microsoft word 130-133_212.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 3, january 2022, pp.130-133 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id212 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 130 analysis of importance priority to be studied on igniter system of 450 caliber x rocket a. zaldiansyah1*, n. widianto2, y. h. yogaswara3, y. ruyat4 1,2,3,4 faculty of defense technology, indonesia defense university, indonesia *corresponding author e-mail: zaldi.msn@gmail.com received nov. 28, 2022 revised dec. 29 , 2022 accepted dec. 30 , 2022 abstract a rocket is a flying platform that gets energy from the combustion process that performs a thrust that is large enough to reach hypersonic speed. it becomes quite vital considering the speed of the combustion process in double configuration propellant type, which is r=7 mm/s. the ignition of the propellant is supported by a squib as a conductor of electricity to the igniter which will then conduct heat to the propellant in the rocket motor. the main focus of this research is to analyze the development potential of the x rocket igniter system. this research uses a quantitative method approach, with the research analysis using a quality function deployment (qfd) approach. based on the benchmark values obtained from each supporting instrument used in the 450 caliber x rocket igniter system, the results were obtained on a priority scale for the development of a rocket igniter system as an effort to overcome the igniter from malfunctions when the operating system is running. the results show that the instruments that need to be developed are the squib, pyrotechnics, emergency button, ground system, and wiring system. © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: rocket, igniter system, qfd, malfunction, instrument. 1. introduction today, the development of military technology is increasingly being intensified. in indonesia, it has a road map of seven national priority programs related to weapons technology. [1] the road map contains seven priority programs for the national defense industry, including rockets and propellants which are one of the main focuses in research and development. there is ongoing research, namely the r han 450 mm rocket which is deemed necessary and requires a lot of research in its development. procurement of missile and rocket is an important stage, in order to fulfil a minimum basic strength or known as minimum essential force (mef) in indonesia. [2] rocket is a flying platform that gets energy from the combustion process that perform a thrust. [3] the resulting force is also large enough to reach hypersonic speed, so that the reactive impulse will be proportional to the reaction, this is in accordance with newton's third law of motion. [4] based on research by ganda samosir in 2011 on the propulsion of rx.320 rocket, [5] although it has a high flash point, this is quite vital considering the speed of the combustion process in double configuration propellant type, which is r=7 mm/s. the ignition of the propellant is supported by a squib as a conductor of electricity to the igniter which conduct heat to the propellant in the rocket motor. [6] squib is part of the igniter of a rocket motor to ignite by electric a primary composition of the squib and some pyrotechnics. squib is an electric ignition wick. [7] depend on the speed of electricity flow on the squib, efforts are needed in conditioning the flow of electricity contained in the squib, so that an igniter can avoid dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.130-133 131 static electricity and unwanted disturbances. therefore, there is a need to analyze importance priority to be studied on of the rocket igniter system to avoid malfunctions of the system. 2. research method this research was conducted using a quantitative method approach using a quality function deployment (qfd) method. qfd is a method to transform qualitative user demands into quantitative parameters, the user requirements data that has been obtained is interpreted to find relationships and interrelationships between existing data descriptions. [8] thus, the data obtained in the form of scores on the design characteristics of each instrument, and a priority scale is obtained. 3. results and discussions 3.1. user requirements user requirements explain the needs desired by users who in this study are the firing igniter team from the rocket technology center (pustekroket) brin in indonesia. in this operation there are several main points of user requirements that are desired for the purposes of the igniter system, which refers to the x rocket as outlined in the list of requirements (lor), as follows: table 1. list of requirements (lor) instruments user requirements urgency power supply electric current requirement of 1 ampere and voltage requirement of 20 volt 4 switch connector an emergency system is needed in the electrical panel box to be able to immediately cut off the current when something unexpected happens 5 cable proper cable are needed for 1 ampere and 20 volts, and have low resistance so that the time delay in igniter operation can be cut 4 grounding the grounding system required when operating the igniter is integrated with the firing system, and is expected to have a minimal resistance value, so that the static electricity contained in the wiring can be wasted towards ground 3 casing the main casing needs are the melting point of 600°c, the distribution of combustion is even, and the casing melts instantly 5 squib it takes a squib that has a long shelf life, and is not easily oxidized at room temperature 3 squib explosives requires high calorific value, low flameability 4 propellant material it requires a high calorific value, with the same flameability as that produced by an igniter flame 4 igniter explosives requires high calorific value, low flameability 4 description for table 1: • score 1: not important. • score 2: less important. • score 3: quite important. • score 4: high importance. • score 5: very high importance. based on the table above, data on user requirements related to the igniter system are obtained according to user interviews. the points of need are discussed for each component, in order to make it easier for the author to classify needs and their level of importance. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.130-133 132 3.2. benchmark instruments based on table 1 list of requirements (lor), then the relation matrix stage is carried out. where the relation matrix is the match between the lor points and the processing of the design characteristics made. there are 2 processes at this stage, namely providing benchmark values, and a priority scale of design characteristics, to determine the development potential of each instrument supporting the igniter system on the x rocket. in making the relation matrix, there is a level of conformity which is divided into 3 with descriptions of weak linkage (1), moderate correlation (3), and high correlation (9). the relationship matrix was created to determine the relationship between the level of conformity between user needs and the characteristics of the design made. this criterion is based on the lor compiled and analyzed using quality function deployment (qfd). then the relationship between user requirements (list of requirements) and design characteristics is arranged in a relation matrix. the following relationship data are shown in table 2. table 2. relation matrix descriptionod table 2: a. score 1: weak relationship. b. score 3: medium relationship. c. score 9: high relationship. based on table 2. relation matrix and performance benchmarks, the values that have priority scale numbers 1 and 2 are squib with 70.11%, and pyrotechnics with 69.35%. there are also emergency buttons, cables and ground that have a priority scale value of 3, 4, and 5, each of which has a value of 60.9%, 60.15%, and 60.02%, respectively. based on the benchmark values obtained from each of the supporting instruments used in the 450 caliber x rocket igniter system, the results of the priority scale are obtained for developing the rocket igniter system to list of requirement l ev el o f in te re st design characteristics p o w er s u p p ly c a b le g ro u n d c a si n g s q u ib p y ro te ch n ic e m er g en cy b u tt o n 2 volt and 1 ampere 4 9 9 9 1 9 1 9 circuit breaker 5 9 9 9 1 3 3 9 low resistance 3 3 9 9 1 3 3 9 melting points and even distribution of burning 5 1 1 1 9 3 9 3 long storage time 4 3 1 1 3 9 9 3 high heating value 4 1 1 1 1 9 9 3 high sensitivity value 4 1 9 9 1 9 9 3 final score (level of importance x design characteristic) 115 157 157 77 183 181 159 benchmark performance (%) 44.06 60.15 60.02 29.05 70.11 69.35 60.9 priority scale 6 4 5 7 1 2 3 dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.130-133 133 avoid from malfunctions. the results show that the instruments that need to be studied more are the squib, pyrotechnics, emergency button, ground system and wiring system. 4. conclusions analysis of importance priority to be studied on the igniter system of 450 caliber x rocket has been conducted, the results of the identification of the need for an igniter system for the x rocket were carried out with a list of requirements, to ensure that no required requirements were missed. the results obtained in the form of user requirements data which includes squib with a final score of 183 with a benchmark performance value (bp) of 70.11%, pyrotechnics with a final score of 181 and a bp value of 69.35%, emergency button with a final score of 159 and a bp value of 60.9%, cables with a final score of 157 with a bp value of 60.15%, ground with a final score of 157 with a bp value of 60.02%, a power supply with a final score of 115 with a bp value of 44.06%, and casing with a final score of 77 with a bp value of 29.05%. the value obtained becomes a reference as an effort in conducting research and development, to avoid the igniter from malfunctions when the system is running. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] bppi. k. " indonesian defense white paper", ministry of defense of the republic of indonesia, 2015. [2] ministry of defense of the republic of indonesia, " regulation of the minister of defense, alignment of minimum essential force main components ", 19 (650), 4-35, 2017. [3] a. irfansyah, "conceptual design of the rx-1220 rocket-based air defense missile aerodynamics system", 2020. [4] r. h. triharjanto, a. riyadl, l. marian, i. e. putro, "initial design and development strategy for lapan cruise missiles", lapan journal, 2008. [5] g. samosir, "calculation and design of igniter based on rocket propulsion calculation (case study of rx-320 rocket)", journal of aerospace technology, vol. 9 no. 2, december, 2011. [6] b. r. briody, "electrical current requirements of model rocket igniters", 2000. [7] e. lestariana, "squib as electric ignition wick", journal of aerospace, 9(2), 46-50. 2008. [8] l. cohen, "quality function deployment: how to make qfd work for you", addison-wesley publishing company, boston, 1995. microsoft word azhar.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 3, january 2022, pp.101-105 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id208 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 101 concept of military asset management system (mams) in indonesian national armed forces zairullah azhar1*, wahyu sri setiani2, khevinadya ramadhani runtu3, y. h. yogaswara4 1,2,3,4weaponry technology department, faculty of defense technology, republic of indonesia defense university, indonesia *corresponding author e-mail: zairullah.azhar@tp.idu.ac.id1 received nov. 11, 2022 revised dec. 1, 2022 accepted dec. 1, 2022 abstract the internet of things (iot) is a very fast-growing technology and has a huge impact on our daily life, including military performance. in the military, iot known as the internet of military things (iomt) or internet of battlefield things (iobt) has the function create network communication to increase readiness in the military and can apply to all aspects of military asset management and uses the interconnection, real-time, and intelligent innovation of the iot technology to build a military asset management system. the research purpose is to analyze the military asset management system (mams) in indonesian national armed forces. the research applies a qualitative research methodology. the literature review method and the interviews were used to obtain data and analyze to describe or explain the phenomenon of problems with the maintenance, repair, and overhaul (mro) and military asset management system (mams) in supporting the operation of the alutsista indonesian national armed forces. the research result shows that the integration of asset management in the indonesian national armed forces is still not centralized, which it means needs more time to collect material asset data and of course, will impact the readiness of the military. in this case, complex aerial mission simulation (cams) can be a reference for indonesian national armed forces to develop a military asset management system (mams). © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: military asset management systems (mams), internet of things (iot), complex aerial mission simulation (cams) 1. introduction indonesia as a country with a strategic location is an attraction for other countries with various interests. the influence of the strategic environment, both nationally, regionally, and globally, makes indonesia must always alert to threats that may occur. this situation of course must be a concern, especially in the defense sector. uncertainty of threats that may occur, makes the defense sector must always be ready to deal with them. the readiness and effectiveness of the armed forces are highly dependent on the state of its equipment in terms of availability and reliability [1] one thing that particularly challenging in the defense environment is readiness management because it’s related to the complexity of the weapons systems and large mixed military fleets. efficient fleet maintenance management requires the ability to manage the flow of information between forces to reach readiness. in case to prepare the readiness of the military force, we can take advantage of the use of the internet of things (iot). iot is a concept where an object can the ability in terms of communicating via a network, such as a process of transferring data without any communication process carried out between humans (humans to humans) or between humans to system devices such as computers or a controller. although this concept was dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.101-105 102 less popular until 1999, iot has been in development for decades. the internet of things or often called iot is an idea where all objects in the real world can communicate with each other as part of an integrated system using the internet network. iot devices consist of sensors as data collection media, internet connections as communication media, and servers as information collectors received by sensors and for analysis. internet of things technology builds the work process of a system that can be wider, the range of reach is also wider, and the data processing and data analysis of a system is also getting better. this iot technology supports the work of the system as a whole including components or elements in terms of facilitating the process of data information flow. in the military, iot is known as the internet of military things (iomt) or the internet of battlefield things (iobt). the purpose of iomt and iobt is to create network communication. internet of military things (iomt) dan internet of battlefield things (iobt) technology is applied to all aspects of military asset management and uses the interconnection, real-time, and intelligent innovation of the iot technology to build a military asset management system. according to the pas-551 [2] standard on asset management from the british standards institute, asset management is defined as: “systematic and coordinated activities and practices through which an organization optimally and sustainably manages its assets and asset systems, their associated performance, risks and expenditures over their life cycles to achieve its organizational strategic plan”. based on this definition, of course in the military, asset management has an important role to develop a list of all the organization’s assets and verify this list with what is in the field. various countries have utilized the internet of military things (iomt) and the internet of battlefield things (iobt) in asset management systems. one of them is the french military through the dassault system developed complex aerial mission simulation (cams)[3]. cams is a dassault-made tool developed for industrial purposes to technical optimization for industrial roadmap choices, operational requirement analysis for export contracts, and product robust and intuitive feedback on studies. cams is a technical and operational simulation tool, that focuses on the mission level and deals with the main mission phases. it's designed to study the global efficiency of an aerial combat system, within credible operational context survivability, lethality, and effectiveness. cams will influence the decision-making related to logistics and deployment, also cams is used to find out what the best weapons will choose for shooting enemy fighter aircraft. the benefit of cams definitely would increase the readiness of the defense force[4]. cams can calculate both the readiness of the material used in war and the strategy and use of weapons that have been calculated and simulated in detail. cams can also serve as military asset management for the french army. cams can also serve as military asset management for the french army. based on current conditions in indonesia. the use of iot technology in the military field is still not felt enough. especially on the asset management system. with the use of technology that has been used in various countries. indonesia can take advantage of iot technology in an asset management system for defense equipment. in this research, references in developing a military asset management system (mams) only focus on cams that have been developed by dassault systems. this research was conducted to describe the conceptual design related to the asset management scheme within the indonesian national armed forces and provide an overview of how the military asset management system is implemented in the indonesian national armed forces. 2. research method the research was conducted by applying a qualitative research methodology. qualitative research refers to analysis that produces findings obtained through data collected by various means, including interviews, observations, documents or archives, and tests [5] the literature review method and the interviews were used to obtain data and analyze to describe or explain the phenomenon of problems with the maintenance, repair, and overhaul (mro) and military asset management system (mams) in supporting the operation of the alutsista indonesian national armed forces. interviews were applied to obtain information directly. in this study, the informants interviewed by the researchers are the director of dgt of dassault aviation. the informant will be asked for their opinion regarding the complex aerial mission simulation (cams). furthermore, other informants will be asked for their opinion regarding the maintenance, repair, and overhaul (mro) and military asset management system (mams) in the indonesian national armed forces, representative of the indonesian army, the indonesian navy, and the indonesian air force. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.101-105 103 meanwhile, literature studies were applied referring to the maintenance, repair, and overhaul (mro) system in the indonesian national armed forces. literature studies are carried out by reviewing previous research journals and then reviewing and discussing them. the results and discussion were obtained by collecting various data from references to the results of interviews and relevant journal reviews. furthermore, the concept implementation of the military asset management system (mams) was made, and then the mams can help the indonesian national armed force in carrying out its operational duties. 