







































IMA HOGG: A STUDY IN EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY LEADERSHIP


The Impact of Informal Curriculum Experiences: 

A Study of the Education of a Female Community Leader in Houston, Texas 

 

Linda J. Black 

Stephen F. Austin State University 

 

Abstract 

As a community leader for five decades, 

Ima Hogg helped establish major cultural 

institutions in Houston, Texas, such as The 

Houston Symphony, The Bayou Bend Museum, 

and The Hogg Foundation for Mental Health. 

This paper will discuss the informal educational 

experiences of this influential community 

leader, focusing on the influence of parents and 

siblings in the period 1880-1930, as a way of 

examining the connections between educational 

experiences and the development of leadership 

skills. 

 

The Houston Post headline for August 

20, 1975, read, “Miss Ima-She nurtured Music, 

Art, Public Service.” Ima Hogg, Houston 

community leader, philanthropist, and patron of 

the arts, had died in London, England, at the age 

of 93. In 1913, she helped found the Houston 

Symphony, serving as President of the 

Symphony Society from 1917-1921, and again 

from 1946-1956. In 1929, she started the 

Houston Child Guidance Center to provide the 

first mental health services for children and 

families in Houston and was involved in the 

leadership of this organization for over two 

decades. In her concern over the mental health 

of children in the community, she researched 

and developed the first visiting teacher or school 

social worker program while serving on the 

Houston ISD school board from 1943-1949. In 

1940, she established the Hogg Foundation for 

Mental Hygiene (later Mental Health) at The 

University of Texas, which continues to provide 

information, scholarships, community resources, 

and training for mental health professionals 

throughout the state. As a community leader for 

five decades, she helped establish major cultural 

institutions in Houston such as the Museum of 

Fine Arts, which now includes Bayou Bend, her 

former home. This paper explores connections 

between the informal educational experiences of 

Ima Hogg and the development of her 

leadership skills. 

 

Women’s Educational Experiences  

Throughout history, much of women‟s 

educational experiences have been described as 

non-traditional or informal education, education 

that took place within the family, the 

community, and through social interaction. This 

type of learning, outside the boundaries of 

formal education, has often been dismissed, not 

considered by some as legitimate education, but 

only as a form of subjective knowledge (Lerner 

1979; Zinsser 1993). However, feminist writers 

describe this as not so much of a problem of 

subjective or objective knowledge as much as a 

paradigm stemming from the power relations 

between men and women.  

 

The assertion that women‟s knowledge 

is based on personal experience while 

men‟s knowledge is based on objective 

grounds obliterates, first and foremost, 

the relationship between education and 

personal experience. The only education 



12 

 

 

that can have meaning is education that 

is personal. The ingenuousness of an 

educational process that attempts to 

obliterate the personal is profoundly 

silencing (Lewis and Simon 1986, 464). 

 

In looking at examples of informal 

learning, the influence of family, particularly 

parents, in establishing patterns of leadership 

and community involvement, is important to 

understanding the actions of individual women. 

Delgado Bernal (1998), for example, wrote that 

“knowledge that is passed from one generation 

to the next provides an understanding of certain 

situations and explanations about why things 

happen under certain conditions” (568). Ford 

(1990) also noted the significance of women‟s 

informal education by describing the educative 

nature of women‟s activities and how important 

this was in understanding the human condition. 

Her examples of sources particularly relevant in 

researching informal education and its impact 

included church and club records, diaries, oral 

histories, literature written by women, crafts, 

and the production of textiles. “Social history,” 

wrote Ford (1990), “cannot be understood 

without an understanding of how marginal 

groups [like women] have performed daily to 

support society” (14). 

 

Education for Women in the Progressive Age 

The period from 1880 to 1920 was a key 

transitional period for women across the United 

States, an era characterized by changes in 

women‟s roles and by female organization and 

institution building (Chafe 1991; Dye 1991; 

Freedman 1979; McArthur 1998). Not only did 

women gain the right to vote at the end of this 

period, but the changes in education resulting 

from industrialization and urban growth 

transformed the perceived purpose of formal 

education for the rest of the twentieth century. 

