incorporated. 

Stoltman, J. P. 2010. Geography and the New 

Social Studies: The High School Geography 

Project and Georgia Geography Curriculum 

Project. In B. S. Stern (Ed.), The New Social 

Studies, 167-192. Charlotte, NC: Information 

Age Publishing. 

Takaya, K. 2008. Jerome Bruner’s theory of 

education: From early Bruner to later Bruner. 

Interchange, 39, no. 1: 1-19. 

Todd, L. P. (1957). Juggling Act. Social 

Education, 21, no. 6: 245-246. 

Winston, B. J. 1986. The Evolving Nature of 

Geography. In Social Studies and Social 

Sciences: A Fifty-Year Perspective, ed. S. P. 

Wronski & D. H. Bragaw Bulletin No. 78, (pp. 

28-42). Washington DC: National Council for 

Social Studies.  

 

 

 

 

 