3. results and discussion military asset management system (mams) is needed to calculate and analyses what military strength is if one day there is a war. the command operation can find out how many materials are ready to use and not suitable for use in real time. military asset management systems (mams) are directly related to inventory management, mro management, and predictive maintenance analysis. the diagram of military asset management can be seen below in figure 1. figure 1. diagram military asset management in the current condition of the indonesian national armed forces, asset management is still not centralized, so it takes time to collect material asset data. this can hinder the analysis of military strength. military asset management systems (mams) are needed that are integrated between units and can be monitored in real time. not only material assets that are ready to be used, but can monitor assets that are under maintenance. the maintenance system is carried out in each force. the material maintenance system in the indonesian army is arranged in stages and tiers based on the level of material maintenance and the level of the implementing unit for the material maintenance task. material maintenance as maintenance and prevention or organic maintenance is carried out by the unit using the material. furthermore, maintenance at the field level is carried out by the maintenance unit at the military regiment command (korem) level, namely the field workshop (benglap). maintenance at the regional level is the responsibility of the regional workshop (bengrah) which is the maintenance unit at the kodam level. the highest level of maintenance, namely maintenance at the central level, is carried out by the central workshop and equipment (bengpuspal) [6]. in the navy, maintenance is carried out in stages. where is the organic level maintenance (harnik) which is supported by the ability of the crew, materials, and equipment on board. maintenance of the medium level (harmen) of this stage of difficulty requires the ability of experts, materials, and equipment on board so that it must be supported by the warship maintenance and repair facility (fasharkan). maintenance at the depot level (hardepo) with difficulty levels increasingly requires the assistance of foreign workers, spare parts, and materials that are not supported by the warship maintenance and repair facility (fasharkan) so it needs to be dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.101-105 104 carried out by the shipyard and in increasing operational capabilities in the context of extending the service life based on the results of the study. enhanced capabilities include modernization (when the ship is in the program's life cycle period) and life of use (when the ship has exceeded its life cycle). this maintenance phase is carried out by the warship maintenance and repair facility (fasharkan), national shipyard (galkapnas), and maritime service industry (injasmar) [7]. the material maintenance system in the indonesian air force is carried out by the air force material maintenance command (koharmatau). the koharmatau has the task of preparing and carrying out the maintenance of the indonesian air force alutsista to support operations and training activities. in carrying out its duties and functions, the koharmatau has maintenance depots as implementing units, namely the maintenance depot (depohar) 10, depohar 20, depohar 30, depohar 40, depohar 50, depohar 60, and depohar 70. depohar functions as the implementing unit for the koharmatau or is directly domiciled under the commander of the koharmatau. each of these depohars is tasked with carrying out corrective and restorative maintenance, material production, and supplying the level of supplies for weapons, guided missiles, ammunition/explosives as well as carrying out the demolition of weapons and ammunition/explosives. in carrying out its duties, maintenance depot (depohar) is assisted by several maintenance units including the maintenance unit [8]. current conditions, material data that is in a condition of maintenance and care is still in written form. not yet in the form of an integrated system with each other. to improve this, the implementation of the military asset management system (mams) is very important. data related to material maintenance and care is input by the maintenance and maintenance implementing unit, both at the organic, middle, and upper levels. the module diagram concept of the military asset management system can be seen below in figure 2. figure 2. concept military asset management system data retrieval is carried out in each force where maintenance data are taken from organic, intermediate, and depot units. it is centralized in the maintenance command database. as for asset management data, it is taken from the operation unit and centralized in the main command database. data that has been centralized on the maintenance and operation command is centralized back to the headquarters database of each force. furthermore, it is centralized in the server of the military asset management system. in the centralized database and management system, there is some information such as mro management, asset database, inventory management, and predictive maintenance analysis. the input data is in the form of field reports and data logging so that the data can be monitored. the military asset management server is dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.101-105 105 located at the tni headquarters and the data is protected because the data contains strategic data, so we need a good data security system so as not to get hacked. data that has been centralized in the military asset management system can be directly monitored in realtime so that if a strength analysis is needed at any time, it can be done quickly and accurately because the data used is real-time data. so, the military asset management system (mams), can help the indonesian national armed forces in carrying out its operational duties. 4. conclusions the integration of asset management in the indonesian national armed forces is still not centralized, which means needs more time to collect material asset data and of course, will impact the readiness of the military. military asset management system (mams) is an integrated system both in the indonesian navy, indonesian army, and indonesian air force which contains data on assets in the form of weapons, tanks, planes, ships, and other platforms. also, military asset management system contains the conditions for the platform and this is only used internally to prepare strength readiness. the equipment asset management system under the iot technology has the advantages of a large amount of information, comprehensive interoperability, and high data processing efficiency. the real-time query of data, real-time reports, and performance evaluation automatically generate a comprehensive and dynamic monitoring system for the military. in this case, complex aerial mission simulation (cams) can be a reference for indonesian national armed forces to develop a military asset management system (mams). acknowledgments the author would like to thank the committee of the overseas study program 2022 from the defense technology faculty of the republic of indonesia defense for their facilitation in team formation, data search, and encouragement to publish this paper. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. references [1] p. perera, s. nanayakkara, and a. perera, “application of proper asset management methodology and technology in defence sector of sri lanka”, international conference on advances in computer science, electronics and communication technologies, pp. 33–41, 2014. [2] british standards institute, british standards institution’s publicly available specification for the optimised management of physical assets, the institution of asset management, united kingdom, 2011. [3] joel rode, “tactical preparation mission system,” dassault system, france, 2022. [4] faculty of defense technology, “results of overseas study program,” republic of indonesian defense university, jakarta, 2022. [5] anselm strauss, juliet corbin, dasar dasar penelitian kualitatif, pustaka pelajar, yogyakarta, 2003. [6] u. santoso, r. widodo putro, and s. munthe, “the system strategy of material maintenance directorate equipment army (ditpalad) in the modernization defense equipment of indonesian national army (tni ad),”,” jurnal strategi pertahanan darat, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 91–110, 2020. [7] g. ketut, h. desember, i. nengah putra a, and d. dar, “the strategy of maintenance, repair and overhaul (mro) for the indonesian navy ships to support the readiness of sea operations in fasharkan lantamal v surabaya,” jurnal teknologi daya gerak, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 96–114, 2020. [8] m. kemalsyah, d. a. dadang, and p. strategi pertahanan udara fakultas strategi pertahanan, “the influence of soldiers professionalism and maintenance facilities on operational readiness of fighter missile in the 65 maintenance unit 60 maintenance depot madiun”, jurnal strategi pertahanan udara, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1–20, 2020. microsoft word popravljeno.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 4, january 2023, pp.8-14 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v4.id222 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 8 potential of natural fiber composite materials for bulletproof vest applications ilham rizqi aminudin1*, sovian aritonang2 1,2 the republic of indonesia defense university, faculty of defense technology, motion power technology, indonesia. *corresponding author e-mail: ilham.aminudin@tp.idu.ac.id received jan. 7, 2023 revised jan. 12, 2023 accepted feb. 21, 2023 abstract the bulletproof vest material that is often used is a composite material. composites are a mixture of two or more material elements, with different mechanical properties, which aim to obtain new materials that have better mechanical properties than the constituent materials. one alternative mixture of materials in composite materials is to use natural fibers as a substitute for kevlar fibers. in indonesia, which has a tropical climate, natural fibers are very easy to obtain from various kinds of plants found in indonesia. along with the many plants obtained, a lot of waste is also produced because of this. so research was conducted on the utilization of the potential of natural fibers for alternative composites. with the experimental method, from the results of the experiment, the results obtained from the five natural fibers that have been discussed, namely pineapple leaf fiber, water hyacinth fiber, bark fiber, hemp fiber, and bamboo fiber, only pineapple leaf fiber has not met the national institute of justice (nij) standard, while the other four natural fibers have met the nij standard for bulletproof vests. © the author 2023. published by arda. keywords: natural fiber; composite for bulletproof vest; mechanical properties; ballistic test; composite alternatives 1. introduction one of the needs of indonesian national armed forces (tni) personnel in the battlefield in addition to weapons to fight, tni personnel also need personal protective equipment, one of the personal protective equipment that is often used on the battlefield is a bulletproof vest. inside the bulletproof vest, there is a material coating the body that aims to reduce the amount of kinetic energy generated due to projectile penetration [1]. the bulletproof vest material that is often used is a composite material. composites are a mixture of two or more material elements, with different mechanical properties, which aim to obtain new materials that have better mechanical properties than the constituent materials. mechanical properties that can be improved are strength, flexibility, and low density [2]. composites also have their advantages when compared to other alternative materials, such as being stronger, lighter, economical, and environmentally friendly [3]. one of the alternative mixture materials in composite materials is to use natural fibers as a substitute for kevlar fibers. in indonesia, which has a tropical climate, natural fibers are very easy to obtain from various kinds of plants found in indonesia. along with the many plants obtained, a lot of waste is also produced because of this. nisa's research [4] explained the potential to recycle natural materials for composite mixtures in body armor applications. from this research, it is known that various kinds of natural materials can be utilized as waste to be used as an alternative composite for bulletproof vest applications. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.8-14 9 2. research method this research focuses on descriptive qualitative research collecting existing experimental results and concluding what is the best result to be applied to bulletproof vests, while the natural materials to be discussed include bamboo fiber, hemp fiber, bark fiber, water hyacinth fiber, pineapple leaf fiber. for mechanical testing the standard used is astm and in ballistic tests using the national institute of justice (nij) 0108.01 ballistic resistant protective materials and nij 0101.06 armor protection levels standards. table 1. nij standard ballistic protection [1,13] level nij standard test bullets bullets mass (g) velocity (m/s) i 0108.01 22 lrhv lead 2.6 320 0108.01 38 special rn lead 10.2 259 iia 0101.06 9mm fmj rn 8.0 373 0101.06 0.40 s & w fmj rn 11.7 352 ii 0101.06 9mm fmj rn 8.0 398 0101.06 0.357 magnum jsp 10.0 436 iiia 0101.06 0.357 sig fmj fn 8.1 448 0101.06 0.44 magnum sjhp 15.6 436 iii 0101.06 7.62mm nato fmj 9.6 847 iv 0101.06 0.30 calibre m2 ap 10.8 878 3. results and discussion results and discussion of the research that has been carried out, using experimental methods with mechanical tests and ballistic tests. 3.1 pineapple leaf fiber (plf) one of the plants that thrive in indonesia is pineapple fruit, the selling value of pineapple fruit in indonesia is also very good, besides that, pineapple leaf waste has no selling value, so it can be called waste. the use of pineapple leaves itself has been much done, such as the use of pineapple leaf fibers for composite material mixtures. like the research conducted by rahmatullah, et al (2021) [5] in this study, particle composites composed of epoxy with reinforcement in the form of hollow glass microsphere (hgm) and pineapple leaf fibers were used. the same percentage of matrix volume ratio and fiber, namely pineapple fiber 10%, epoxy resin 74% and hgm 16%, using a size of 15x15x2cm3, with thickness variations of 10 mm, 15 mm, and 20 mm. with nij standard level iia testing standards for test ammunition of 9 mm fmj, nominal bullet mass of 8.0 g, minimum required bullet of velocity 365 m/s. table 2. mechanical properties of pineapple leaf fiber [6,15] properties tensile strength (mpa) elongation (%) young’s modulus(gpa) hardness (hb) pineapple leaf fiber 126.60 2.2 4.405 20.41 from the test results of the test specimens in figure 1 with thicknesses of 10 mm, 15 mm and 20 mm, the results show that the bullet can penetrate the specimen with penetration depth values of 58 mm, 10 mm and 4 mm, respectively. according to the nij 0101.06 standard, the bulletproof vest failure criteria seen from the penetration aspect should not exceed the thickness of the vest or should not penetrate the vest. it is concluded that pineapple leaf fiber still cannot meet the criteria to become an alternative material for bulletproof vests. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.8-14 10 figure 1. ballistic testing results (a) 10mm thickness (b) 15mm thickness (c) 20mm thickness [5] 3.2 water hyacinth fiber (whf) water hyacinth is a difficult-to-control aquatic weed that can live in rivers, swamps, and lakes. one alternative to utilizing it is as a composite material. in hanafi’s research (2020) [3] water hyacinth is utilized as an alternative material for bulletproof vest composites. this research uses a volume fraction of 30% fiber, 70% polyester, and a mold with a size of 15 x 15 cm thickness of 10 mm. the ballistic test used a 4.5 mm caliber angina rifle with a shooting distance of 5 m. there are 2 variations used, namely specimen 1 unidirectional and layered fiber arrangement, and specimen 2 vertical and horizontal layered fiber arrangement. tabel 3. mechanical properties of water hyacinth fiber [7,14] properties tensile strength (mpa) elongation (%) young’s modulus (gpa) hardness (hb) water hyacinth fiber 11.4 40.2 0.443 133 figure 2. (a) vertical directional arrangement (b) vertical and horizontal multi-layered arrangement [3] dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.8-14 11 the results of ballistic testing on the test specimens, specimen 1 and specimen 2 have a panel condition that is not penetrated by bullets at a speed of 229.81 m/s at a distance of 5 m with a caliber of 4.5 mm. from these results, specimens 1 and 2 are included in the nij 0108.01 level i standard. 3.3 bark fiber similar to the previous salak is one of the fruits with high selling value in indonesia, along with the salak fronds that are produced from each harvest into waste that has no selling value. one way to overcome this is by utilizing it as an alternative composite material for bulletproof vests. as in kamal's research (2021) [8] this research uses volume fractions with specimen 1: 70% resin, 20% kevlar, 10% filler silicon carbide (sic), silicon carbide (sic) is a compound of silicon and carbon that when joined together forms an extremely hard ceramic that is widely used for applications that require high durability, such as car brakes, car clutches, and bulletproof vests, specimen 2: 70% resin, 10% filler (sic), 10% salak frond fiber, 10% kevlar, specimen 3: 70% resin, 10% filler (sic), 10% salak frond fiber, 10% kevlar and al 7075. for ballistic tests using nij standard 0101.06 level iia and ii with distances of 5 m, 10 m, 25 m, and 30 m, with a firing speed of 373 m/s at a distance of 25 m, and 398 m/s at a distance of 5 m. tabel 4. mechanical properties of bark fiber [8] properties tensile strength (mpa) elongation (%) young’s modulus (gpa) hardness (hb) bark fiber 21.46 0.12 0.198 19.64 figure 3. specimen ballistic testing [8] the results of ballistic testing of specimen 1 with a distance of 5 m and 10 m bullets penetrated the test specimen, while at a distance of 25 m and 30 m, the bullets fired did not penetrate the test specimen. it can be said that specimen 1 meets the nij level iia standard. for specimen 2 from all testing distances the bullet successfully penetrated the test specimen, it can be said that specimen 2 does not meet the nij level iia standard. as for specimen 3 at all distances the bullet did not penetrate the test specimen, so it can be said that specimen 3 meets the nij level iia and ii standards. it can be concluded that specimen 1: 70% resin, 10% filler silicon carbide (sic) and 20% kevlar, complies with standard nij level iia and specimen 3: 70% resin, 10% filler (sic), 10% salak frond fiber, 10% kevlar and al 7075, meets standard nij level iia and ii. 3.4 hemp fiber one of the basic ingredients of bulletproof vests is glass fiber. in indonesia glass fiber material is still obtained from abroad. to minimize imported materials to reduce costs and increase, one way to find materials to replace glass fiber with minimal costs but with the same function, one material that is alternative to glass fiber for bulletproof vests is hemp fiber. hemp fiber is the basic material for making paper and clothing. the advantage of jute fiber compared to glass fiber is that it is more environmentally friendly and affordable. like the research conducted by setyawan (2020) [10] which examined hemp fiber for bulletproof vests. the study used a mixture ratio of 70% epoxy and 30% jute fiber with 4 variations, namely specimen 1 woven, specimen 2 horizontal, specimen 3 random specimens 4 tilted 45o with a specimen size of 20 x 20 cm. for ballistic tests using the nij 0108.01 standard caliber 38, speed 259 m/s with a distance of 10 m. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.8-14 12 tabel 5. mechanical properties of hemp fiber [9] properties tensile strength (mpa) elongation (%) young’s modulus (gpa) hardness (hb) hemp fiber 310-750 2-4 20-41 84.6 figure 4. (a) webbing specimen 1 (b) horizontal specimen 2 (c) random specimen 3 (d) sloping specimen 4 [10] figure 5. specimen after ballistic testing [10] the results of ballistic testing using the nij 0108.01 standard includes bullet deformation and whether or not the specimen is penetrated when hit by a bullet. in ballistic testing of the 4 specimens, no bullets penetrated the specimen, with the best result being specimen 1 in the form of webbing. it can be concluded that hemp fiber meets the nij 0108.01 level i standard. 3.5 bamboo fiber the main material in making bulletproof vest material is steel with a high density, so the weight of the bulletproof material is high which causes users to be unable to move freely. composites are materials consisting of two or more elements that have good mechanical properties and low density, so they can be used as an alternative to steel for bulletproof materials. arman (2022) utilizes bamboo fiber as a bulletproof material with a mixed matrix of epoxy resin/hardener and the addition of 20ml ceramic granules, with a 200mm x 100mm x 10mm mold. for ballistic testing using nij standard 0101.06 level iia, with shooting distances of 2 m, 2.5 m, and 3 m. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.8-14 13 tabel 6. mechanical properties of hemp fiber bamboo fiber [12] properties tensile strength (mpa) elongation (%) young’s modulus (gpa) hardness (hb) bamboo fiber 206.2 29,2% 13.1 33 figure 5. bamboo fiber specimen after ballistic testing (a) 2 m (b) 2,5 m (c) 3 m [11] from the ballistic test results, it can be seen in figure 5 that none of the bullets penetrated the test specimens, so it can be concluded that the test results have met the nij 01.01.06 standard regarding the depth of ballistic penetration of composite materials. 3.6 discussion from the results of the data that has been obtained from the studies that have been carried out, the five natural fibers used for alternative composites for bulletproof vest applications can be categorized as follows: tabel 7. classification of natural materials based on nij standard properties velocity (m/s) nij level reference pineapple leaf fiber (plf) 365 rahmatullah, et al (2021) water hyacinth fiber (whf) 229.81 i hanafi, et al (2020) bark fiber 398 iia & ii kamal, et al (2021) hemp fiber 259 i setyawan, et al (2020) bamboo fiber 373 iia arman, et al (2022) 4. conclusions from the results of the research and discussion above, it can be concluded that the use of natural fibers for alternative composites has been widely carried out to minimize the waste produced, at the same time natural materials for alternative composites are cheaper and environmentally friendly. of the five natural fibers that have been discussed, namely pineapple leaf fiber, water hyacinth fiber, salak frond fiber, hemp fiber, and bamboo fiber, only pineapple leaf fiber has not met the nij standard, while the other four natural fibers have met the nij standard for bulletproof vest. so that it can be applied to composite materials for making bulletproof vests for indonesian national armed forces (tni) personnel. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.8-14 14 declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] standard nij-0101.04, "armor protection levels", u.s. department of justice, national institute of justice, 2000. [2] a. risky, r. efendi, "initial study of bamboo fiber-reinforced composite material with epoxy resin/hardener matrix as bulletproof material", jurnal teknik mesin indonesia, 17.2. 87-92. 2022. [3] b. hanifi, q. iqbal, h. purwanto, i. syafa’at, "effect of variation in water hyacinth (eichhornia crassipes) fiber arrangement with polyester resin as an alternative composite material for bulletproof vest", majalah ilmiah momentum, 2020. [4] l. l. a. nisa, m. te. manawan, "study of the potential development of composite materials reinforced with natural materials to be applied as body armor" jurnal teknologi daya gerak 5.1, pp. 71-82, 2022. [5] g. rahmatullah, b. mutiara, j. rollastin, "experimental study of pineapple leaf fiber reinforced composite materials in ballistic testing", seminar nasional inovasi teknologi terapan, no. 01, 2021. [6] r. m. n. arib, "mechanical properties of pineapple leaf fibre reinforced polypropylene composites", materials & design, pp. 391-396, 2006. [7] m. asrofi, "mechanical properties of a water hyacinth nanofiber cellulose reinforced thermoplastic starch bionanocomposite: effect of ultrasonic vibration during processing", fibers, 2018. [8] k. r. armando, m. a. ghofur, "ballistic test analysis of salak frond fiber composite with epoxy resin and silicon carbide (sic) using vacuum bag method" prosiding seminar nasional sains teknologi dan inovasi indonesia (senastindo), vol. 3, 2021. [9] a. shahzad, "hemp fiber and its composites a review," journal of composite materials, 46 (8), pp. 973-986, 2012. [10] s. r. teguh, s. riyadi, "analysis of hemp fiber structure variation of epoxy matrix composite on ballistic and bending test strength", majalah ilmiah momentum, 16(2), 2020. [11] a. risky, r. efendi, "initial study of bamboo fiber-reinforced composite material with epoxy resin/hardener matrix as bulletproof material," jurnal teknik mesin indonesia 17(2), pp. 87-92, 2022. [12] z. li, c. p. liu, t. yu, "laminate of reformed bamboo and extruded fiber-reinforced cementitious plate", journal of materials in civil engineering, 14(5), pp. 359-365, 2002. [13] standard nij 0108.01, ballistic resistant protective materials, u.s. department of justice, national institute of justice, 1985. [14] n. h. nawal et al, "charpy impact behavior of water hyacinth fiber based polymer composite," journal of material science & manufacturing technology, 2(2), pp. 1-13, 2017. [15] h. sosiati, "characterization of the mechanical features of nanas fiber/epoxic composite with addition of brass fibers and mgo as an alternative material for motorcycle brake shamps," undergraduate thesis, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta, 2018. [16] a. b. prabowo, "analysis of the effect of hemp and fiberglass fiber with brass (cu-zn) grain variations mesh 40, 50, 60 on the hardness, wear, and coefficient of friction of brake linings”, dissertation, universitas muhammadiyah surakarta, 2019. [17] a. gupta, "effect of different parameters on mechanical and erosion wear behavior of bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy composites" international journal of polymer science, 2011. microsoft word 1-7_216.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 4, january 2023, pp.1-7 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v4.id216 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 1 analysis of spbe and swcsf measurement instruments using flesch reading ease for state security meylia susiana dewi putri1*, rudy ag gultom2, achmad farid wadjdi3 1,2,3 republic of indonesia defense university, faculty of defense technology, indonesia *corresponding author e-mail: meylia.putri@idu.ac.id received dec. 8, 2022 revised jan. 3, 2023 accepted jan. 7, 2023 abstract the world has transitioned into a digital era where both individuals and governments require technology and the internet. the number of cybercrimes perpetrated online is impacted by the rising usage of computers and the internet. a measurement instrument that can stop cybercrime is necessary. the six-ware cyber security framework (swcsf) and the electronic-based government system (spbe) are two measurement tools that are expected to be able to stop cybercrime from happening in an agency or organization. but are all people able to use these two instruments? this research was conducted to answer this question by analyzing readability on the spbe and swcsf instruments using the flesch reading ease method. the result show that the two instruments were extremely difficult for respondents of all grade levels to comprehend, with the exception of those at the university level or individuals who worked with computers, the internet, and other technologies. © the author 2023. published by arda. keywords: spbe; swcsf; measurement instrument; flesch reading ease; digitalization 1. introduction the industrial revolution 4.0 has affected all disciplines, including the sphere of information and technology, and indonesia, which is entering it, appears to have developed a strategy to prepare for it (science and technology). the indonesian people have adopted this transition as a trend and way of life. the industrial revolution era's legacy includes society's growing reliance on information and communication technology. the digital era is one example of how technology and information have advanced. the digital revolution has arrived in indonesia, where information can now be found online and through websites. this is seen in the rising and increasingly sophisticated demand for technological devices. the transformation of traditional government into electronic government (e-government) is a public policy regulated in article 28f of the 1945 constitution. the development of e-government has a vision, namely a review based on broadband networks, electronic document systems, information sharing, and government portal websites. the indonesian government is currently developing an electronic-based government system [1]. the use of e-government in indonesia aims to improve performance and productivity, improve budget efficiency, and increase transparency and accountability in the delivery of service activities to the community [2]. therefore, the implementation of e-government in government must be carefully prepared and integrated between bureaucratic systems and policies so that they can be well received by service users, namely the dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.1-7 2 community and internal government. in the context of e-government, user trust in using public services is important because it can make people feel comfortable using e-government [3]. the development of e-government that utilizes information and communication technology (ict) must pay attention to the ict and cybersecurity policies applied. in the current era, the development of ict and digitalization is directly proportional to the increase in ict crimes and cybercrimes. based on a report from [4], indonesia accounts for 40% of the asean population with a gross domestic product proportion of around us$ 4,174.9. indonesia is estimated to spend 1.6% of gdp in digital infrastructure, compared to malaysia at 4.5% and singapore at 6.6%. this shows that there is room to accelerate cybersecurity in indonesia. a new challenge to the system is brought about by the growth of the government's computerized system. akhmad toha (2021), deputy for bssn protection, stated at the huawei techday event that in order to realize an accountable, transparent, and democratic government system, the governance of an electronic-based government system (spbe) must be supported by strong cyber security. cyber attacks can cause disruption and damage to network systems that connect, integrate, synchronize, and control computerized and integrated government equipment and infrastructure [5]. in 2019, indonesia was one of the countries with the highest recorded cases of malware attacks in the asia pacific region. the potential economic loss in indonesia due to cybersecurity incidents could reach us$ 34.2 billion [6]. these problems can be prevented by measuring the level of cyber security and information and communication technology using measurement instruments. two measurement tools that make use of information and communication technology (ict) resources that can be employed in the central and regional domains are the spbe and swcsf. the authority for ict development focuses on the balance of central and local authority, alignment of planning, and coordination of implementation. currently, indonesia is experiencing the covid-19 pandemic, which has changed the system from manual to digital [1]. changing systems requires building skills within the organization with the aim of helping them cope with and adapt to new circumstances. therefore, in measuring the progress of implementation and readiness of spbe and swcsf, it is assumed that there will be different results. from this statement, a measurement framework that contains complexity and diversity is needed for all instruments. the application of spbe aims to measure the implementation of national ict policies within an agency. research conducted by gultom et al [5] is the current implementation of swcsf is in defense institutions such as the cyber defense center of the ministry of defense (pushansiber kemhan) and the ministry of defense information data center (ind. pusdatin kemhan). the application of swcsf aims to measure an agency's readiness for cybersecurity. instrument portability is an important part of determining whether a model or measurement system is simple to implement, and it is also related to the effectiveness and efficiency of resource use. portability is the ease with which the instrument is moved from one place to another [7]. portability can be defined as the ease with which the instrument is used by all users. trishadiatmoko [8] used statistical analysis to perform a portability analysis on the spbe instrument. this study was conducted to analyze the portability of the spbe and swcsf measurement instruments. one of the methods to measure the portability of the instrument is by analyzing the readability of the questionnaire that will be distributed to the respondents. 2. research method this research was conducted using qualitative methods with a descriptive analysis approach. this study analyzed the readability of the spbe and swcsf instrument questionnaires using the flesch reading ease. generally, this method is used to analyze the readability of a book, magazine or essay. anita [9] used this method to analyze the readability of grade 12 english textbooks. research data are statements or questions displayed on the questionnaire that will be distributed to respondents. the questionnaire that was distributed was a measurement instrument that was carried out digitally because it was distributed online via a link. this indicates that the analysis using this method is very important to do to find out which categories of respondents are suitable for filling out the spbe and swcsf questionnaires. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.1-7 3 the calculation results obtained using flesch reading ease are then matched with the reference table in table 2 to see the categories of the data results. then, the results obtained using the flesch-kincaid grade level will be seen in the reference table (table 1) to see the categories of the data results. table 1. flesch-kincaid grade level categories [10] score notes 90 – 100 comprehensible to the average 11-year-old kid 60 – 70 13to 15-year-old children can understand it with ease 0 – 30 university grads are more likely to understand table 2. flesch reading ease categories [10] raw score difficulty level < 30 very difficult 30 – 50 difficult 50 – 60 fairly difficult 60 – 70 standard 70 – 80 fairly easy 80 – 90 easy 90 – 100 very easy the questionnaire that will be distributed to respondents contains statements and questions regarding indicators from the spbe and swcsf. these questions and statements constitute data that will be analyzed to calculate the readability score and grade level generated by the questionnaire. these questions or statements will be grouped according to the indicators contained in the spbe and swcsf. the flow chart of analysis data can be seen in figure 1. figure 1. data analysis flow 3. results and discussion the electronic based government system (spbe) and six-ware cyber security framework (swcsf) are two measurement instruments that utilize information and communication technology (ict) used in central and regional domains. spbe is used to measure the implementation of national ict policies in agencies. ict policy in an agency must be supported by the agency's readiness for cyber security because, in today's digital era, the use of technology must be supported by knowledge about cybercrime. the swcsf instrument can be make a list of statements for the spbe and swcsf questionnaires count the number of words and sentences in the sample perform reading level analysis using the flesch reading ease formula perform grade level analysis using the flesch-kincaid grade level formula the resulting data is described dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.1-7 4 used to assess agency readiness for cyber security. the development of ict continues to increase, so the level of cybersecurity needs to be increased. so, it can be said that the two measurement instruments can support each other in preventing cybercrime in today's digital world. table 3. assessment indicators for electronic-based government systems [8] no. indicators 1. governance policy 2. service policy 3. institutional 4. strategy and planning 5. information and communication technology 6. administrative services 7. public service the measurement instruments used in the spbe and swcsf are in the form of a questionnaire consisting of several indicators. the spbe instrument has seven determining indicators in the assessment, which can be seen in table 3, and the swcsf instrument has six determining indicators, which can be seen in table 4. table 4. assessment indicators for six-ware cyber security framework [11] factors defenition indicators brainware human factor security awareness hardware physical computers and peripherals no compromises software operating system and applications no pirated appl. etc. infrastructureware physical and logical network infrastructure no network security breaches, etc firmware document and procedures good bussiness pro-cesses budgetware an estimate of income and expenciture for a set period licences always updated, etc the portability of these two instruments must be taken into account. the portability of an instrument refers to its ease of use by individuals or institutions. in other words, every individual or institution is capable of and understands using the instrument. one of the requirements for a measuring instrument to be considered portable is its readability. spbe and swcsf are instruments in the form of a questionnaire, so what is meant is the readability of the respondents to the statements or questions given. if the statement is easy to read, then the respondent understands the statement. the reading ease measurement uses the flesch reading ease and flesch-kincaid grade level methods. the formula used to calculate it is as follows [12]: 𝐹𝑅𝐸 = 206.835 − 1.015 𝑥 𝐴𝑆𝐿 − 84.6 𝑥 𝐴𝑆𝑊 (1) 𝐹𝐾𝐺𝐿 = 0.39 𝑥 𝐴𝑆𝐿 + 11.8 𝑥 𝐴𝑆𝑊 − 15.59 (2) where : fra: flesch reading ease, fkgl: flesch-kincaid grade level, asl: average sentence length, asw: average number of syllables per word. some examples of statements and questionnaire questions used are "apakah unit kerja anda memiliki kebijakan terkait perencanaan dan penganggaran (rengar) tik?" the sentence consists of 12 words and 33 dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.1-7 5 syllables. the sentence " menurut saya, instansi perlu adanya peraturan, perjanjian kerjasama dalam menjaga keamanan data dan informasi". the sentence has 14 words and 40 syllables. the data is obtained by counting the number of sentences, words and syllables for each measurement indicator. the results obtained from these data can be seen in table 5 for the spbe instrument and table 6 for the swcsf instrument. table 5. result of spbe instrument indicator number of sentences number of words number of syllables asl (x1) asw (x2) fra (y) fkgl 1 7 78 214 11,14 2,75 -37,12 21,20 2 10 116 340 11,60 2,93 -53,23 23,57 3 2 19 45 9,50 2,37 -3,18 16,06 4 2 22 55 11,00 2,50 -15,83 18,20 5 3 28 74 9,33 2,64 -26,22 19,24 6 7 58 166 8,29 2,86 -43,71 21,41 7 4 43 105 10,75 2,44 -10,66 17,42 average -27,13 19,59 the readability values for the spbe and swcsf instruments are -27,13 and -39,28, respectively. this score falls under the "extremely difficult" category according to table 2. some responders may find it quite challenging to understand the level of understanding required by the distributed questionnaire. table 6. result of swcsf instrument indicator number of words number of syllables number of sentences asl (x1) asw (x2) fra (y) fkgl 1 95 268 8 11,88 2,82 -43,88 22,33 2 58 148 5 11,60 2,55 -20,81 19,04 3 36 95 4 9,00 2,64 -25,55 19,06 4 73 196 5 14,60 2,68 -35,13 21,79 5 71 184 3 23,67 2,59 -36,43 24,22 6 60 173 4 15,00 2,88 -52,32 24,28 7 79 225 3 26,33 2,85 -60,84 28,29 average -39,28 22,72 the results of the flesch-kincaid grade level computation, which used the results of the two instruments, show that this is true. the spbe instrument's score was 19,59, and the swcsf instrument's score was 22,72 as you can see at figure 2. the two scores fall under the "best understood by university graduates" category, according to table 1. the two surveys will be provided to respondents that have a high level of knowledge, and it can be said that they are best suited for those who have completed college. the fkgl value obtained by swcsf is greater than that obtained by spbe. even though the two instruments are in the same category, this indicates that the swcsf instrument is more portable than the spbe. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.1-7 6 figure 2. grade level of spbe and swcsf 4. conclusions spbe and swcsf measurement instruments are two important instruments to be used in today's digital era. measuring policies on the use of ict and cybersecurity in an agency or organization is necessary for the prevention of cybercrime. the instruments displayed from spbe and swcsf are in the form of questionnaires, which will be distributed to respondents. thus, the respondent's understanding of the questions or statements in the questionnaire is important. the respondent's understanding begins with the ease with which the respondent reads the questionnaire. according to the results, the respondent's grade level is university level, and both the spbe and swcsf instruments are highly challenging to understand. the spbe and swcsf instruments can be completed by respondents who work with computers, the internet, and other technologies in settings other than higher education. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] m. h. muttaqin, t. d. susanto, "the effect of website components on user trust in increasing the interest to use public administration service on e-government website," 2019 international conference on computer science, information technology, and electrical engineering (icomitee), pp. 30-36, 2019. 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[8] p. trishadiatmoko, a. f. wadjdi, “public policy implementation during pandemic covid: modifying the measurement framework of the electronic-based governance system for various organization levels of indonesia public service broadcasting (tvri)”, ranepa: aapa, 2021. [9] a. firdaus, “the readability level of reading texts in english textbook entitled bahasa inggris for senior high school students grade xii”, unusa, 2020. [10] w. dubay, “smart language: readers, readability, and the grading of text”, costa mesa: impact information, 2006. [11] r. gultom, cyber warfare : sudah siapkah kita menghadapinya?, unhan press: bogor, 2019. [12] n. hikmah, t. o. sanerita, j. t. ignatius, “the readability level of reading texts in the english textbook entitled when english rings a bell for the seventh grade junior high school”, kompetensi: jurnal ilmiah bahasa dan seni, pp. 368-376, 2021. microsoft word 15-21_185.