In addition, the activities of women‟s 

organizations during this period provided both 

informal educational experiences for women as 

well as increased political, economic, and 

cultural opportunities (Talbot 1910). 

The influence of informal educational 

experiences on the development of female 

leadership on a national level during the 

Progressive Age was examined by Lagemann 

(1979) who described the relationship between 

education and individual achievement in the 

lives of five female reformers in New York 

City. This work is an example of how education 

is viewed as a lifelong process of interaction and 

focused on the combined influence of family, 

mentors, and colleagues in analyzing the lives 

and accomplishments of female leaders. 

Although these informal experiences were 

outside the realm of formal education, they still 

performed an educative function in the lives of 

these women. Because women of the period 

1880-1920 lacked the quantity and the quality of 

formal educational opportunities afforded to 

males of the time, examining the informal as 

well as the formal educational experiences, 

produces a more integrated and balanced picture 

of female education in the late nineteenth and 

early twentieth centuries and helps to shed light 

on how women made meaning from all of their 

educational experiences, and, as a result, how 

they structured their world as a result of their 

education.  

 

A History of Community Involvement 

Ima Hogg was born July 10, 1882, in 

Mineola, Texas, to James Stephen and Sarah 

Ann (Stinson) Hogg. Ima was the second child 

in the family, with one older brother, William 



13 

 

 

Clifford, and two younger brothers, Michael and 

Thomas Elisha Hogg. She was named for the 

heroine of a Civil War poem written by her 

uncle. She never married and was known as 

“Miss Ima” for most of her adult life. She was 

born into a family with a history of community 

involvement, particularly public service in 

politics. Her father, James Stephen Hogg, 

served as Governor of Texas from 1891 to 1895, 

while her grandfather Joseph Hogg served in the 

legislature of the Republic of Texas, and her 

great grandfather Thomas Hogg served in the 

legislature of three southern states (Bernhard 

1984). While her family had been primarily 

involved in political service, Ima Hogg‟s 

accomplishments and leadership in the 

community were demonstrated in a diverse 

variety of other arenas, including art, music, 

mental health, and historical preservation. While 

her formal education included private schools in 

Texas as well as courses at The University of 

Texas and the National Conservatory of Music 

in New York City, interaction with parents and 

siblings also provided significant informal 

educational experiences as well.  Reference for 

her time at UT Austin? And national 

conservatory needed? 

 

Informal Education: The Influence of Family 

The frequent correspondence between 

Ima and her family provided examples of family 

influence and testify to the educative nature of 

informal learning. These letters reveal a deep 

affection between family members, but also a 

certain expectation for Ima that was established 

early in her life. For example, on her thirteenth 

birthday July 10, 1895, her father wrote to her 

saying, 

 

On reflection I can recall but few epochs 

in my life‟s way that present to my mind 

equal pleasure to this day-thirteen years 

ago-the date of your birth. In all the 

intervening years with each recurring 

day I have found nothing but pleasure 

from this great blessing. My confidence 

in the purity of your nature, in your deep 

regard for the rectitude and refinement 

of your sex at all times, on all occasions, 

firmly supports and justifies my hope 

that in no act of your life shall I ever find 

cause for disappointment or regret 

(3B111, Folder 1, James Stephen Hogg 

Papers, Center for American History, 

The University of Texas at Austin). 

 

 The special relationship that James Hogg 

had with his daughter began at her birth. In a 

July 1882 letter to his brother John, James 

described Ima as “an angelic mien as ever 

gracious nature favor a man with” (3B111, 

Folder 1, Ima Hogg Papers, Center for 

American History, The University of Texas at 

Austin). This fatherly adoration, coupled with 

unwavering support for whatever Ima Hogg 

chose to do, continued unabated until his death 

in 1906. And, in return, Ima Hogg idolized her 

larger than life father, whose accomplishments 

as governor earned him the title of “the last 

people‟s governor of Texas” for the progressive 

legislative reforms enacted under his leadership 

(Frantz 1976; Bernhard 1984). The favoritism 

that James Hogg displayed toward his daughter 

over his three sons was quite evident when he 

replied to Ima‟s suggestion in April 1902 that he 

bring his children to England where he was 

visiting: 

