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ISSN 2744-1741 
Defense and Security Studies  Original Research 
Vol. 4, January 2023, pp.46-51 
https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v4.id234 

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others 
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 46 

 
 
Force development against irregular and hybrid warfare in Indonesia 
 
Jefferson Benyamin1*, Much Mualim2, Editha Praditya Duarte3 
1,2,3 Republic of Indonesia Defense University, Faculty of Defense Management, Indonesia  
 
 

*Corresponding author E-mail:  jeffersonbenyamin@gmail.com  

Received 3.2.2023. 
Revised  22.2.2023. 
Accepted 23.2.2023 

Abstract 
The development of national defense is directed to be able to answer various 
possible threats and actual problems that are adjusted to the geographical 
conditions and dynamics of the strategic environment. Current and future threats 
are growing very fast and increasingly complex. Threats to the state can 
essentially be classified into three types, namely military threats, both armed and 
unarmed, non-military threats, and hybrid threats. The threats that have emerged 
during the co-19 pandemic are irregular warfare and hybrid threats. This research 
will discuss the analysis of force development to face the threat of irregular 
warfare and hybrid warfare in Indonesia. This research uses a qualitative method 
with a literature study approach. Based on the results of the study, it is concluded 
that Indonesia as a country that has a strategic location and attractiveness of 
various spectrums needs to always prepare itself by implementing relevant 
strategies in accordance with the capital already owned in the Indonesian nation 
itself, this is needed to avoid national disunity due to irregular warfare that enters 
the joints of state life.  

© The Author 2023. 
Published by ARDA. 

Keywords: development of national defense, irregular warfare, hybrid warfare, 
Indonesia 

1. Introduction 
Current conditions bring the world no longer in Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity, Ambiguity (VUCA) 
which is characterized by its complexity but in BANI which brings disorientation, unpredictability and chaos. 
BANI as an acronym for Brittle, Anxious, Nonlinear and Incomprehensible was proposed in early 2020 [2]. 
Furthermore, according to Cascio, in articulating an increasingly common situation with volatility or 
complexity, simple is not enough to understand the situation that occurs. The existing conditions are not only 
unstable but also chaotic. The shadow of the future is not only difficult to foresee but completely 
unpredictable. Finally, what is happening is not only ambiguous but also incomprehensible.  

With the existence of BANI, every country in the world, especially Indonesia, must pay detailed attention to 
every threat to sovereignty that will occur. As stated by Defense Minister Prabowo Subianto in the Leadership 
Meeting, the dynamics of a complex strategic environment have the potential to give rise to various forms of 
threats such as military, non-military and hybrid threats that will threaten national interests, territorial 
integrity, danger to state sovereignty and the safety of the entire Indonesian nation in the future [7]. 

Current and future threats are growing very fast and increasingly complex. Threats to the state can essentially 
be classified into three types, namely military threats, both armed and unarmed, non-military threats, and 
hybrid threats. Threat estimates in the next five years, in accordance with predictions and priorities, within the 
framework of existing doctrine, these threats are categorized in the form of real and unreal threats [6]. 

Threats that come must be responded to appropriately. Whatever the way and whenever the time. The threats 



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that have emerged during the Covid-19 pandemic are irregular warfare [5] and hybrid threats [6]. In this 
research, the author intends to discuss the development of forces to face irregular warfare and hybrid warfare 
in Indonesia. 

2. Research method  
The research method used in this writing is to use data collection methods through literature study [10]. 
Literature study is a series of activities related to library data collection methods, reading and recording, and 
processing research materials. The stages that must be taken by the author in library research are as follows: 
 Collecting research materials. The material collected is in the form of information or empirical data 

sourced from books, journals, the results of official and scientific research reports and literature on the 
conditions for the development of irregular warfare and hybrid warfare in Indonesia. 

 Reading library materials. In reading research materials, readers must dig deeply into reading materials 
so as to find new ideas related to the research title. 

 Making research notes. Taking notes on research materials is said to be the most important stage because 
all the materials that have been read must be drawn to a conclusion in the form of a report. 

 Processing research notes. All materials that have been read are then processed or analyzed to obtain a 
conclusion that is compiled in the form of a research report. 

Data analysis in this study was carried out through descriptive analysis method, which is defined as an effort 
to collect and compile data, then analyze the data so as to produce a comprehensive conclusion. 