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 3, june 2022, pp.15-21 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id185 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 15 perturbed t-shaped patch antenna with slits and a floating metal for 5g. erol terović1*, şehabeddin taha i̇meci2 1, 2 electrical and electronics engineering, faculty of engineering and natural sciences, international university of sarajevo, hrasnicka cesta 15, 71210 ilidza, bosnia and herzegovina *corresponding author e-mail: erolprivate@gmail.com, simeci@ius.edu.ba received mar. 6, 2022 revised jun. 3, 2022 accepted jun. 20, 2022 abstract this research paper highlights the process of designing and simulating a novel antenna. our antenna is meant to be used in 5g applications (sub-6 ghz). simulating and designing was done using the sonnet suites software. the substrate used in our antenna is 1.55mm thick fr-4 substrate, that has a εr of 4.4. the antenna center frequency is 4.06 ghz. at the center frequency, s11 is -39.46 db. furthermore, the antenna has an e-𝜃 of 5.75 db, and e-φ of -9.99 db. this antenna can be used in devices that use 5g technologies. this antenna has the benefit of being cheap to produce, while boasting good performance during operation. © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: antenna, 5g, fr-4, microstrip, sonnet suites 1. introduction in the past few years, more and more research has been conducted in the field of mm-wave technology, to be employed in 5g systems. due to the elevated interest in 5g, there has been a demand for multi-band minituarized antennas that will serve systems that operate in lower ghz bands (sub 6 ghz). 5g will satisfy the requirements for lower time delays, iot, small size and high data rates [1]. 5g will support faster communications in the mobile department, while at the same time providing a high speed data rate. antennas are needed that can be used for stable and disturbance free communications, while having an improved bandwidth, power, gain and insensitivity to noise. due to this, unique solutions are needed for designing antennas [2]. most modern systems for mobile communication have become widely used after the 2000s. they have progressed at a most rapid pace alongside other technologies over the past three decades. initially it began with the 1g which was analog-based. and then progressed to the fourth generation. the fourth generation is an ip based technology (4g). lte-a (long term evolution advanced) is becoming redundant due to an extreme increase in demand for data, which is caused by a surge in smart devices (iot) [3]. designing a transciever for 5g applications can pose numerous challenges. considering that the antenna is one of the most critical element of a 5g system, therefore it has a crucial role in the determination of the whole performance of the system. there are several requirements for antennas for 5g systems: first and foremost, it has to maintain a small size in order to provide a simple and effortless integration with the frontend. furthermore, keeping the design compact is essential in orfer to make the antenna compatible for array based configurations when dealing with dss vol. 3, june 2022, pp.15-21 16 a mimo architecture [4]. most commonly used of all microstrip patch antennas, are rectangular patch antennas, although circular patch antennas are also commonly used [5]. advantages of microstrip patch antennas include low cost, low profile, low cost, suitable for array implementation etc. however some significant disadvantages include the low gain, narrow bandwidth and relatively large size for low frequencies [6]. microstrip patch antennas are a great option for sub-6 ghz uses, owning to their superb rf and mw characteristics. a patch antenna is essentially a substrate that has one side occupied with a metal conductor and the flip side is consisted of a ground plane made of conductive materials [7]. microstrip patch antennas can be fed using different ways. these ways include a microstrip line feed, coaxial feed, aperture coupled feed and proximity coupling [8]. although, the most commonly used feeding way is microstrip line feeding, due to it’s simple nature. thus, the antenna in this paper will also use a simple microstrip line feed. the antenna was designed in and simulated in sonnet® suites™ program by sonnet software, which is implemented using a method-of-moments (mom) em analysis, which in turn is based on maxwell’s equations [9]. numerous other designs have been proposed by other works, for antennas exist that allow the implementation of dual band capabilities [10], in our case the antenna is a mono band antenna. another paper demonstrates how to implementat a metamaterial inspired antenna [11]. our antenna is a single antenna, but could potentially be implemented in an array configuration, which is demonstrated in a paper which describes a circular array antenna for wlan and 5g applications [12] alongside a paper which explains the process of implementing a miniaturized antenna array for 5g [13]. numerous wideband examples have also been proposed, such as a paper that demonstrates a low-band wideband microstrip antenna for 5g [14]. unlike some designs, such as the uwb patch antenna for sub-6 ghz communications [15] or the wideband small fractal antenna for 5g sub-6-ghz communications [16] which have a defected or partial ground plane, but instead has a full ground plane. we chose fr-4 as the substrate due to its wide availability and low cost, but other authors have used for instance rt/duroid 5880 substrate which has a lower dielectric loss for better bandwidth and higher efficiency [17]. rt/duroid 5880 has a εr of 2.2 which is better compared with the value for fr-4, which is 4.4 [18]. due to the smaller dielectric constant, the bandwidth of the antenna increases because they are inversely proportional [19]. due to inevitable manufacturing errors and tolerances, along with feed line soldering and an inaccurate value of relative dielectric permittivity, if we were to manufacture the antenna, our simulated results would not precisely match up with the experimental ones [20]. the antenna was simulated and iteratively improved by observing the filter parameters in each iteration. 2. research method the final proposed antenna design can be seen in figure 1. in section 3 of this paper, we can read about the iterative process and steps that led us to this final iteration of the design. a stub was added to improve the antenna’s gain. the overall size is 36.5 x 39.75 mm, so it can be said that the antenna is a relatively compact design, with a center frequency of 4.06 ghz, for the simulation the parameters were chosen so the sweep is from 2 to 6 ghz. the cell size for the simulation was 0.25 in both x and y directions. the dielectric thickness is 1.55 mm, with a relative dielectric permittivity of 4.4. the topology of the filter can be seen in figure 1, while the 3d layout of the design is visible below, in figure 2. the design is single sided, with no defected ground plane. the design has been labeled with the letters a to e, along with dimensions. the letters are markers that indicate points of interest for our parametric study, in the section 3, we can see the results of our parametric study, and through them we can see the way the iterative improvement process has worked. dss vol. 3, june 2022, pp.15-21 17 in figure 3 we can see the current density visualization of the antenna. the current is crowded in the center square and l-shaped metals. figure 1. antenna topology figure 2. 3d antenna topology figure 3. current density plot 3. results and discussion figure 4 shows the reflection coefficient graph. the goal was to get the s11 magnitude to be lower or equal to -10 db. can be seen in figure 4. 4.06 ghz is the antenna’s center frequency, with a s11 reflection coefficient of -39.46 db. in figure 5, we can see the polar graph of e-𝜃 (db) and e-φ (db), in red and blue respectively. the requirement was set to be that e-𝜃 should be larger or equal to 5 db, while e-φ lower than or equal to -5 db. dss vol. 3, june 2022, pp.15-21 18 figure 4. graph of s11 reflection parameter figure 5. polar plot for antenna as mentioned previously, the antenna was designed in stages, with each state’s results being used in the next stage, to finally achieve a workable design which has a good balance of size, optimal parameters and complexity. the first parametric study’s results are visible in table 1, the “a” rectangle (for legend, see figure 1.) was incrementally increased in size by 0.5 mm. for each increase (s11) that was in the range of (-10db, infinity) in the antenna center frequency, and near 0 in all other areas. once we have selected the best version, which in this case was the one with length 4 mm. we move on to the next phase, and begin doing the parametric study for rectangle b. dss vol. 3, june 2022, pp.15-21 19 table 1. results of first parametric study for the second parametric study, rectangle b was changed by 0.5 mm. in the end with all parameters considered, the case where the length is 5 mm was chosen, and the process moved on to the next stage. the results are outlined below in table 2. as we can see based on these results, the case that has a rectangle length of 5mm was chosen as the one that will be used in following iterations of the design process. it was chosen because it is the best one, according to the parameters. table 2. results of second parametric study length of rectangle b s11 (db) e-𝜽 (db) e-𝚽 (db) frequency (ghz) 2 -10.28 5.61 -9.53 4.06 2.5 -11.75 5.63 -9.52 4.06 3 -13.39 5.64 -9.5 4.06 3.5 -15.48 5.65 -9.48 4.06 4 -18.55 5.56 -9.48 4.06 4.5 -20.84 5.67 -9.47 4.06 5 -24.24 5.57 -9.47 4.06 5.5 -18.66 5.69 -9.51 4.06 in the third parametric study, we have modified the size of the two side rectangles simultaneously, and the results were measured, this is the first time where some invalid results were obtained, we have a few different cases. for example, for the case where we had the length 12.5 mm, the result is invalid because we had a multiband antenna, with two transmission frequencies, which was not our goal for this paper. the chosen case was 15 mm. table 3 contains the results of this parametric study. table 3. results of third parametric study length of rectangle c s11 (db) e-𝜽 (db) e-𝚽 (db) frequency (ghz) 0 -23.41 5.61 -7.41 4.06 2.5 -24.04 5.63 -7.34 4.06 5 -23.66 5.63 -7.4 4.06 7.5 -23.57 5.63 -7.4 4.06 10 -22.1 -5.57 -6.72 4.06 12.5 not valid two frequencies 15 -39.46 5.75 -9.99 4.06 17.5 -31.31 5.69 -9.12 4.06 20 -22.52 5.62 -8.08 4.06 22.5 -27.38 5.68 -9.58 4.06 25 -37.03 5.69 -9.14 4.06 length of rectangle a s11 (db) e-𝜽 (db) e-𝚽 (db) frequency (ghz) 1 -15.5 5.62 -9.55 4.06 1.5 -13.91 5.62 -9.5 4.06 2 -12 5.61 -9.24 4.06 2.5 -10.15 5.68 -9.98 4.06 3 -12.07 5.67 -9.85 4.06 3.5 -14.71 5.66 -9.69 4.06 4 -16.84 5.66 -9.48 4.06 4.5 -14.38 5.66 -9.21 4.06 5 -10 5.66 -7.26 4.06 dss vol. 3, june 2022, pp.15-21 20 in the fourth parametric study, we have observed the parameter's differences when changing the position of the gap where the d marker is placed. however, this case produced a lot of invalid results, mostly due to s11 being over -10 db. due to the results not being very useful, the previous iteration was left unchanged. the results are visible below in table 4. table 4. results of fourth parametric study length of rectangle d s11 (db) e-𝜽 (db) e-𝚽 (db) frequency (ghz) 4 -10.87 5.39 -8.69 4.22 6 -19.99 5.78 -10.14 4.04 8 invalid 10 -12.38 5.69 -12.18 3.98 12 invalid 14 invalid 16 invalid for the fifth and final parametric study, the gap marked by the letter e was adjusted and the results are visible below in table 5. in this case, the best results overlap with the best result from parametric study 3, therefore nothing changes, and we have our final design. which is the one shown in the figures above. table 5. results of fifth parametric study length of rectangle e s11 (db) e-𝜽 (db) e-𝚽 (db) frequency (ghz) 4.25 -39.46 5.75 -9.99 4.06 5.25 -13.07 5.68 -9.04 4.12 6.25 -10.02 5.56 -7.93 4.16 7.25 -14.97 5.45 7.6 4.22 8.25 -25.62 5.29 -7.15 4.28 9.25 -17.31 5.1 -6.76 4.34 4. conclusions in this paper, we have presented a microstrip patch antenna design, along with designing and simulating it. the antenna shows good performance according to the simulations. alongside this, it is simple, compact, and cheap to manufacture, owning to the relatively low-cost fr-4 substrate. our antenna was simulated within a range of 0 to 6 ghz. several parametric studies have been done regarding the overall antenna shape with the goal of improving the antenna behavior. by changing the geometry incrementally and observing changes, an optimal design was found, and it had the following parameters: the antenna center frequency is 4.06 ghz. at the center frequency, s11 is -39.46 db. furthermore, the antenna has an e-𝜃 of 5.75 db, and e-φ of -9.99 db. 5g technologies are exploding around us, and antennas are a key element in making them work. this paper has demonstrated the procedure behind designing and simulating such an antenna. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. dss vol. 3, 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[20] a. khan and r. nema, “analysis of five different dielectric substrates on microstrip patch antenna,” international journal of computer applications, vol. 55, no. 14, oct. 2012, doi: 10.1.1.244.7807. microsoft word 52-58_186 issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 4, january 2023, pp.52-58 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v4.id186 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 52 a 41% bandwidth microstrip patch antenna mehmet yusuf imeci1, s. taha imeci2, ramazan daşbaşı3 1 international university of sarajevo, department of electrical engineering, bosnia and herzegovina 2 fatih sultan mehmet vakıf university, department of electrical and electronics engineering, fatih-i̇stanbul, türkiye 3 yildiz technical university, electronics and communication engineering, türkiye *corresponding author e-mail: mehmedyusufimeci@gmail.com received jul. 14, 2022 revised feb. 20, 2023 accepted feb. 27, 2023 abstract this work contains a wideband ds (defected-ground-structure) microstrip patch antenna. initially, the intention of this work was based on realizing a sub6 ghz 5g microstrip patch antenna, but through many experimentations, we inadvertently stumbled upon a different kind of microstrip patch antenna, namely, an antenna with a substantially wide band. the numeric values of the variables/parameters of this compact, wide-band, microstrip patch antenna, that has a proudly high fabrication tolerance, are as follows: 𝑆 = −10.09 𝑑𝐵, 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 8.7 𝐺𝐻𝑧, 𝜀 = 2.67 𝑑𝐵, 𝜀 = −2.3 𝑑𝐵. the bandwidth reaches approximately from 6.6 ghz to 10.2 ghz, hence giving this particular design’s bandwidth a proud 41% value. the inspiration for this work came from [11], which posed two symmetrical antennas opposite from one another, whereas this work has produced a singular antenna, with a more circular center, and with other many modified traits. © the author 2023. published by arda. keywords: dgs, microstrip, patch, antenna, wideband, sub-6 ghz, 5g 1. introduction printed patch radiators didn’t really shine in the world of technology until the 1970's, when the wireless data transfer methods in communication systems practically skyrocketed. even though these types of antennas are small and fairly cheaply produced, they still hold the capability of being integratable with rf circuits [1]. for the past about 10 years or so, the dielectric resonators (dr) have quite increasing popularity owing to their practicality [2]. as you, the typical reader of this type of work would probably know, 5g stands for fifth generation mobile network. in a broad sense, explaining it could simply boil down to how its main purpose, is to connect everything together, as far as in the realm of communication systems. [3]. millimeter-wave (mmwave) bands coupled with 5g technology, allows data to be transferred in substantially greater amounts [4]. technologies such as say, today’s cell phones, especially ones which operate below 3 ghz, are used quite a lot in the sub-6 ghz range [5]. dual-band antennas are a lot of times constructed by choosing diferent parts in different band values, and adding them to construct a new part [6]. sub-6 ghz technology with respect to mm-waves not only surpasses physical range, thus covering greater distances, it also poses as a cheaper alternative with the wider bandwidth, which brings a high amount of data transferring capability [7]. high speed and low latency data transfer has become increasingly important as wireless systems got increasingly sophisticated in a relatively short span of time [8]. studies indicate the details on how the antenna’s properties conform to various stub parameters [9]. all in all, microstrip patch antennas are a great companion to be coupled with 5g applications [10]. lots of smartphones in these past years that are to be integrated with 5g, have been posed with wideband antennas that are not only as high as 6 ghz, but they are also as less efficient as 50% [11]. the absolute explosion of the internet of things (iot) and various other wireless technologies in our current era of technological developments, has made it somewhat crucial for newer and better dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.52-58 53 breakthroughs and technologies to emerge for better inner-adaptability, and 5g is one such example. [12]. there isn’t even a need to state the obvious of the absolutely crucial role of the internet in data transmission in high quantities [13]. sub-6 ghz technology surely helps in this high quantity and high-speed data transfer [14]. omni-directional antennas aren’t particularly the highest range antennas [15]. while a patch antenna is basically a radio antenna which you can easily just mount to a surface. [16]. the microstrip patch antenna finds itself a role in all ranges of mobile communication systems [17]. (5g) technology is definitely on the rise where communication systems are concerned, and this explosive widening of its use happens to be occuring in many nations worldwide. [18]. to fully realize and reap the benefits of 5g technology, small and highly efficient antennas are a must [19]. 5g has substantially reduced latency and many many other benefits with respect to 4g. therefore, 5g is expected to rule the domain it’s present in, for the foreseeable future in our current era where technological developments are at an all-time rise [20]. 2. research method all research for this publication has been made possible with use of sonnet software, which is a simulation tool that is widely popular in microwave circuit analyses. as you can see from the following three figures, (figures 1-3), our microstrip patch antenna design consists mainly of rectangular shapes, with the only exception of the center, which is basically a circle. the metal parts of the design are obviously much smaller than the whole design, as the dimensions are about 1.5 to 4.5 centimeters, while the whole box size is about 24 to 8.5 centimeters. the thickness of the whole design, as it may appear from the 3d view below, looks quite massive, but we remind you that that’s just a close-up zoomed in view of the design, and in reality, with all the layers combined, the whole design is only as thick as about 3 centimeters. as it appears from the simulation results from sonnet software regarding our design (figure 4), our band range starts from about 6.5 ghz, and goes all the way up to a little over 10.2 ghz, and thus, corresponds to a bandwidth value of 41%. it may also be apparent that the lowest point of 𝑆 appears to be just a little below -25 db. 3. results and discussion the dimensions and shape of this antenna design is shown in figure 1, figure 2, and figure 3. figure 1. the top view with dimensions in mm (box not included) figure 2. the 3d view (main part) figure 3. 3d view (complete) dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.52-58 54 patch antenna main design results of the s-parameters are shown graphically in figure 4. figure 4. the s-parameters graph for the main design one can observe below in (table 1) that when we changed the dielectric constant values starting from 4.3, and going all the way up to 4.5, our frequency and gain results practically didn’t change. the closest result to the original design came when the dielectric constant value was 4.5 (4.4 was the original value). table 1. changing the dielectric constants (main design values in bold) dielectric constant (εr) magnitude (db) frequency (ghz) s11 εθ εφ 4.3 -13.01 2.38 -2.55 8.62 4.35 -13.45 2.35 -2.52 8.58 4.4 -9.79 2.67 -2.3 8.7 4.45 -13.59 2.38 -2.51 8.54 4.5 -12.06 2.51 -2.52 8.64 as it can be seen in the following (table 2) that when we changed the dielectric thicknesses starting from 1.5 mm, and going all the way up to 1.6mm, our frequency and gain results practically didn’t change. the closest result to the original design came when the dielectric thickness value was 1.57 mm (1.55 mm was the original value). table 2. changing the dielectric thicknesses (main design values in bold) dielectric thickness magnitude (db) frequency (ghz) s11 εθ εφ 1.5 -13.56 2.45 -2.41 8.62 1.53 -12.96 2.47 -2.5 8.62 1.55 -9.79 2.67 -2.3 8.7 1.57 -11.64 2.47 -2.56 8.68 1.6 -11.37 2.44 -2.63 8.66 bw = 41% db[s11] patch antenna main design dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.52-58 55 when we consider the following results (table 3), when we changed the length of the center in the y-axis starting from 14.5 mm, and going all the way up to 15.5 mm, our frequency and gain results again practically didn’t change. the closest result to the original design came when the length of the center in the y-axis was 14.75 mm (15.07 mm was the original value). table 3. changing the length of the center in the y-axis (main design values in bold) the length of the center in the y-axis magnitude (db) frequency (ghz) s11 εθ εφ 14.5 -11.57 2.66 -2.3 8.54 14.75 -10.38 2.72 -2.34 8.64 15.07 -9.79 2.67 -2.3 8.7 15.25 -11.43 2.63 -2.19 8.54 15.5 -11.9 2.57 -2.04 8.5 as it’s apparent from the table below (table 4), when we changed the length of the center in the x-axis starting from 15 mm, and going all the way up to 17 mm, our frequency and gain results once again practically didn’t change. the closest result to the original design came when the length of the center in the x-axis was 15 mm (16 mm was the original value). table 4. changing the length of the center in the x-axis (main design values in bold) the length of the center in the x-axis magnitude (db) frequency (ghz) s11 εθ εφ 15 -12.1 2.5 -2.53 8.66 15.5 -12.11 2.57 -2.42 8.58 16 -9.79 2.67 -2.3 8.7 16.5 -10.91 2.65 -1.9 8.48 17 -10.29 2.58 -1.4 8.38 please refer to the below results (table 5), to see that when we changed the length of the ground in the x-axis starting from 29 mm, and going all the way up to 31 mm, our frequency and gain results once again practically didn’t change, but at 29.5 mm, we had a weird spike in frequency (from 8.68 to 8.74), but the closest result to the original design came when the length of the ground in the x-axis was 30.5 mm and at 31 mm. at 30.5 and 31 mm, the frequencies were the same and 8.68 ghz, which is the same exact frequency with the original design (30 mm was the original value). table 5. changing the length of the ground in the x-axis (main design values in bold) the length of the ground in the x-axis magnitude (db) frequency (ghz) s11 εθ εφ 29 -11.63 2.47 -2.4 8.62 29.5 -11.22 2.45 -2.41 8.74 30 -10.09 2.67 -2.28 8.68 30.5 -12.41 2.48 -2.61 8.68 31 -14.89 2.45 -2.7 8.68 we can refer to the below figure (figure 5) to view the current distribution. the darkest blue, illustrating zero current being distributed, while the darkest red oppositely illustrating the highest amount of current being distributed, note that the colors cause the current distribution to be clearly and vividly represented. this current distribution is specifically illustrating the distribution at 8.7 ghz, which is the original frequency of the design. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.52-58 56 figure 5. the current distribution note that in the following two figures (figures 6-7), the gain results of the 8.7 ghz main design are presented. and the main results are 𝜀 = 2.67 𝑑𝐵 (figure 6), and 𝜀 = −2.3 𝑑𝐵 (figure 7). figure 6. the phase angles graph (e-theta) figure 7. the phase angles graph (e-phi) dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.52-58 57 4. conclusions as it may be obvious from previous reading of this current work, our antenna design with the given characteristics (𝑆 = −10.09 𝑑𝐵, 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 8.7 𝐺𝐻𝑧, 𝜀 = 2.67 𝑑𝐵, 𝜀 = −2.3 𝑑𝐵), poses a unique and valuable presence in communication systems, at the current era the world resides in. even though the initial intentions of this work were to realize a completely different type of antenna with a fairly dissimilar category (a sub-6 ghz 5g microstrip patch antenna), the beauty of experimentation and the surprises it may offer (like in this case), sometimes delivers a completely different but no less important type of separate technology. parametric studies, where the fabrication tolerances are obviously present, also supports the tangible value and practicality of this 41% bandwidth design of a miniature beast, that despite its puny size, has a pretty far reach (high frequency range). declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they haven’t any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] a. kapoor, r. mishra, and p. kumar, “wideband miniaturized patch radiator for sub-6 ghz 5g devices,” heliyon, vol. 7, no. 9, p. e07931, 2021. 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[10] t. o. olawoye and p. kumar, “a high gain antenna with dgs for sub-6 ghz 5g communications,” adv. electromagn., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 41–50, 2022. [11] s. s. al-bawri et al., “broadband sub-6ghz slot-based mimo antenna for 5g nr bands mobile applications,” j. phys. conf. ser., vol. 1962, no. 1, p. 012038, 2021. [12] m. alibakhshikenari et al., “dual-polarized highly folded bowtie antenna with slotted selfgrounded structure for sub-6 ghz 5g applications,” ieee trans. antennas propag., vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 3028–3033, 2022. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.52-58 58 [13] r. mishra, r. dandotia, r. mishra, p. kuchhal, and r. pachauri, “srr slotted multiband antenna in sub 6-ghz for futuristic communication,” eai endorsed trans. energy web, p. 165997, 2018. [14] p. jha, s. singh, and r. l. yadava, “wideband sub-6 ghz micro-strip antenna: design and fabrication,” in advances in smart communication and imaging systems, singapore: springer singapore, 2021, pp. 109–115. [15] m. farasat, d. n. thalakotuna, z. hu, and y. yang, “a review on 5g sub-6 ghz base station antenna design challenges,” electronics (basel), vol. 10, no. 16, p. 2000, 2021. [16] t. aathmanesan, “novel slotted hexagonal patch antenna for sub-6 ghz 5g wireless applications.”. [17] a. kapoor, r. mishra, and p. kumar, “compact wideband-printed antenna for sub-6 ghz fifth-generation applications,” int. j. smart sens. intell. syst., vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1–10, 2020. [18] p. dwivedi and d. sen, “micro-strip antenna design for 5g sub 6 ghz and wi-fi applications,” int. j. sci. res. (raipur). [19] b. tütüncü and m. kösem, “substrate analysis on the design of wide-band antenna for sub-6 ghz 5g communication,” wirel. pers. commun., pp. 1–13, 2022. [20] darwin and sampath, “sub-6 ghz band massive mimo antenna system for variable deployment scenarios in 5g base stations,” research square, 2021. microsoft word 113-120_217.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 3, january 2022, pp.113-120 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id217 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 113 biodefense against abrin and ricin as bioterrorism agents (a virtual screening of indonesian plant medicinal properties) leni tria melati1*, timbul siahaan2, i nengah putra apriyanto3 1,2.3 faculty of defense technology, indonesian defense university , indonesia *corresponding author e-mail: leni.melati@tp.idu.ac.id1 received dec. 8., 2022 revised dec. 14., 2022 accepted dec. 21, 2022 abstract because of their high lethality and easy way to produce, abrin and ricin are often used as bioweapons. sources of raw materials for the abrin and ricin manufacture can be found in various regions, especially in tropical countries. those make abrin and ricin have a greater chance to be used as bioterrorism agents. furthermore, abrin and ricin have been classified as class b types of bioweapons used in bioterrorism. in this study, a virtual screening (a bioinformatics method) will be carried out on 100 compounds derived from indonesian plants. thus it can be known, the compounds that have the potential to be used as biodefense agents against abrin and ricin. finally, it is found that there are five compounds that have the best possibility as abrin inhibitors: procyanidin b4, ursolic acid, corilagin, vulgarin, and gliberelic acid. whereas lanuginosine, xylonine, isovitexin, liriodenine, and procyanidin were found to have more potential as biodefense agents against ricin. © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: abrin; biodefense; bioinformatic; bioweapon; ricin 1. introduction biological weapons are considered to be very detrimental and difficult to control so all forms of manufacture, development, and the usage of bioweapons in war have been prohibited since 1925 in geneva law [1]. even so, there are still several cases of violation of these regulations by certain groups such as terrorists [2]. even today, the use of technology such as genetic engineering provides opportunities for the development of biological weapons to a further level [3]. bioweapons have actually been used for a long time in various forms of biological warfare. it is noted that the use of bioweapons has been started since medieval times. where in 1340, the corpses of horses or other animals affected by the plague were being thrown using a launcher to the enemy groups, so it would cause a widespread of said disease within the enemy troops [1]. this shows how easy it is to develop and use bioweapons, even with only such simple equipment and materials. the usage of biological weapons by terrorists is considered to result in high mortality rates as well as economic, social, and political losses [4]. this is because biological weapons are difficult to detect early on and their spread cannot be completely controlled (except for poisons), and these weapons may even attack the dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.113-120 114 user himself [1]. according to one of indonesian military observer, bioweapons are widely used because they are cheaper and more effective [5]. one of the bioweapons that are widely used by terrorists is abrin and ricin. abrin and ricin are ribosome-inactivating proteins (rips), which come from the abrus precatorius plant that is easily found in tropical areas, especially in southeast asia [6]. in fact, due to the level of toxicity and ease of preparation, the two toxins are in category b as agents of bioterrorism [7]. in 2011, a militant group in jakarta, indonesia, was found to have attempted to attack the police using ricin. followed in 2019, the indonesian police succeeded in seizing a bomb containing abrin poison from a raid on the largest pro-islamic state terrorist group in indonesia [8]. in regards of these matters, it is necessary to have a strong defense against bioweapons (biodefense) within a country. as the united states (us) learned from the bitter experience, of the bioterrorism case that occurred in 2001, and increased research efforts in the field of biodefense in their country [9]. the drugs discovery process (in this case as biodefense agents) often takes a long time and requires a lot of money. the implementation of bioinformatics (in silico approach) provides a very significant influence in drug development. this approach provides more effective and cheaper process . through an algorithmic simulation, accurate and fast research results can be obtained and only requires a small fee [10]. furthermore, bioinformatic has also been widely applied and closely related to the biodefense [11], bioterrorism, and bioweapon research such as the bioweapon identification, detection (biosensors) development, as well as the development of vaccines and drugs from bioweapons [12]. this research aimed to identify plants derived compounds that commonly found in indonesia as ricin and abrin inhibitors. the identification process is carried out by virtual screening method (bioinformatics procedures) based on molecular docking virtual simulations [12]. 2. research method 2.1. receptor preparation target receptors, namely ricin [13] and abrin [14], were downloaded from http://www.rscb.org/pdb. the target receptor preparation process was carried out using the pymol 2.5 software by schrödinger. the geometry optimization process uses pymol software by . the initial step is the removal of water molecules (h2o) around the receptor, hetero atoms, and natural ligands. next is the addition of gasteiger and hydrogen charges. the receptor and its natural ligand are separated (extract object) and each is stored in pdbqt format. 2.2. inhibitor preparation a list of 100 compounds derived from plants in indonesia can be obtained on following link: http://herbaldb.farmasi.ui.ac.id/v3/. these compounds (inhibitors) can be downloaded from the https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ page. the inhibitor compounds were then optimized using openbable gui 3.1.1 software and saved in pdbqt format. so that the ligands can then be used in the virtual screening process. 2.3. virtual screening the virtual screening process is carried out through a simulation process of combining receptors and their inhibitors using the autodock vina software [15]. as a result, the value of binding affinity or the tendency for binding between the ligand and the receptor protein will be obtained. thus it can be determined which compound has the best binding affinity at root mean square deviation (rmsd) 0.0. of all the compounds, 5 compounds that give the best results will be taken to be further visualized and analyzed. 2.4. visualization the virtual screening results were visualized in 3d graphics using pymol 2.5 (by schrödinger) and 2d graphics using ligplot+ version 2.2 (by embl's european bioinformatics institute). furthermore, the results of the visualization can be used for the process of analyzing the inhibitory abilities of the selected compounds. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.113-120 115 to assist the analysis process, a binding site prediction of the receptor will be carried out on https://prankweb.cz/. thus, based on the results of 2d visualization, comparisons can be made to find out whether the selected compound binds to the target binding site so that it can be a good competitive inhibitor and thus can be used as abrin or ricin antitoxin. 3. results and discussion indonesia has an abundant amount of natural resources, particularly in the form of plants. some plants can produce secondary metabolomic compounds that have the opportunity to be developed as drugs. the screening process is carried out to filter metabolomic compounds from the database, which have the opportunity to become drug materials based on the virtual computing method [12]. the docking process is based on the binding activity of certain compounds (ligands/inhibitors) on the target protein. protein itself is the basic structure of all living things. knowledge of the proteins that make up an organism and understanding their functions is the basic foundation of molecular biology [16]. for this reason, protein is often used as the main target in drug or therapy development processes. based on the virtual screening results, out of 100 compounds, there are 5 compounds that gave the best binding affinity value at rmsd 0.0. the list of these compounds can be seen in table 1. the binding of each selected ligand to the target protein (ricin and abrin) was then visualized in 2d and 3d using ligplot and pymol software. previously, binding site predictions from ricin and abrin had been carried out, as shown in table 1. based on these predictions, it was possible to compare the 2d visualization results from virtual screening results for further analysis. table 1. binding site prediction results and five compounds that have the best potential as abrin and ricin inhibitors receptor binding site (residue) ligan / inhibitor pubchem id molecule abrin pocket 1 (a_111 a_112 a_113 a_159 a_163 a_164 a_167 a_195 a_196 a_198 a_199 a_244 a_71 a_72 a_74 a_75 a_87 a_89 a_90 a_91) pocket 2 (a_140 a_141 a_144 a_145 a_146 a_151 a_78 a_80 a_83 a_85) pocket 3 (a_170 a_190 a_194 a_219 a_220 a_221 a_236 a_239) 147299 [17] procyanidin b4 64945 [18] ursolic acid 73568 [19] corilagin 94253 [20] vulgarin 6466 [21] gibberellic acid ricin pocket 1 (a_100 a_104 a_120 a_121 a_122 a_123 a_172 a_177 a_180 a_208 a_209 a_211 a_212 a_256 a_258 a_48 a_75 a_78 a_80 a_81 a_82 a_93 a_94 a_95 a_96 a_97) pocket 2 (a_183 a_203 a_207 a_233 a_234 a_235 a_240 a_251) 97622 [22] lanuginosine 160503 [23] xylopine 162350 [24] isovitexin 10144 [25] liriodenine 122738 [26] procyanidine 3.1. virtual screening against abrin based on the results of abrin virtual screening, it is known that procyanidin b4, ursolic acid, corilagin, vulgarin, and gliberelic acid have the best potential as lnhibitor. figure 1 shows the results of the abrin virtual screening 3d visualization in pymol 2.5 (by schrödinger). this results then further processed ligplot + 2.2 (by embl's european bioinformatics institute) to obtain 2d visualization of the virtual screening process that are shown in figure 2. this way we can understand the bonds and interactions that formed between each compound against abrin. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.113-120 116 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) figure 1. 3d visualization in pymol 2.5 (by schrödinger) to show the interaction between abrin and (a) procyanidin b4; (b) ursolic acid; (c) corilagin; (d) vulgarine; and (e) glibberellic acid as virtual screening result using autodock vina. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) figure 2. 2d visualization in ligplot + 2.2 (by embl's european bioinformatics institute) to show the interaction between abrin and (a) procyanidin b4; (b) ursolic acid; (c) corilagin; (d) vulgarine; and (e) glibberellic acid as virtual screening result using autodock vina. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.113-120 117 from previous figures, the procyanidin b4 compound appears to be bound to pocket 3 of the abrin binding site. there are amino acid residues (a) numbered 170, 194, 219, 220, 221, 236, and 239 which are around the procyanidin b4 compound. visualization results also show the formation of hydrogen bonds (green dash) and hydrophobic interactions between the inhibitor and the target receptor (figure 2a). meanwhile, ursolic acid, vulgarin, and gibberellic acid compounds were seen to interact with several amino acids in pocket 1 of the abrin binding site, through hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds (figures 2b, 2d, and 2e). meanwhile, the corilagin compound does not seem to bind to one of the pockets on the binding site of abrin, so there are two possibilities, whether the compound is a non-competitive inhibitor or does not even have the ability to inhibit abrin. 3.2. virtual screening against ricin based on the virtual screening results for ricin, five compounds that had the best potential to be used as ricin inhibitors were obtained. these compounds are lanuginosine, xylonine, isovitexin, liriodenine, and procyanidin. the 3d visualization results (visualized in pymol) of the five compounds with ricin can be seen in figure 3. then the visualization process is continued with ligplot to obtain 2d visualization. in 2d visualization, it was observed that there was a hydrophobic interaction between lanuginosine and ricin compounds. the interaction occurs in pocket 1 of the ricin binding site. it can be observed that several amino acid residues (a) are involved in this interaction, including numbers 80, 81, 82, 93, 94, 121, 122, and 172. likewise with the other four compounds which also interact with ricin in pocket 1 (fig. 4). even the compounds isovitexin and procyanidin, managed to form hydrogen bonds (green dash) with some of the amino acid residues that make up pocket 1 (figures 4c and 4e). the interactions that occur at the pocket binding site on the protein receptors (ricin and abrin) indicate that these compounds have the opportunity to become competitive inhibitors for abrin and ricin. thus these compounds have the opportunity to be used as raw materials and further researched for the development of antitoxins for ricin and abrin, as a form of biodefense effort. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) figure 3. 3d visualization in pymol 2.5 (by schrödinger) to show the interaction between ricin and (a) lanuginosine; (b) xylopine; (c) isovitexin; (d) liriodenine; and (e) procyanidine, as virtual screening result using autodock vina. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.113-120 118 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) figure 4. 2d visualization in ligplot + 2.2 (by embl's european bioinformatics institute) to show the interaction between ricin and (a) lanuginosine; (b) xylopine; (c) isovitexin; (d) liriodenine; and (e) procyanidine, as virtual screening result using autodock vina. 4. conclusions abrin and ricin are toxic compounds with high level of lethality that can be easily produced, therefore have a great chance to be used as bioweapons in some bioterrorism cases. this study conducted a virtual screening of 100 compounds derived from several plants in indonesia. from this virtual screening process five compound has been found to have the best potential for further research as raw materials for antitoxins against abrin and and another five for ricin. compounds that have the potential as biodefense agents against abrin are procyanidin b4, ursolic acid, corilagin, vulgarin, and gliberelic acid. while the potential compounds to become biodefense agents against ricin include lanuginosine, xylonine, isovitexin, liriodenine, and procyanidin. this research is based on the results of virtual simulations, so it is necessary to carry out further research using other tests to determine the effectiveness of these compounds as biodefense agents against abrin and ricin. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.113-120 119 references and citations [1] v. s. georgiev, in national institute of allergy and infectious diseases, nih volume 2, humana press: springer nature switzerland ag, 2009. 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"pubchem compound summary for cid 122738, procyanidin b2", pubchem, https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/procyanidin-b2. 10 november, 2022, microsoft word 74-82_203.