 



14 

 

 

Now, Ima, that dream of yours won‟t 

work. I shall not indulge those boys in a 

„trip to England.‟ I should not do so if I 

had the wealth of Carnegie. Of course I 

shall be glad to take you anywhere, if I 

have to make the boys work to defray 

the expenses. In other words, you shall 

have carte‟ blanche, as you have always 

had and never abused (3B111, Folder 3, 

James Stephen Hogg Papers, Center for 

American History, The University of 

Texas at Austin). 

 

 Part of the informal education provided 

by James Hogg was the knowledge and 

experience that his daughter Ima gained through 

travel, both in the United States and abroad, a 

practice she would continue throughout her life. 

From an early age, Ima Hogg became a frequent 

travel companion for her father due to her 

mother‟s frail health, often accompanying her 

father during his political campaigns. However, 

as her mother‟s health slowly deteriorated, she 

accompanied her father even more often, 

especially during his term as governor of Texas 

from 1891 to 1895. After the death of Ima‟s 

mother in 1895, the relationship between Ima 

and her father became even closer, with Ima 

gradually assuming the roles of friend, 

companion, advisor, and, finally, caretaker the 

last two years of her father‟s life. 

Although Ima‟s mother, Sarah Hogg 

died when Ima was thirteen, she often spoke of 

her mother‟s influence. For example, when her 

father became Governor in 1891, Sarah Hogg 

assigned her daughter the responsibility of 

collecting and saving the family letters and the 

clippings from Texas papers and periodicals 

concerning the political campaigns, addresses, 

and other activities of her father, even though 

she was only eight years old at the time. In 

1973, Ima wrote of this duty and its educative 

influence, saying “I learned something about 

politics, but I also learned to be a keeper of 

letters and documents” (3B130, Folder 10, Ima 

Hogg Papers, Center for American History, The 

University of Texas at Austin). 

In a 1975 interview, Ima Hogg described 

the influence of her mother in the area of music. 

She stated that her interest in the piano began at 

the age of three when she heard her mother play 

and tried to imitate her. 
 

She began piano 

lessons shortly thereafter at the age of five and 

thus began, as Ima described, “a life-long love 

of music” (4Zg88, Folder “Book Notes,” Ima 

Hogg Papers, Center for American History, The 

University of Texas at Austin). She continued 

her study of the piano for the next twenty-seven 

years, first, in schools in Texas, then, at the 

National Conservatory of Music in New York 

City, and, finally, as a self-directed program of 

study in Austria and Germany (3B130, Folder 

10, Ima Hogg Papers, Center for American 

History, The University of Texas at Austin). 

In 1907, a year after the death of her 

father, Ima Hogg traveled to Europe for the first 

of several trips she would take in her life, 

though this time, to continue her self-directed 

study of music. Any idea where she had money 

for this trip? She was about 25 at the time of 

trip, was this unusual for a single young female 

to travel by herself? First, in Vienna, Austria, 

and later, in Berlin, Ima practiced and 

developed her technique, supposedly in the 

pursuit of a career as a concert pianist. But, by 

the time she returned to Houston in 1908, her 

career path had changed. She did not choose the 

life of concert pianist, but, instead, taught piano 

for the next few years, until 1919. In 1911, she 

helped form a musical organization for young 



15 

 

 

ladies in Houston called the Girls‟ Musical Club 

(later re-named the Tuesday Musical Club), and 

served as President for the 1912-1913 season 

(Kirkland 2004, 325). This organization was a 

women‟s study club whose purpose was to 

establish “an organization for the musical 

culture of the members and the uplifting of the 

standard of music in the city of Houston” (Box 

2, Folder 1, Elizabeth Richardson Cherry 

Papers, Archives, Museum of Fine Arts).  