3. Results and discussion 
a. Irregular warfare and hybrid warfare 
Irregular warfare is defined as violent conflict between states and non-state actors with the aim of gaining 
legitimacy and influence in the surrounding society [3]. Geopolitical changes in the world that occurred at the 
end of the 20th century fundamentally altered the security environment and forced Western countries to 
engage in new types of asymmetric military conflicts with non-state actors, terrorist organizations and 
criminal syndicates. New types of threats, various military conflicts and the search for effective responses 
require reconsideration, generalization and assessment of the latest military experience and the formulation of 
theoretical concepts that will help to prepare and operate effectively within the zone of military conflict. 

This condition led to the formulation and formation of new military theories, including hybrid warfare theory. 
The hybrid war theory developed by Hoffman includes four aspects: conventional forces, irregular tactics, 
terrorism, and criminal acts in one battle space [8]. This is corroborated by the statement of former TNI 
Commander Marshal Hadi Tjahjanto that the most prominent threat in the future is a hybrid threat [9]. Hybrid 
threats are threats that mix military and non-military threats. The development of the industrial revolution 4.0 
provides extraordinary benefits, but at the same time it also creates a paradox of threats that utilize industrial 
revolution 4.0 technology so that in the future war will no longer be dominated by military power alone. 

War has entered the 4th and 5th generation of warfare, namely asymmetric warfare, proxy warfare, and hybrid 
warfare. Hybrid threats can take many forms, such as cyber threats, biological threats, such as the current 
Covid-19 pandemic, and the threat of inequality. The future warfare model will be those who are able to 
exploit these threats and create security, and sovereignty. 
 
b. Irregular warfare and hybrid warfare in Indonesia 
The conditions of irregular warfare in Indonesia were explained in great detail during the Covid-19 pandemic 
by Prof. Indrajit, which consisted of four things [5]: 

 First, the perception that the government has neglected public safety since the first pandemic signals 
were seen is repeatedly presented to the public through a number of evidences. Official remarks by 
government officials who were not serious in looking at the pandemic storm in the early days of its 
presence were framed in such a way and presented repeatedly via the mass media. Before the 
pandemic took place, there were many discourses among political elites and the public that led to a 
number of tensions. The triggers came from a number of sources. First, the thick and lingering 
feelings of "hurt" over the process and results of the last presidential election democratic party, where 



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the two competing camps still cannot forget the past feud. The losing side still feels strongly that they 
were cheated by their incumbent opponent. 

 Second, there has been a slowdown in growth due to various global trade and economic dynamics due 
to the fierce competition between the United States and China. The increase in national debt and the 
increase in imports show the seriousness of the conditions faced by Indonesia, which is described as a 
situation that will be further exacerbated by the pandemic. 

 Third, law enforcement is still considered discriminatory, which is often compared to the phrase 
"sharp down, blunt up" by some critics. Radicals believe that the government uses legal and 
bureaucratic instruments to "eliminate" its political opponents, especially evident in the pandemic 
management policy that does not involve "political opponents". 

 Fourth, the political pendulum is moving very dynamically, characterized by the maneuvers of 
political parties in moving wildly in the face of various rapid environmental changes. The public is 
confused by this movement so that it is not clear which constellation is "friend, which is foe" in the 
state and democracy. Fifth, the submission of a number of draft laws, either government or 
parliamentary initiatives, which are considered not in favor of the small people. An example is the 
omnibus law which is considered to only favor businessmen and the power elite, at the expense of 
ordinary people or the Pancasila Ideology Bill which has drawn pros and cons everywhere. Sixth, 
there is still a lot of friction between community groups due to various recent issues that are hot to 
talk about such as: the rise of communism, the caliphate, the concept of secularism, primordialism, 
and so on [1] and forgetting the common interest in facing a pandemic disaster. 