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 3, january 2022, pp.74-82 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id203 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 74 the concept of stealth unmanned combat aerial vehicle (ucav) to support air defense systems opa mustopa1*, romie oktovianus bura2 1,2 faculty of defense technology, indonesia defense university, indonesia *corresponding author e-mail: opa.mustopa@tp.idu.ac.id received oct. 27, 2022 revised nov. 13, 2022 accepted nov. 14, 2022 abstract one platform that is currently highly developed as an air defense technology is the unmanned combat aerial vehicle (ucav) which is a uav system equipped with a weapon system or has combat capabilities. in this study, the ucav concept was developed with the aim of having a stealth or low observability aspect by being shown to have a low radar cross section (rcs) value. and in this paper the ucav model developed is a generic ucav configuration developed by the nato sto/avt-161 task group, namely saccon ucav. the saccon ucav is also goal-oriented typical of low observability with a combination of high agility and high angle of attack (aoa) capabilities. the results of the saccon ucav design were then analyzed by the rcs value using the sbr method using the ansys hfss software. and the results of the rcs calculation show that the saccon ucav model has a low rcs value and the rcs value can be reduced again by shaping the ucav configuration. © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: unmanned combat aerial vehicle (ucav), stealth technology, radar cross section (rcs), saccon ucav 1. introduction talking about a country's defense system, one of the most important aspects to study is the air defense system. due to the development of the times, defense technology, especially aircraft technology, is also developing. now every country in the world is competing to create a concept of fighter aircraft as a means of national defense in airspace. and one of the air defense technologies that is currently highly developed is the unmanned aerial vehicle (uav). the uav system is an unmanned aircraft flight system that is not manned by humans, which is controlled remotely, either manually or automatically, which consists of unmanned aircraft, payloads, human resources, control systems, data networks, and supporting elements [2]. utilization of the uav system basically can be an appropriate alternative to overcome existing problems, as well as a response to the influence of rapid technological advances, and in line with the implementation of revolution in military affairs (rma), which is aimed at achieving network centric operation or network centricwarfare [7]. the ability of the uav system to carry out surveillance of the national territory by air with its characteristics and advantages, including in terms of flexibility and range, minimized operational risks, and the ability to fly for a relatively long period of time, is a significant consideration for the unmanned aerial vehicle to be able to empowered as a reliable defense equipment to support national defense [8]. the development of the uav system is currently very widely used and is used for various missions such as intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance and even including uav for attack missions or commonly called dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.74-82 75 unmanned combat aerial vehicle (ucav) [4]. in carrying out these various missions, the uav/ucav also requires a supporting technology, one of which is stealth technology .technology stealth aims to avoid detection by enemy defense radars, so that the uav/ucav can more freely carry out its mission [9]. 1.1. concept of stealth technology the emergence of stealth is caused by the emergence of major changes in the scope of warfare that bring the application of technological inventions combined with fundamental changes in doctrine, operations and concepts of military organization, which are fundamentally related to the character and way of conducting military operations. this change is generally known as revolution in military affairs (rma) [6]. therefore, major countries are trying to develop weapons as a product of their defense industry by prioritizing the application of advanced technology. in general, the purpose of using this technology is to launch attacks using aircraft in enemy areas without being detected by the air defense radar [1]. to meet the stealth of the aircraft, there are three things that can be minimized, namely: 1. visual aspects, such as eliminating smoke trails, repainting or repainting the aircraft to resemble environment in which the mission is carried out. 2. infrared aspect which reduces the use of after burner. 3. radar aspect, namely reducing the radar cross section (rcs) of the aircraft. low surveillance is felt to be able to increase the probability of a fighter aircraft's success in carrying out its mission because it is able to provide an element of surprise in the opponent's area. in addition, with the existence of low surveillance combat aircraft, it is hoped that the aircraft will be able to have a better life cycle than combat aircraft that have a higher rcs [3]. radar cross section (rcs) is the ability of an object to reflect the radar signal back to the transmitter source. the smaller the rcs value of an object, the more difficult it is for the object to be detected by enemy radar. the advantages of reducing rcs are as follows: 1. reduction of the detection distance from the target or aircraft. 2. a reduction in the search area or search volume of enemy radar will take longer to scan than for the same amount of space . 3. the enemy defense radar will not be able to detect what objects are approaching [5]. therefore, stealth in aircraft is currently being developed with various methods, one of which is by modifying the shape of the aircraft (shaping) and with material technology that can absorb and deflect radar electromagnetic waves or commonly known as the radar absorbing material (ram) method [10]. the following is a graphic illustration of the difference in rcs values on conventional aircraft with aircraft that have stealth. figure 1. graph of comparison of rcs values between conventional aircraft (20 db) and stealth (-10 db) [1]. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.74-82 76 it can be seen in the image above that by modifying the shape of the aircraft using stealth technology, the rcs value is much smaller than ordinary conventional aircraft, meaning that the aircraft with stealth technology is able to provide superiority to the effect of enemy radar monitoring range so that it is suitable for use on uav for military missions or in this case for surveillance missions, reconnaissance and even attacks in the new state capital area. 1.2. radar cross section (rcs) radar cross section is the ability of a target to reflect back the radar signal towards the source from the radar transmitter. rcs has units of square meters because rcs shows signature of a target, especially fighter aircraft, because it can be said that rcs also shows the projected area of a metal sphere that will emit a certain amount power towards a target [3, 11]. in the usual rcs analysis, there are two types of cases as shown in figure 2, namely the monostatic where the radar transmitter-receiver is located in one place, or the bistatic where the radar transmitter and receiver are separated at different locations. figure 2. reference rcs concept [11] 2. research method in predicting the rcs value, there are several techniques or methods which are broadly divided into two, namely the exact method and numerical approximation. in this research, the method used is numerical approximate with the help of ansys hfss software. shooting and bouncing ray (sbr) method is an approximation method to calculate the rcs value with high frequency, so that predicting the rcs value on large objects will be more effective because great accuracy can be achieved in high frequency analysis [13, 14]. this sbr method is the latest method in analyzing rcs values based on ray tracing and combines geometric optics (go) and physical optics (po) approaches. the advantage of the sbr method is that it can consider several reflection effects and shadow effects. use of the sbr method requires a scattering analysis (sa) process which is carried out in 3 stages. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.74-82 77 figure 3. process of sbr method [12] for analysis, the sbr method still has a weakness because it has not considered the diffraction field at the edges. therefore, ansys hfss v193 software is used. in hfss, sbr is available with advanced diffraction and wave creep physics for increased accuracy. the following is the flow of analysis in predicting the rcs value with the sbr method in the ansys hfss software. figure 4. flowchart of rcs analysis with the sbr method in the ansys hfss software. 3. results and discussion 3.1 unmanned combat aerial vehicle (ucav) design the unmanned combat aerial vehicle (ucav) model used is a generic ucav configuration developed by the nato sto/avt-161 task group, namely saccon ucav. the main reason for choosing this ucav platform is because the geometry of the saccon ucav platform has been designed with stealth requirements which lead the ucav design to the flying wing concept. the basic lambda-shaped geometry of the saccon ucav configuration is also oriented towards the typical goal of low observability with a combination of high agility and high angle of attack (aoa) capabilities, so that in addition to considering low capabilities detected by enemy defense radars, this saccon ucav model was also developed as a realistic ucav concept. the mission parameters and boundary conditions applied to the saccon ucav design are given in table 1 and figure 5 below. table 1. mission parameters and boundary conditions yes dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.74-82 78 figure 5. design mission of saccon ucav the total payload mass for the ucav is 2000 kg. due to signature requirements, the internal storage must be in one or two payload space. a design range of 3000 km without aerial refueling is considered sufficient as an additional spare time of about 45. with this assumption, an operational radius of 1500 km can be achieved. cruising flights to the target area were carried out at an altitude of 11 km with a rate of mach 0.8. in the target area, the ucav must descend to an altitude of 300 m while maintaining a mach figure of 0.8. during the last kilometers it can even descend to 250m and accelerate to mach 0.9 but due to its fixed outer shape, this is only an optional requirement. to maintain good maneuverability for this ucav flying wing without making it laterally unstable, a stability margin of 2–8% was chosen. furthermore, the typical mission of saccon ucav is given in figure 6 below. figure 6. typical mission of saccon ucav the following is an explanation of the typical saccon ucav mission as follows 1) take-off the aircraft will operate outside the airfield in several friendly areas. the length and distance of the runway to some threshold heights will be limited. this is very important for aircraft carrier operations. 2) climb the aircraft will rise to its cruising altitude, precisely at the edge of the stratosphere (~11,000 m). a high climb rate and low fuel requirement would be desirable. 3) cruise the plane will sail to a roaming location. with speeds just below the mach drag increase rate then long distances and fast sailings are desirable. 4) loiter the aircraft will roam, perhaps at a lower altitude, in an area that can use sensors and possibly use weapons. here long endurance is very important. 5) dash the aircraft will fly towards its target as quickly as possible to deploy weapons and/or gather intelligence. maximum speed here is very important. 6) approach during approach, the aircraft will lose altitude to land. 7) landing the aircraft must be able to slow itself down to landing speed. after landing, he must stop before the end of the runway. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.74-82 79 furthermore, to design the saccon ucav platform, it is necessary to determine the design variables and the geometry of the aircraft to be parameterized first. figure 7 below is given the design variables with some assumptions or limitations. figure 7. saccon ucav geometry parameterization then with the help of catia software, a saccon ucav platform design was made based on the variables and parameters that have been previously determined in figure 7 so that the saccon ucav design was obtained as follows figure 8. design of saccon ucav the coordinate system in saccon ucav are given in figure 9 below. figure 9. coordinate system of saccon ucav dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.74-82 80 3.2 radar cross section (rcs) analysis of saccon ucav in conducting the radar cross section (rcs) analysis to calculate the value approach, it is carried out numerically with the help of the ansys hfss (high frequency structure simulator) 2019 r3 software. to perform the radar cross section (rcs) simulation, the assumption used is that the material used is in the form of perfect electric conductor (pec) which is an ideal material that can restore electromagnetic wave energy perfectly so that it is suitable for simulation of radar cross section (rcs) calculations. then the frequency used is 10 ghz, which includes high-frequency x-band radar with a frequency range of 8-12 ghz. this x-band radar is a type of radar commonly used in the military world to detect military aircraft, including aircraft with stealth technology that are still within the range of this radar. then the threat area used is 90° on the elevation plane and 0° to 360° on the azimuth plane. after these assumptions are inputted, then a setup simulation is carried out using the sbr+ method approach with the type of radar receiver used is a monostatic radar. the following are pictures of the simulation results of the radar cross section (rcs) on the ucav saccon model. figure 10. simulation of rcs linear plot figure 11. 3d rcs plots over the entire surface of the ucav geometry dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.74-82 81 then from the simulation results above, the calculation of the rcs value can be generated as a result of entering the input in the rcs simulation in the ansys hfss software as follows. tabel 2. calculation of the rcs on the ucav saccon model freq [ghz] i wave theta [deg] i wave phi [deg] monostatic rcs total [db] 10 90 0 -17.8039 10 90 15 -39.4049 10 90 30 -33.3534 10 90 45 -33.5918 10 90 60 -46.8229 10 90 90 -58.5062 10 90 120 -47.3148 10 90 150 -35.1005 10 90 180 -17.7782 10 90 270 -35.4863 10 90 360 -17.8039 from the simulation results and the calculation of the radar cross section (rcs) value above, the average rcs value is -38.9633 db or equivalent to 0,0039 m . this rcs value is quite small for the ucav class in general, so for reconnaissance missions or air defense security this platform is very suitable for use as a defense tool. from the results of the rcs simulation in figure 10 which is a linear plot related to the effect of the incident wave on the azimuth plane to the rcs value, it shows that the rcs value experienced a spike in the graph at several points. these points cause a spike in the rcs value at approximately -5° to 5°, 30° to 45°, 145° to 150°, 210° to 215° and 315° up to 320°. these points are in the azimuth plane which is the point that has the highest rcs value where when viewed on the ucav platform these points are located on the front of the ucav platform or nose, the side of the ucav and on the tail of the ucav. this is what needs to be analyzed in more depth for the shaping technique at the time of the ucav design that in order to reduce the rcs value the things that must be considered and prioritized in shaping are the nose of the ucav, the wings and tail of the ucav. 4. conclusions the unmanned combat aerial vehicle (ucav) model used is a generic ucav configuration developed by the nato sto/avt-161 task group, which is named saccon ucav. the main reason for choosing this ucav platform is because the geometry of the saccon ucav platform has been designed with stealth requirements which lead the ucav design to the flying wing concept. the basic lambda-shaped geometry of the saccon ucav configuration is also oriented towards the typical goal of low observability with a combination of high agility and high angle of attack (aoa) capabilities, so that in addition to considering low capabilities detected by enemy defense radars, this saccon ucav model was also developed as a realistic ucav concept. the results of the saccon ucav design were then analyzed by the rcs value using the sbr method using the ansys hfss software. from the simulation results and the calculation of the radar cross section (rcs) value above, the average rcs value is -38.9633 db or equivalent to 0,0039 m . from the results of the rcs simulation in figure 10 which is a linear plot related to the effect of the incident wave on the azimuth plane to the rcs value, it shows that the rcs value experienced a spike in the graph at several points. these points cause a spike in the rcs value at approximately -5° to 5°, 30° to 45°, 145° to 150°, 210° to 215° and 315° up to 320°. these points are in the azimuth plane which is the point that has the highest rcs value where when viewed on the ucav platform these points are located on the front of the ucav platform or nose, the side or side of the ucav and on the tail of the ucav. this is what needs to be analyzed in more depth for the dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.74-82 82 shaping technique at the time of the ucav design that in order to reduce the rcs value the things that must be considered and prioritized in shaping are the nose of the ucav, the wings and tail of the ucav. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] n. pramadi, radar and stealth, jakarta: pena nusantara, 2019. [2] f. noor, “historiography drone: from military to cinema,” protvf, vol. 4 (02): p. 185-205, 2020. [3] f. purnomo, r. bura, “aerodynamics-radar cross section (rcs) optimization on the cropped delta wing with design of experiments (doe) and multi objective genetic algorithm (moga) methods,” journal of defense and security innovation, vol. 01 (01): p. 38-48, 2018. [4] e. sloan, military transformation and modern warfare, westport: preager security international, 2018. [5] c. m. liersch, k. c. huber, “conceptual design and aerodynamic analyses of a generic ucav configuration,” aiaa aviation, p. 1-17, 2014. [6] l. gupta et al., “survey of important issues in uav communication networks” ieee commun, vol. 18 (01): 1123–1152, 2015. [7] d. lesmana, “military drone application with indonesian alutsista products for over the horizon operations,” proceedings of the indonesian national seminar on science, technology and innovation air force academy, vol. 3, p. 1–10, 2021. [8] a. utama et al., “sejarah penggunaan pesawat terbang tanpa awak (ptta) dalam perang modern dan persiapan militer indonesia,” jurnal pertahanan dan bela negara, vol. 11 (3): p. 167-181, 2021. [9] salunkhe and naikwade, “stealth aircraft technology” international journal of engineering science and computing, vol. 8 (6): p. 18268-18271, 2018. [10] zikidis k., “low observable principles, stealth aircraft and anti-stealth technology,” journal of computations and modelling, vol. 4, no.1, pp. 129-165, 2014. [11] f. knott, eugene, t. tuley, f. shaeffer, radar cross section, 2nd edition, scitech publishing: usa, 2004. [12] j. coppin, aerodynamics-stability and shape optimisation of unmanned combat air vehicle, thesis, university of sheffield, southern yorksire, england, 2014. [13] c. m. liersch et al. “multidisciplinary design and aerodynamic assessment of an agile and highly swept aircraft configuration” ceas aeronaut, p677–694, 2016. [14] d. vicroy et al., “low-speed dynamic wind tunnel test analysis of a generic 53 swept ucav configuration with controls,” aiaa applied aerodynamics conference, 2014. microsoft word 46-51_234.