However, it was this organization, The 

Girls Musical Club that Ima would use as a 

means to create an organization that would 

evolve into the Houston Symphony Association 

(Rousell 1972). The significant role that Ima 

Hogg played in the initial formation of the 

Houston Symphony is demonstrated by a 1915 

photocopy of the Registration form filed with 

the State of Texas by the Houston Symphony 

Orchestra Association. There are five signatures 

of the directors of the Symphony Association on 

the document, four men and Ima Hogg. In an 

autobiographical speech she gave in 1962, upon 

the twentieth-five anniversary of the founding of 

the Houston Symphony, Ima reflected on her 

parents‟ influence, describing the manner of 

support from her parents as “parental 

counseling.” She described her leadership role 

in helping to start the symphony and how the 

idea took shape as a result of both her mother‟s 

love of music and her father‟s support for her 

decision to continue her study of music in 

college. Maybe need a reference here for the 

speech, how did you know what she said in 

speech? 

 

Informal Instruction 

Many of the letters written to Ima Hogg 

from her father James and later, her brother 

William, were examples of informal education 

that were also instructive in nature. For 

example, in March of 1898, her brother William 

wrote to her, apparently in answer to her 

question about a biographical series of English 

and American authors in which she was 

interested, and gave advice about the selection 

of authors to read. He advised her to “lay the 

foundation of your taste with the masters that 

the latter-day, lesser, saints of literature all more 

or less copy: Shakespeare, Scott, Dickens, 

Thackeray, Macaulay, Carlyle, Irving, 

Stevenson, and others” (2N156, Folder 1/9, 

James Stephen Hogg Papers, Center for 

American History, The University of Texas at 

Austin). 

William also advised Ima that “if 

Thackeray suits your taste, you should cultivate 

that taste by a careful reading of his works-a 

reading that will make this thought and 

language unconsciously a part of your own” 

(2N156, Folder 1/9, James Stephen Hogg 

Papers, Center for American History, The 

University of Texas at Austin). The focused 

manner in which Ima was advised to read by her 

brother, spoke to a program of self-directed 

learning Ima would later employ in gaining 

information about the major interests of her 

adult life-art, music, mental health, and historic 

preservation. This idea of immersing one‟s self 

in a subject by reading everything available 

about that subject as well as consulting the 

leaders in the field, would became a pattern of 

informal education that would repeat itself 

throughout Ima Hogg‟s life.  

Several of the letters to Ima from her 

father James Hogg were highly instructive in 

nature, with lengthy explanations of subjects as 

varied as the reputations of ladies and 

gentlemen, the political revolution in Panama, 

and the oil business. One particular letter that 



16 

 

 

James Hogg wrote to his daughter from England 

in March of 1902, revealed the former 

governor‟s decidedly American political bias as 

he described the shortcomings of parliamentary 

monarchy. The letter continued on for two more 

pages, the majority of which James Hogg 

devoted to an explanation of the differences 

between the American and English systems of 

government, including a detailed description of 

veto powers as they existed in England and the 

United States at the time.  

The instructive purpose of this letter is 

openly referred to on the last page of the letter 

when James Hogg advised his daughter, “Your 

fondness for history, I do trust will not abate. A 

woman who well understands history and 

political phrases and distinctions finds a 

welcome place in the center of the best circles 

everywhere” (3B111, Folder 4, James Stephen 

Hogg Papers, Center for American History, The 

University of Texas at Austin). The expectation 

of success without gender limitations seemed to 

be part of a recurring pattern in Ima Hogg‟s life. 

As she recalled in a 1975 interview, “as a child, 

I was always encouraged to compete with the 

boys [her brothers] in all things” (4Zg88, Folder 

4, Ima Hogg Papers, Center for American 

History, The University of Texas at Austin). 

The suggestion for public service as well as a 

proposal for demonstrating her personal 

leadership abilities came in another letter from 

her father in March 1902. 

 

I want you to wield your influence, 

which I hope may be potential, on the 

side of the plain people. By all means, 

my daughter, keep up interest in politics. 

Understand well the principles on which 

your rights are based and stand by them. 

Know your lesson-your duty-and you 

can lead or teach others (3B111, Folder 

4, James Stephen Hogg Papers, Center 

for American History, The University of 

Texas at Austin). 