In addition, the existence of hybrid warfare is a concern for Indonesia in running its life. One of the emerging 
hybrid wars is cyber warfare. The National Cyber and Crypto Agency data states that in 2019 there were 290 
million reported cases of cyber attacks in Indonesia. Compared to the previous year when cybercrime caused 
US$34.2 billion in losses in Indonesia, this number is 25% more. 

 
c. Analysis of irregular warfare and hybrid warfare in Indonesia 
The occurrence of irregular warfare in the territory of the Republic of Indonesia, for the following reasons [5]: 

 By some, the relentless attacks on the government aim to bring down the legitimate government, by 
trying to convince the public that the government is not working as it should, and is no longer able to 
manage the pandemic and save the Indonesian economy; 

 The desire to bring down the regime has also begun to appear with various parties trying to compare 
the success of the current government with previous regimes that are considered far more successful 
in managing the country, or comparisons with other countries that have succeeded in driving the 
pandemic out of their territory; 

 Opinion building in the form of psy wars in various ways is put forward to win the hearts of the 
public, even to convince them, components that are considered to be respected such as: members of 
the DPR / MPR, retired military, religious leaders, former state officials, and leaders of mass 
organizations, who criticize the government's way of handling the pandemic; There are a number of 
movements that interfere with the power in running the wheels of government, as shown through 
various activities such as demonstrations, motions of no confidence, opposition declarations, debate 
challenges, complaints to international courts, and others; and  

 The imposition of will on power has also begun to be seen by many community groups through 
approaches such as: threats of mass mobilization, boycotting the implementation of regulations, 
ignoring enforced health protocols, and other matters. 

These reasons continue to surface today by presenting a new war in Indonesia called irregular warfare. 
Irregular warfare is a challenge for Indonesia coupled with hybrid warfare. Both must be anticipated by 
Indonesia on the basis of the sovereignty and integrity of the Indonesian state. In the context of irregular 
warfare, the communication approach is important to be carried out continuously and continuously. Failure of 
political communication can trigger the development of irregular warfare in Indonesia. 

In the context of hybrid warfare, Indonesia needs to prepare for it as a response to technological 
developments. Efforts to survive cyber operations are important but no less important is the countermeasure of 
such behavior so that it does not recur in the future. The presence of a cyber army is also a priority that has 
been launched, one of which is equipping soldiers with capabilities that they are ready to face cyber war [4]. 



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d. Force development in the face of irregular warfare 
In facing the challenges of irregular warfare that will occur in the future Indonesia needs to optimize all its 
resources, for this reason Indonesia as a large nation already has several resources that can be used as 
resources to face these challenges including: 
a. Capital Geography 

Indonesia's geographical position which is located in a cross position of the world, namely between two 
continents (Asia and Australia) and two oceans (Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean) has a very strategic 
meaning in the development of the Indonesian state both in terms of economy, politics, socio-culture and 
defense and security. With this strategic position, Indonesia has become an international trade route both 
by sea and by air. This makes Indonesia a country that has the potential to develop the trade and tourism 
sectors in order to improve the nation's economy. Indonesia is also the largest maritime country. 
In addition, as stipulated in Law Number 3 of 2022 concerning National Defense, the Indonesian 
National Defense System is universal in nature, involving all Citizens, Territories and other National 
Resources including Natural Resources and Artificial Resources that are prepared early by the 
Government and held in a total, integrated, directed and continuous manner to uphold state sovereignty, 
territorial integrity, and the safety of the entire nation from all threats. To become a strong country, the 
main prerequisite is the country's ability to organize, prepare and use all resources owned for national 
interests. Therefore, it is necessary to manage national resources for national defense including natural 
resource management. 

b. Demographic Capital 
Indonesia currently has a population of 265 million or 3.49% of the world's total population. Indonesia is 
the fourth most populous country in the world after China (1.4 billion people), India (1.3 billion people) 
and the United States (328 million people). This is one of the supporting factors in national development 
as well as in efforts to realize national resilience, but it can also be an inhibiting factor if not managed 
properly in terms of the quality of its human resources. 

c. Local wisdom and Pancasila 
Indonesia's indigenous values have proven to be able to accommodate all group interests into a 
harmonious blend. These values are local wisdom that can bring Indonesia to the peak of glory, including 
the spirit of gotong royong, helping each other, pluralism and ethics. The spirit of gotong royong is the 
local wisdom of the Indonesian people that has existed since our ancestors. The precepts in the Pancasila 
state foundation are powerful guidelines that are timeless. 
The first precept of Belief in One God is a guideline in how we practice our religion. The second precept, 
Fair and Civilized Humanity, is a guideline in interacting with fellow human beings, both domestically 
and around the world. The third precept, the Unity of Indonesia, is a guideline for how we state, our 
strength in the state is unity, not others. While the fourth precept, "Democracy led by wisdom in the 
deliberation of representatives" is a guideline in democracy. If we carry out all of this well, we will 
undoubtedly be able to achieve the fifth principle, Social Justice for All Indonesian People. For this 
reason, all components of the nation must strengthen themselves and unite their determination to return to 
the original values and local wisdom of the Indonesian people and to guide and implement Pancasila 
correctly and fully in every aspect of the life of the nation and state. 