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 4, january 2023, pp.46-51 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v4.id234 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 46 force development against irregular and hybrid warfare in indonesia jefferson benyamin1*, much mualim2, editha praditya duarte3 1,2,3 republic of indonesia defense university, faculty of defense management, indonesia *corresponding author e-mail: jeffersonbenyamin@gmail.com received 3.2.2023. revised 22.2.2023. accepted 23.2.2023 abstract the development of national defense is directed to be able to answer various possible threats and actual problems that are adjusted to the geographical conditions and dynamics of the strategic environment. current and future threats are growing very fast and increasingly complex. threats to the state can essentially be classified into three types, namely military threats, both armed and unarmed, non-military threats, and hybrid threats. the threats that have emerged during the co-19 pandemic are irregular warfare and hybrid threats. this research will discuss the analysis of force development to face the threat of irregular warfare and hybrid warfare in indonesia. this research uses a qualitative method with a literature study approach. based on the results of the study, it is concluded that indonesia as a country that has a strategic location and attractiveness of various spectrums needs to always prepare itself by implementing relevant strategies in accordance with the capital already owned in the indonesian nation itself, this is needed to avoid national disunity due to irregular warfare that enters the joints of state life. © the author 2023. published by arda. keywords: development of national defense, irregular warfare, hybrid warfare, indonesia 1. introduction current conditions bring the world no longer in volatility, uncertainty, complexity, ambiguity (vuca) which is characterized by its complexity but in bani which brings disorientation, unpredictability and chaos. bani as an acronym for brittle, anxious, nonlinear and incomprehensible was proposed in early 2020 [2]. furthermore, according to cascio, in articulating an increasingly common situation with volatility or complexity, simple is not enough to understand the situation that occurs. the existing conditions are not only unstable but also chaotic. the shadow of the future is not only difficult to foresee but completely unpredictable. finally, what is happening is not only ambiguous but also incomprehensible. with the existence of bani, every country in the world, especially indonesia, must pay detailed attention to every threat to sovereignty that will occur. as stated by defense minister prabowo subianto in the leadership meeting, the dynamics of a complex strategic environment have the potential to give rise to various forms of threats such as military, non-military and hybrid threats that will threaten national interests, territorial integrity, danger to state sovereignty and the safety of the entire indonesian nation in the future [7]. current and future threats are growing very fast and increasingly complex. threats to the state can essentially be classified into three types, namely military threats, both armed and unarmed, non-military threats, and hybrid threats. threat estimates in the next five years, in accordance with predictions and priorities, within the framework of existing doctrine, these threats are categorized in the form of real and unreal threats [6]. threats that come must be responded to appropriately. whatever the way and whenever the time. the threats dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.46-51 47 that have emerged during the covid-19 pandemic are irregular warfare [5] and hybrid threats [6]. in this research, the author intends to discuss the development of forces to face irregular warfare and hybrid warfare in indonesia. 2. research method the research method used in this writing is to use data collection methods through literature study [10]. literature study is a series of activities related to library data collection methods, reading and recording, and processing research materials. the stages that must be taken by the author in library research are as follows:  collecting research materials. the material collected is in the form of information or empirical data sourced from books, journals, the results of official and scientific research reports and literature on the conditions for the development of irregular warfare and hybrid warfare in indonesia.  reading library materials. in reading research materials, readers must dig deeply into reading materials so as to find new ideas related to the research title.  making research notes. taking notes on research materials is said to be the most important stage because all the materials that have been read must be drawn to a conclusion in the form of a report.  processing research notes. all materials that have been read are then processed or analyzed to obtain a conclusion that is compiled in the form of a research report. data analysis in this study was carried out through descriptive analysis method, which is defined as an effort to collect and compile data, then analyze the data so as to produce a comprehensive conclusion. 3. results and discussion a. irregular warfare and hybrid warfare irregular warfare is defined as violent conflict between states and non-state actors with the aim of gaining legitimacy and influence in the surrounding society [3]. geopolitical changes in the world that occurred at the end of the 20th century fundamentally altered the security environment and forced western countries to engage in new types of asymmetric military conflicts with non-state actors, terrorist organizations and criminal syndicates. new types of threats, various military conflicts and the search for effective responses require reconsideration, generalization and assessment of the latest military experience and the formulation of theoretical concepts that will help to prepare and operate effectively within the zone of military conflict. this condition led to the formulation and formation of new military theories, including hybrid warfare theory. the hybrid war theory developed by hoffman includes four aspects: conventional forces, irregular tactics, terrorism, and criminal acts in one battle space [8]. this is corroborated by the statement of former tni commander marshal hadi tjahjanto that the most prominent threat in the future is a hybrid threat [9]. hybrid threats are threats that mix military and non-military threats. the development of the industrial revolution 4.0 provides extraordinary benefits, but at the same time it also creates a paradox of threats that utilize industrial revolution 4.0 technology so that in the future war will no longer be dominated by military power alone. war has entered the 4th and 5th generation of warfare, namely asymmetric warfare, proxy warfare, and hybrid warfare. hybrid threats can take many forms, such as cyber threats, biological threats, such as the current covid-19 pandemic, and the threat of inequality. the future warfare model will be those who are able to exploit these threats and create security, and sovereignty. b. irregular warfare and hybrid warfare in indonesia the conditions of irregular warfare in indonesia were explained in great detail during the covid-19 pandemic by prof. indrajit, which consisted of four things [5]:  first, the perception that the government has neglected public safety since the first pandemic signals were seen is repeatedly presented to the public through a number of evidences. official remarks by government officials who were not serious in looking at the pandemic storm in the early days of its presence were framed in such a way and presented repeatedly via the mass media. before the pandemic took place, there were many discourses among political elites and the public that led to a number of tensions. the triggers came from a number of sources. first, the thick and lingering feelings of "hurt" over the process and results of the last presidential election democratic party, where dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.46-51 48 the two competing camps still cannot forget the past feud. the losing side still feels strongly that they were cheated by their incumbent opponent.  second, there has been a slowdown in growth due to various global trade and economic dynamics due to the fierce competition between the united states and china. the increase in national debt and the increase in imports show the seriousness of the conditions faced by indonesia, which is described as a situation that will be further exacerbated by the pandemic.  third, law enforcement is still considered discriminatory, which is often compared to the phrase "sharp down, blunt up" by some critics. radicals believe that the government uses legal and bureaucratic instruments to "eliminate" its political opponents, especially evident in the pandemic management policy that does not involve "political opponents".  fourth, the political pendulum is moving very dynamically, characterized by the maneuvers of political parties in moving wildly in the face of various rapid environmental changes. the public is confused by this movement so that it is not clear which constellation is "friend, which is foe" in the state and democracy. fifth, the submission of a number of draft laws, either government or parliamentary initiatives, which are considered not in favor of the small people. an example is the omnibus law which is considered to only favor businessmen and the power elite, at the expense of ordinary people or the pancasila ideology bill which has drawn pros and cons everywhere. sixth, there is still a lot of friction between community groups due to various recent issues that are hot to talk about such as: the rise of communism, the caliphate, the concept of secularism, primordialism, and so on [1] and forgetting the common interest in facing a pandemic disaster. in addition, the existence of hybrid warfare is a concern for indonesia in running its life. one of the emerging hybrid wars is cyber warfare. the national cyber and crypto agency data states that in 2019 there were 290 million reported cases of cyber attacks in indonesia. compared to the previous year when cybercrime caused us$34.2 billion in losses in indonesia, this number is 25% more. c. analysis of irregular warfare and hybrid warfare in indonesia the occurrence of irregular warfare in the territory of the republic of indonesia, for the following reasons [5]:  by some, the relentless attacks on the government aim to bring down the legitimate government, by trying to convince the public that the government is not working as it should, and is no longer able to manage the pandemic and save the indonesian economy;  the desire to bring down the regime has also begun to appear with various parties trying to compare the success of the current government with previous regimes that are considered far more successful in managing the country, or comparisons with other countries that have succeeded in driving the pandemic out of their territory;  opinion building in the form of psy wars in various ways is put forward to win the hearts of the public, even to convince them, components that are considered to be respected such as: members of the dpr / mpr, retired military, religious leaders, former state officials, and leaders of mass organizations, who criticize the government's way of handling the pandemic; there are a number of movements that interfere with the power in running the wheels of government, as shown through various activities such as demonstrations, motions of no confidence, opposition declarations, debate challenges, complaints to international courts, and others; and  the imposition of will on power has also begun to be seen by many community groups through approaches such as: threats of mass mobilization, boycotting the implementation of regulations, ignoring enforced health protocols, and other matters. these reasons continue to surface today by presenting a new war in indonesia called irregular warfare. irregular warfare is a challenge for indonesia coupled with hybrid warfare. both must be anticipated by indonesia on the basis of the sovereignty and integrity of the indonesian state. in the context of irregular warfare, the communication approach is important to be carried out continuously and continuously. failure of political communication can trigger the development of irregular warfare in indonesia. in the context of hybrid warfare, indonesia needs to prepare for it as a response to technological developments. efforts to survive cyber operations are important but no less important is the countermeasure of such behavior so that it does not recur in the future. the presence of a cyber army is also a priority that has been launched, one of which is equipping soldiers with capabilities that they are ready to face cyber war [4]. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.46-51 49 d. force development in the face of irregular warfare in facing the challenges of irregular warfare that will occur in the future indonesia needs to optimize all its resources, for this reason indonesia as a large nation already has several resources that can be used as resources to face these challenges including: a. capital geography indonesia's geographical position which is located in a cross position of the world, namely between two continents (asia and australia) and two oceans (indian ocean and pacific ocean) has a very strategic meaning in the development of the indonesian state both in terms of economy, politics, socio-culture and defense and security. with this strategic position, indonesia has become an international trade route both by sea and by air. this makes indonesia a country that has the potential to develop the trade and tourism sectors in order to improve the nation's economy. indonesia is also the largest maritime country. in addition, as stipulated in law number 3 of 2022 concerning national defense, the indonesian national defense system is universal in nature, involving all citizens, territories and other national resources including natural resources and artificial resources that are prepared early by the government and held in a total, integrated, directed and continuous manner to uphold state sovereignty, territorial integrity, and the safety of the entire nation from all threats. to become a strong country, the main prerequisite is the country's ability to organize, prepare and use all resources owned for national interests. therefore, it is necessary to manage national resources for national defense including natural resource management. b. demographic capital indonesia currently has a population of 265 million or 3.49% of the world's total population. indonesia is the fourth most populous country in the world after china (1.4 billion people), india (1.3 billion people) and the united states (328 million people). this is one of the supporting factors in national development as well as in efforts to realize national resilience, but it can also be an inhibiting factor if not managed properly in terms of the quality of its human resources. c. local wisdom and pancasila indonesia's indigenous values have proven to be able to accommodate all group interests into a harmonious blend. these values are local wisdom that can bring indonesia to the peak of glory, including the spirit of gotong royong, helping each other, pluralism and ethics. the spirit of gotong royong is the local wisdom of the indonesian people that has existed since our ancestors. the precepts in the pancasila state foundation are powerful guidelines that are timeless. the first precept of belief in one god is a guideline in how we practice our religion. the second precept, fair and civilized humanity, is a guideline in interacting with fellow human beings, both domestically and around the world. the third precept, the unity of indonesia, is a guideline for how we state, our strength in the state is unity, not others. while the fourth precept, "democracy led by wisdom in the deliberation of representatives" is a guideline in democracy. if we carry out all of this well, we will undoubtedly be able to achieve the fifth principle, social justice for all indonesian people. for this reason, all components of the nation must strengthen themselves and unite their determination to return to the original values and local wisdom of the indonesian people and to guide and implement pancasila correctly and fully in every aspect of the life of the nation and state. in addition to the capital already owned in building defense forces will be related to how much the ability to convert national resources owned into an effective instrument of strength. strategies and ways to deal with future wars include: a. ideology development 1. the practice of the ideological pillars of the indonesian state. objectively and subjectively continues to be developed and improved. 2. pancasila as an open ideology needs to continue to be relevant and actualize its instrumental value so that it is still able to guide and direct life in society. 3. the motto of bhineka tunggal ika and the concept of archipelago insight derived from pancasila must continue to be developed and instilled in a plural society. b. political development in the current era of globalization, freedom of information voiced by the press and media must play an active role as a counterweight to power, not otherwise used by the authorities as a tool to perpetuate dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.46-51 50 power. therefore, national resilience in the political field can be reformulated to create a political institutional system that is more open, transparent, accountable, clean, non-corrupt, involves broad community participation, and is of a service nature. c. economic development 1. the economic system is directed at realizing fair and equitable prosperity and welfare throughout the archipelago through a people's economy. 2. a populist economy should avoid the following:  liberalism system that only benefits strong economic actors.  the system of ethatism kills the potential and creative power of economic units outside the state system. 3. the economic structure is strengthened in a balanced and mutually beneficial manner in harmony and integration between the agricultural and industrial sectors as well as services. 4. economic development which is a joint effort based on the principle of kinship under the supervision of community members motivates and encourages active community participation. 5. equitable development and utilization of its results are always carried out with due regard to the balance and harmony of development between regions and between sectors. 6. the ability to compete must be fostered in a healthy and dynamic manner to maintain and improve the existence and independence of the national economy. d. socio-cultural development 1. recontextualize, dynamize and re-present regional culture creatively, realistically and in line with the times. 2. reviving national culture with an integrative and responsive character for the formation of a dynamic and responsive indonesian nation. 3. national integrity as a guide to national resilience in the field of socio-culture. 4. development of religious life in a tolerant, open and cultured manner. 5. democratic national education to form people of character and culture who are nationalist and responsive to the times. e. defense and security development realizing the condition of the nation's deterrence based on awareness of state defense (patriotism) which contains the ability to maintain the stability of a dynamic state security defense, carry out development and defend state sovereignty by warding off all forms of threats. as illustrated in the indonesian philosophy of war: "the indonesian people love peace, but they love independence more". defense and security must be able to realize preparedness and state defense efforts that contain resilience, ability and strength to ensure the continuity of national development and the survival of the nation and state based on pancasila and the 1945 constitution. 4. conclusions based on the explanation of force development to face the threat of irregular warfare and hybrid warfare in indonesia above, the author draws several conclusions, namely: 1. irregular warfare and hybrid warfare are defined as threats that must be taken seriously by a country that also have an impact on the sovereignty and integrity of a country. 2. the development of irregular warfare threats continues to emerge as an integral part of the covid-19 pandemic. in addition, hybrid warfare also continues to overshadow indonesia with cyber warfare as one of the factual threats. 3. cases of irregular warfare and hybrid warfare in indonesia must be used as a threat projection with careful strategic preparation starting from to shape, to respond, and to prepare both in terms of budget and human resource readiness. 4. indonesia as a country that has a strategic location and attractiveness of various spectrums needs to always prepare itself by implementing relevant strategies in accordance with the capital that is already owned in the indonesian nation itself, this is needed to avoid the occurrence of national disunity due to irregular warfare that enters the joints of state life. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.46-51 51 declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] m. affan, "the threat of is proxy warfare on indonesian millennial muslims", indones. j. islam muslim soc., vol. 8, no. 2, p. 199, 2018. [2] j. cascio, "facing the age of chaos", medium, 29-apr-2020. [online]. available: https://medium.com/@cascio/facing-the-age-of-chaos-b00687b1f51d. [accessed: 24-feb-2023]. [3] t. endo, "the conceptual definition of ‘irregular warfare’ and the today’s international security environment", international forum on war history: proceedings, 2017. [4] t. gestoro, "hybrid warfare", in siapkah kita menghadapinya, publika.rmol.id, 2021. [5] r. e. indrajit, p. widodo, r. w. putro, "irregular warfare phenomena in the covid-19 pandemic: situation prediction simulation of post epidemic catastrophe in indonesia", journal of informatics engineering and information systems, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 522–532, 2020. [6] "ministry of defense strategy to build defense, from diplomacy and overcoming pandemics", nasional. tempo. co, 2021. [7] minister of defense prabowo chaired the second day of the ministry of defense meeting, attended by the tni commander and the indonesian national police chief. 2022. [8] k. kilinskas, "hybrid warfare: an orientating or misleading concept in analysing russia’s military actions in ukraine?", lith. annu. strat. rev., vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 139–158, 2016. [9] a. sudrajat, "panglima tni: hybrid war one of the threats for the next 5 years", news. detik. com. [10] m. zed, library research methods, indonesian torch foundation, 2008. microsoft word 233-article text-576-1-15-20230320.