 

The support and encouragement shown 

by James Hogg in his letters to his daughter 

seemed to reveal an attitude that, because of his 

perception of her abilities, she could pursue 

whatever interests she wanted, an attitude that 

would encourage Ima to do just that. While the 

pervading attitude about women‟s proper roles 

in the beginning years of the 20
th

 century was 

predominantly one of wife and mother, the 

advice of James Hogg to his daughter in the 

matter of subjects such as politics or business, 

was decidedly different, saying, in the same 

letter, “When you quit school I trust you will 

study the land and oil business so that you can 

profitably employ your fine talents” (3B111, 

Folder 4, James Stephen Hogg Papers, Center 

for American History, the University of Texas at 

Austin). 

Lastly, Ima Hogg‟s perception was that 

her father and her brother, in particular, were 

role models for her subsequent actions as a 

community leader. Their beliefs and their 

actions in the community would serve an 

educative function in her life. For example, Ima 

Hogg‟s father, James Hogg, served twenty years 

in government office as a local justice of the 

peace and district attorney, then state attorney 

general, and finally governor. As governor, he 

earned a reputation for progressive reform, 

proposing five significant pieces of legislation, 

all dealing with issues either protecting or 

supporting the rights and privileges of what he 

described as the “common man,” against foreign 

and corporate interests.  



17 

 

 

The educative influence of James Hogg 

on his daughter also extended to the field of 

psychology and mental health issues. When 

receiving an award from The University of 

Texas in 1968, Ima Hogg spoke of her interest 

in studying psychology and the connection to 

her father. 

 

I selected this course in the University 

because my father engendered my 

interest in the subject by his own 

interest. While he was Governor and I 

was still a child,  he frequently carried 

me along on his inspection tours of the 

State Hospitals and penitentiaries. I 

heard him discuss case histories of many 

inmates and talk with them (MS21, Box 

13, Folder 1, Ima Hogg Collection, 

Archives, Houston Museum of Fine 

Arts). 

 

 During interviews with Ima Hogg in 

1961 and 1967, she described in detail the trips 

to asylums and prisons, the influence of her 

father‟s beliefs about mental health, and how, in 

large part, these events were a significant part of 

the impetus behind her fifty-year support of 

mental health services for children and adults. 

She even commented that she had also talked to 

patients and had, at one point, thought about 

becoming a nurse in a mental hospital. 

Ima Hogg‟s older brother, William, also 

served as a role model by continuing the 

family‟s tradition of public service during the 

first two decades of the 20
th

 century, even 

though he chose business and not politics as a 

career. His strong belief in public service 

included serving on the Board of Trustees for a 

national organization that promoted training for 

those individuals interested in public service. 

Much of his time and his fortune were spent in 

support of various educational, civic, and 

philanthropic causes (Kirkland 2004). The 

recipients of his philanthropic efforts included 

The University of Texas, the Boy Scouts, 

veterans of World War I, the Houston Museum 

of Fine Arts, the Houston Symphony, and the 

YWCA (Bernhard 1984). Demonstrating their 

own leadership and service was not the only 

way that the Hogg family had an educative 

influence on Ima. There were also family 

expectations that Ima would be successful and 

continue the family tradition of service and 

leadership. 

 

Conclusion 

Both formal and informal educational 

experiences helped define Ima Hogg‟s role as a 

community leader. Family was the initial source 

of informal education as father, James, and 

brother, William, demonstrated the family 

tradition of service to community, through their 

roles as political and civic leaders. Her parents 

also recognized the benefits of formal education 

and demonstrated this by funding Ima‟s 

educational experiences in private elementary 

and secondary schools in Austin and San 

Marcos, Texas, at The University of Texas for 

two years, and at the National Conservatory of 

Music in New York City. Through all of this, 

they demonstrated to Ima the value and benefits 

of education.  

While her formal education provided 

Ima Hogg with basic knowledge and skills, it 

was not the sum total of her education. The 

informal educational experiences of Ima Hogg 

were also vital to her success as a community 

leader. First, interviews with Ima and family 

correspondence seem to demonstrate that the 

Hogg family provided both support and 



18 

 

 

encouragement for Ima throughout her life for 

whatever endeavors she attempted, particularly 

her passion for music. These same sources also 

reveal family expectations of success and 

involvement in community affairs in a 

leadership role as well, something considered 

not as common for women in this time period. 