 
In addition to the capital already owned in building defense forces will be related to how much the ability to 
convert national resources owned into an effective instrument of strength. Strategies and ways to deal with 
future wars include: 
a. Ideology Development 

1. The practice of the ideological pillars of the Indonesian state. objectively and subjectively continues 
to be developed and improved. 

2. Pancasila as an open ideology needs to continue to be relevant and actualize its instrumental value so 
that it is still able to guide and direct life in society. 

3. The motto of Bhineka Tunggal Ika and the concept of archipelago insight derived from Pancasila 
must continue to be developed and instilled in a plural society. 

b. Political Development 
In the current era of globalization, freedom of information voiced by the press and media must play an 
active role as a counterweight to power, not otherwise used by the authorities as a tool to perpetuate 



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50 

power. Therefore, national resilience in the political field can be reformulated to create a political 
institutional system that is more open, transparent, accountable, clean, non-corrupt, involves broad 
community participation, and is of a service nature. 

c. Economic Development 
1. The economic system is directed at realizing fair and equitable prosperity and welfare throughout the 

archipelago through a people's economy. 
2. A populist economy should avoid the following: 

 Liberalism system that only benefits strong economic actors. 
 The system of ethatism kills the potential and creative power of economic units outside the state 

system. 
3. The economic structure is strengthened in a balanced and mutually beneficial manner in harmony and 

integration between the agricultural and industrial sectors as well as services. 
4. Economic development which is a joint effort based on the principle of kinship under the supervision 

of community members motivates and encourages active community participation. 
5. Equitable development and utilization of its results are always carried out with due regard to the 

balance and harmony of development between regions and between sectors. 
6. The ability to compete must be fostered in a healthy and dynamic manner to maintain and improve 

the existence and independence of the national economy. 
d. Socio-cultural Development 

1. Recontextualize, dynamize and re-present regional culture creatively, realistically and in line with the 
times. 

2. Reviving national culture with an integrative and responsive character for the formation of a dynamic 
and responsive Indonesian nation. 

3. National integrity as a guide to national resilience in the field of socio-culture. 
4. Development of religious life in a tolerant, open and cultured manner. 
5. Democratic national education to form people of character and culture who are nationalist and 

responsive to the times. 
e. Defense and Security Development 

Realizing the condition of the nation's deterrence based on awareness of state defense (patriotism) which 
contains the ability to maintain the stability of a dynamic state security defense, carry out development and 
defend state sovereignty by warding off all forms of threats.  

As illustrated in the Indonesian philosophy of war: "The Indonesian people love peace, but they love 
independence more". Defense and security must be able to realize preparedness and state defense efforts that 
contain resilience, ability and strength to ensure the continuity of national development and the survival of the 
nation and state based on Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution. 

4. Conclusions  
Based on the explanation of force development to face the threat of irregular warfare and hybrid warfare in 
Indonesia above, the author draws several conclusions, namely: 
1. Irregular warfare and hybrid warfare are defined as threats that must be taken seriously by a country that 

also have an impact on the sovereignty and integrity of a country. 
2. The development of irregular warfare threats continues to emerge as an integral part of the COVID-19 

pandemic. In addition, hybrid warfare also continues to overshadow Indonesia with cyber warfare as one 
of the factual threats. 

3. Cases of irregular warfare and hybrid warfare in Indonesia must be used as a threat projection with 
careful strategic preparation starting from to shape, to respond, and to prepare both in terms of budget 
and human resource readiness. 

4. Indonesia as a country that has a strategic location and attractiveness of various spectrums needs to 
always prepare itself by implementing relevant strategies in accordance with the capital that is already 
owned in the Indonesian nation itself, this is needed to avoid the occurrence of national disunity due to 
irregular warfare that enters the joints of state life. 

 



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Declaration of competing interest  
The authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any 
material discussed in this paper. 

Funding information  
No funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. 

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