Second, the educative influence of the Hogg 

family can also be seen in the instructive nature 

of Ima‟s relationship with her mother and father, 

as well as her brother. Finally, the actions of her 

mother, father, and brother also served an 

educative function in that Ima perceived her 

parents James and Sarah, and brother William to 

be role models, individuals whose behavior she 

sought to emulate in giving back to the 

community in a tradition of public and 

community service. As she commented during 

her campaign for the Houston school board in 

March of 1943, “It would be my desire and hope 

to perform a service, however modest it might 

be, to my community as a whole” (4W237, 

Folder 3, Ima Hogg Papers, Center for 

American History, The University of Texas at 

Austin). 

In examining the actions of Ima Hogg as 

an adult, evidence suggests a significant 

connection between the informal curriculum of 

educational experiences provided by her family 

and her actions as a community leader. The 

instructive nature of the attention and the time 

spent with Ima by her parents, particularly her 

father, coupled with family expectations for 

both success and community leadership, 

provided her with a sense of self-esteem and 

purpose, a purpose that reflected the interests 

and attitudes of her family. The tradition of 

public service demonstrated by her father and 

brother from 1880 to 1930 would be carried on 

by Ima Hogg in the following decades, as she 

demonstrated her leadership in establishing 

community resources in the fields of art, music, 

education, mental health, and historic 

preservation. In a speech to the Woman‟s Club 

of Houston, during her campaign for Houston 

ISD School Board, March 23, 1943, Ima Hogg 

summarized her perception of the importance of 

the informal curriculum experiences provided 

by her family.  

 

The process of education in the 

individual is made up through 

experiences as well as through teaching. 

Therefore, with the roots of influence 

beginning in the home, it becomes a 

many-sided community responsibility in 

addition to being a school problem. This, 

I think we cannot overlook when 

considering a program for the 

development and education of our youth 

as future citizens. These are my beliefs, 

well grounded in me through heritage, 

training, and an abiding interest in my 

fellow man (4W237, Folder 3, Ima Hogg 

Papers, Center for American History, 

The University of Texas at Austin). 

 

This study of the education of a female 

community leader contributes to a growing body 

of research on the role of education, both formal 

and informal, in helping to shape women‟s lives 

in the period 1880 to 1920 (Graves 1998; Rury 

1991; Talbot 1910; Tyack 1992). In examining 

the literature on women‟s education in the 

United States from 1880-1920, Woody (1929) 

described the informal educative impact of the 

women‟s club movement and women‟s club 

participation as giving women “a foundation for 

civic powers” (467), a theme echoed by later 

historians (Frankel and Dye 1991; McArthur 



19 

 

 

1998; McElhaney 1998; Riley 1986), including 

several who wrote about Texas women and the 

influence of women‟s organizations (Chapman 

1993; Cottrell 1993; Turner 1997). However, 

few sources offer an analysis of all aspects of 

women‟s education in the period 1880 to 1920: 

the formal as well as the full range of informal 

educational experiences and how all of these 

experiences connect to the development of the 

knowledge and skills that enabled women, such 

as Ima Hogg, to become influential community 

leaders (Lagemann 1979). 

Finally, by analyzing the educational 

experiences of female community leaders such 

as Ima Hogg, understanding of the complex 

nature of the educational process, especially for 

women and especially as education has been 

traditionally defined, is extended. This study 

attempted to deepen the understanding of 

women leaders with a portrait of not just the 

achievements of twentieth century Texas 

women, but how the personal, the private, and 

the public realms of education play an integral 

and interconnected role in women‟s lives, in 

general. The results demonstrate the importance 

of analyzing both formal and informal 

educational experiences, not only as a means of 

understanding woman‟s education, but also as a 

necessary component to understanding the 

relationship between women‟s education and 

women‟s achievement. 

 

References 

 

Bernhard, V. 1984. Ima Hogg: The governor’s 

daughter. Austin, TX: Monthly Press. 

Chafe, W. H. 1991. The paradox of change: 

American women in the twentieth century. 

New York: Oxford University Press. 

Chapman, B. T. 1993. From the parlor to the 

public: New roles for women in Houston 

1885-1918. The Houston Review: History 

and Culture of the Gulf Coast 15 (1): 31-

44. 

Elizabeth Richardson Cherry Papers, Archives, 

Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. 

Cottrell, D. M. 1993. Pioneer woman educator: 

The progressive spirit of Annie Webb 

Blanton. College Station, TX: Texas A&M 

Press. 

Delgado Bernal, D. 1998. Using a Chicana 

feminist epistemology in educational 

research. Harvard Educational Review 68 

(Winter) 

http://www.edreview.org.ezproxy.tamu:20

48/ harvard98/1998/wi98/w98berna.htm 

Dye, N. S. 1991. Introduction. In Gender, class, 

race, and reform in the Progressive Era, 

eds. N. Frankel and N. S. Dye, 1-9. 

Lexington, KY: The University Press of 

Kentucky. 

Ford, R. L. 1990. Why spend time on women 

grinding corn? Texas Journal of Ideas, 

History, and Culture 12 (2): 12-15. 

Frankel, N., and N. S. Dye, eds. 1991. Gender, 

class, race, and reform in the Progressive 

Era. Lexington, KY: The University Press 

of Kentucky. 

Frantz, J. B. 1976. Texas: A bicentennial 

history. New York: Norton. 

Freedman, E. 1979. Separatism as strategy: 

Female institution building and American 

feminism, 1870-1930. Feminist Studies 3 

(3): 512-529. 

Graves, K. 1998. Girls’ schooling during the 

Progressive Era: From female scholar to 

domesticated citizen. New York: Garland. 

Ima Hogg Papers, Center for American History, 

The University of Texas at Austin James  



20 

 

 

Stephen Hogg Papers, Center for American 

History, The University of Texas at 

Austin.  

Kirkland, K. S. 2004. Envisioning a progressive 

city: Hogg family philanthropy and the 

urban ideal in Houston, Texas, 1910-1975. 

PhD diss., Rice University. 

Lagemann, E. C. 1979. A generation of women: 

Education in the lives of progressive 

reformers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard 

University Press. 

Lerner, G. 1979. The majority finds its past: 

Placing women in history. Chapel Hill, 

NC: University of North Carolina Press. 

Lewis, M. and R. I. Simon. 1986. A discourse 

not intended for her: Learning and 

teaching within patriarchy. Harvard 

Educational Review 56, 457-471. 

McArthur, J. N. 1998. Creating the new women: 

The rise of Southern women’s progressive 

culture in Texas, 1893-1918. Urbana, IL: 

University of Illinois Press. 

McElhaney, J. M. 1998. Pauline Periwinkle and 

the progressive reform in Dallas. College 

Station, TX: Texas A&M University 

Press. 

Riley, G. 1986. Inventing the American woman: 

A perspective on women’s history, 1865 to 

the present. Arlington Heights, IL: 

Davidson. 

Roussel, H. 1972. The Houston Symphony 

Orchestra, 1913-1971 Austin, TX: The 

University of Texas Press. 

Rury, J. L. 1991. Education and women’s work. 

Albany, NY: State University of New 

York Press. 

Talbot, M. 1910. The education of women. 

Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 

Turner, E. H. 1997. Women, culture, and 

community: Religion and reform in 

Galveston 1880-1920. New York: Oxford 

University Press. 

Tyack, D. B. 1992. Introduction. In The ‘girl 

question’ in education: Vocational 

education for young women in the 

Progressive Era, ed. J. B. Powers, ix-x. 

London: Falmer Press. 

Woody, T. 1929. A history of women’s 

education in the United States: Volumes I 

and II. Repr., New York: Octagon Books, 

1966. 

Zinsser, J. P. 1993. Feminism and history: A 

glass half full. New York, NY: Twayne 

Publishers. 

 