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 4, january 2023, pp.59-64 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v4.id233 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 59 collaboration between the population and civil registry service with 0707/wonosobo district military command fulfillment of children's rights through child identity card selfira salsabilla1*, george royke deksino2, rizerius eko hadisancoko3, ade surya prabandari putri4, zean elhamas baihaqy5, titin sofiana6, devi kusumawati7 1,2,3republic of indonesia defense university, faculty of defense management, indonesia 4,5,6,7universitas islam negeri sunan kalijaga, faculty of adab dan ilmu budaya, indonesia *corresponding author e-mail: selfirasalsabilla20@gmail.com received feb. 2, 2023 revised 20 mar., 2023 accepted 21 mar, 2023 abstract child identity card is issued by the government to encourage increased data collection, protection and public services to realize the best rights for children. the existence of child identity card shows the government's seriousness in fulfilling the rights of indonesian citizens who are still underage to obtain public service rights that are equal to adults. the collaboration between the office of population and civil registration (disdukcapil) of wonosobo regency to issue child identity card in sigedang is considered effective in targeting the community directly so that people can be more familiar with the functions and benefits of having child identity card. this research belongs to the type of descriptive research using a qualitative approach which means this research describes a real phenomenon. there were 3 informants in this study as informants. the research data were obtained from various data sources, namely primary data and secondary data. data collection is done through observation, interviews and documentation © the author 2023. published by arda. keywords: office of population and civil registration; collaboration; 0707/wonosobo district military command 1. introduction children's rights in terms of identity ownership as fulfillment of population administration requirements are basic things that must be fulfilled. currently through permendagri number 2 of 2016 concerning child identity cards there is to guarantee children's rights in legal protection.. the central government's efforts to implement the child identity card program as an effort to the newest population administration program are a concrete form of protection for children as the state's obligation to protect every citizen. child protection is all activities to guarantee and protect children and their rights so that they can live, grow, develop and participate optimally in accordance with human dignity and values, and receive protection from violence and discrimination. efforts to protect children are absolutely needed, considering that currently there are more and more phenomena that make indonesian children victims [1]. this card is only issued by the regency/city population and civil registration office. the issuance of child identity card aims to improve data collection, protection, and fulfillment of citizens' constitutional rights. child identity card has two types, namely identity cards for children aged 0-5 years and 5-17 years. the terms of issuance, for newly born children, the child identity card will be issued together with the birth certificate. however, for children who are not yet 5 years old and do not have child identity card, the requirements include a copy of the birth certificate excerpt and show the original birth certificate excerpt. in addition, you need a family card of parents or guardians and original id cards of both parents or guardians. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.59-64 60 issuance of child identity cards in wonosobo regency has reached level 4 and is still continuing to disseminate information and data collection to all regions in wonosobo regency. as of july 2022, the number of children who already had a child identity card was 92,349 (38.93%) and 144,841 of those who did not yet had a total of 237,190 children. previous research in tasikmalaya regency with the title implementation of child identity card policy at the tasikmalaya city population and civil registry service written by nidia rismania dewi resulted that implementation of child identity card policy in tasikmalaya city that, implementation of child identity card policies that are in the department of population and civil registration of the city of tasikmalaya is as expected. procedures and provisions have been carried out properly. the results of research in the field show that this policy has been implemented very well by officers. employees are very proficient in carrying out their duties and serving the community in child identity card services according to established rules. in registering population data, employees only need a short amount of time to make child identity card without being charged a penny. in the dimension of communication and human resources, it is still lacking and needs to be improved again [2]. another study conducted by windi dwi arista with the title implementation of the child identity card program policy at the badung regency population and civil registry office found that implementation experienced obstacles due to problems with the application system on the computer and problematic networking. besides that, another problem is the supply of electricity in the event of a blackout, because this core equipment requires a stable supply of electricity. and related to the use of child identity card provided by the badung regency population and civil registry service, it has not been maximized and cannot be implemented properly because many people still do not understand the functions and benefits of child identity card [3]. in this study we will use the theory of collaboration and implementation of public policy. in this study, the authors found two problem formulations that will be discussed, namely how to accelerate the achievement of child identity card in wonosobo regency? and how is the implementation of the collaboration with 0707/wonosobo district military command in accelerating the achievement of child identity card? 2. research method in this study, the researcher used a qualitative descriptive research type in which the analysis will be based on the ability and results of the researcher's study in connecting field facts, information obtained and existing data. qualitative research methods were used as a procedure in this study which produced descriptive data, namely describing the facts found in the field either in writing or orally obtained from various sources encountered. the sampling technique in this study used the purposive sampling technique, namely in this method using the criteria that had been selected by the researcher in selecting the sample [4]. the analysis technique in this study used qualitative analysis, where the data obtained was clarified and described in easy-to-understand sentences. then it will be analyzed based on the object under study and will be interpreted with existing data or theoretical basis so that the results can be assessed as a whole. all data were obtained from interviews, manuscripts, documentation, official personal documents and other documents that support the validity of obtaining research data [5]. data collection techniques used were interviews, observations and literature studies. informants who became sources include: 1. commander of kodim 0707/wonosobo. 2. head of the population and civil registration office of wonosobo district. 3. head of service and registration on civil registration office of wonosobo district. 4. sigedang village head. the research location is in the wonosobo regency area (indonesia). the research time was during the activities of tmmd sengkuyung phase ii of 2022 in sigedang village, kejajar district from july 26 to august 24, 2022. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.59-64 61 3. results and discussion 3.1 procedures for issuing child identity card in wonosobo district the child identity card is an identity card that every child must have in order to be able to access public services independently. some of the benefits of child identity card include as an effort to improve citizen data collection, as protection and public services and as an effort to provide protection and fulfillment of children's rights as part of citizens. several legal bases for issuing a child identity card include: 1. law number 24 of 2013 concerning amendments to law number 23 of 2006 concerning population administration. 2. government regulation of the republic of indonesia number 102 of 2012 concerning amendments to government regulation of the republic of indonesia number 37 of 2007 regarding the implementation of law number 23 of 2006 concerning population administration. 3. regulation of the minister of home affairs number 2 of 2016 concerning child identity cards. as a consideration for the issuance of child identity card are: 1. currently children who are under 17 years of age and who are not married do not have a resident identity that is valid nationally and is integrated with the population administration information system (siak). 2. that the government is obliged to provide a valid national identity. 3. that the provision of population identity to children will encourage an increase in data collection. 4. whereas based on the above, the government needs to stipulate ministry regulation regarding child identity card. making a child identity card is a service product from the wonosobo regency population and civil registration office. based on minister of home affairs regulation number 2 of 2016 concerning child identity cards article 1 paragraph (7) this card is only issued by the regency/city population and civil registration office. this regulation is also in accordance with article 2 in the same regulation which contains the issuance of a child identity card aimed at increasing data collection, protection and public service as well as an effort to provide protection and fulfillment of citizens' constitutional rights. the department of population and civil registration of wonosobo regency has carried out the socialization process for issuing a child identity card since 2019. the socialization process is divided into two ways, namely direct and indirect socialization processes. the direct socialization process was carried out through commemorations of national days such as: national children's day, national education day, and through the tni manunggal pembangunan desa (tmmd) program. while indirect socialization is carried out through broadcasts on local television and socialization to operators and village officials which is carried out once a year. the child identity card priority targets for wonosobo regency are in 5 sub-districts out of 16 sub-districts, namely sukoharjo district, kalikajar district, kertek district, garung district and kejajar district. however, these 5 sub-districts have met the national child identity card target of 40 percent of the total number of children in wonosobo district. the disdukcapil of wonosobo regency has made several efforts to meet the national child identity card target, including: 1. conduct outreach either directly or through the mass media. the socialization has been carried out by department of population and civil registration wonosobo regency since 2019 directly by inviting village officials and village operators to then convey it to the target community for child identity card. in addition, disdukcapil also conducts socialization directly by participating in events that absorb public interest such as the wonosobo anniversary event, national children's day, expo and others. the department of population and civil registration always opens booths to attract public interest in issuing child identity cards. disdukcapil also conducts socialization through mass media such as making advertisements on the streets in the form of billboards, mass television, live broadcasts, the ministry of communication and informatics website and others. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.59-64 62 2. balateka innovation (make deeds directly become deeds, family card and child identity card). this innovation is a program from the disdukcapil of wonosobo regency, where the only requirement is to show a birth certificate and marriage certificate. this service can also be done independently using the disdukcapil whatsapp call center service by taking a photo of the requirements file. so, applicants don't have to bother coming to the disdukcapil office. disdukcapil also delivers documents to the applicant. 3. ball pick up and document delivery services. this service is carried out with the concept of kuda zebra (i came happy community) because when the people concerned want to issue documents in the form of id cards, child identity card or certificates they do not need to come to the dukcapil office but are directly escorted to their residence by officers from dukcapil. 4. the constraints experienced by the population and civil registry service (disdukcapil) of wonosobo regency based on the results of interviews with mr. siswanto, s.h., mm. as the head of service and civil registration sector, basically there were no significant obstacles during the socialization and issuance of child identity card processes. however, he said that the lack of human resources (hr) in carrying out every task, such as picking up balls to make id cards and child identity card, was still limited. the wonosobo regency disdukcapil only has 50 employees consisting of 19 civil servant and 31 freelance daily employees (phl), then a service based on sending documents via whatsapp makes it easier for the public because it is considered more flexible but disdukcapil has to sort, match and enter data -the data to the siak application (population administration information system). [6] issuance of child identity cards in wonosobo regency has reached level 4 and is still continuing to disseminate information and data collection to all regions in wonosobo regency. as of july 2022, the number of children who already had a child identity card was 92,349 (38.93%) and 144,841 of those who did not yet had a total of 237,190 children. the various benefits of child identity card issuance include: as a child's official identity, child protection and as a public service to realize the best rights for children. however, the community does not fully understand the function of child identity card, so not all of the community benefits from this child identity card. this is caused by several factors, namely: a) lack of facilities and infrastructure to more intensively carry out outreach; b) there are still many people who think that child identity card is not important; c) child identity card is not yet mandatory in wonosobo regency; and d) although the procedure for issuing child identity card is easy, there are still people who have not fulfilled the completeness of the documents such as child birth certificates, family cards or other requirements. 3.2 collaboration between kodim 0707/wonosobo and the service in issuing child identity card wonosobo regency epistemologically, the word collaboration comes from english, namely, "co-labor" which means working together. in the 19th century the word collaboration came into use when industrialization began to develop. organizations at that time became increasingly complex. divisions in the making of the organizational structure began to be made for the division of tasks for the workforce in the organization. organizational complexity is the starting point for collaboration in various organizations [7]. philosophically, collaboration is an effort made by various parties to achieve the same goal. according to schrage in [8], collaboration is an effort to unite various parties to achieve the same goal. collaboration requires various kinds of actors both individuals and organizations who work hand in hand to carry out tasks in order to achieve common goals. collaborative governance is a forum used to achieve a goal. according to [9], collaborative governance is a condition in which the government fulfills public goals through collaboration between organizations and individuals. the same thing was also expressed by [10] who stated that collaborative governance is a condition when the government and the private sector seek to achieve a common goal for society. collaborative governance can also describe a state of interdependence between actors. the desire to do collaborative governance arises because the actors are aware of the limitations they have. then, these actors need to express their desire and willingness to forge closer relationships with other actors. each actor involved needs to acknowledge the legitimacy held by other actors. once the actors are committed to collaborating, it is necessary to build a sense of shared ownership of each collaboration process [11]. the collaboration built by disdukcapil in wonosobo district was carried out because of limitations, namely in the process of conveying information related to the importance of having child identity card so that it collaborates with kodim 0707/wonosobo as a medium for conveying information to the public, especially through tmmd activities. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.59-64 63 based on the opinions of various experts, it can be concluded that collaborative governance is a process of cross-sectoral multiorganizational network structures (government, private sector, civil society) that make collective agreements, joint decisions, reach consensus through formal and informal interactions, the creation and development of norms in interactions that mutually beneficial in achieving common goals. therefore, in collaboration, the interactions that appear are egalitarian, that is, all actors have the same position. republic of indonesia law number 34 of 2004 concerning the indonesian national army (tni) stipulates that the duties of the tni include military operations for war (omp) and military operations other than war (omsp) [12]. implementation of military operations other than war which must be based on state policies and political decisions. military operations apart from war, one of which is the existence of community service operations which are the implementation of omsp in the form of assisting local governments. one form of service operation is the tmmd (tni manunggal membangun desa) program. the tni manunggal build village (tmmd) program has a physical target as well as carrying out non-physical activities including, by providing counseling and outreach, one of which is the success of population administration services in the form of issuing child identity card in sigedang village, kejajar district, wonosobo regency. with the role and participation of kodim 0707/wonosobo which is implementing the tmmd program in sigedang village, it facilitates direct socialization by targeting the sigedang village community. this was felt to be quite effective because the tni, through babinsa and members of the tmmd task force, immediately gave an explanation to the public about the benefits of owning a child identity card [13]. this collaboration shows a significant increase in participation in child identity card services, as evidenced by the achievement of 540 child identity card services in 30 days, whereas if there was no collaboration, only up to 60 cards [14]. 4. conclusions issuance of child identity card is very important for the fulfillment of children's rights, especially in the village of sigedang, wonosobo. the department of population and civil registration (disdukcapil) of wonosobo regency has carried out various methods ranging from outreach, innovation, to picking up and providing services via whatsapp to facilitate access to child identity card issuance. however, with the collaboration with the kodim 0707/wonosobo which works directly with the community, the child identity card data collection to be submitted to the disdukcapil to issue child identity card is felt to be very effective because the increase in requests for child identity card issuance in sigedang village is quite significant. the obstacles experienced by the disdukcapil of wonosobo regency were not significant obstacles and did not reduce the performance of child identity card issuance, which incidentally was easy and straightforward. the length and absence of issuance depends on the completeness of the data that goes to the disdukcapil of wonosobo regency. while the process itself only takes a maximum of two working days. acknowledgements thank you to the commander of the kodim 0707/wonosobo, the head of the wonosobo regency population and civil registration office and the head of sigedang village who have agreed to provide information and supporting information in writing this article. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they haven’t any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.59-64 64 references [1] i made sila, i made purana, dan a. r. b. a. “policy implementation of minister of home affairs regulation no. 2 of 2016 concerning child identity cards (kia) at the denpasar population and civil registry service”, ipdn journal, vol. 11, no. 1, pp 84-96, 2020. [2] n. dewi, “implementation of the child identity card (kia) policy at the population and civil registry service in the city of tasikmalaya“, scientific journal of administrative sciences, vol. 10, no. 1, pp 913, 2019. [3] wd. arista, w. suderana, “implementation of child identity card (kia) program policy at the badung regency population and civil registry service”, social dynamics scientific journal, vol. 3, no.1, pp. 56-60, 2019. [4] sugiyono, understanding qualitative research, bandung: alfabeta, 2014. [5] j. w. creswell, research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.) thousand oaks, ca: sage, 2014. [6] results of interviews with mr. tarjo (head of the wonosobo regency population and civil registration service) and mr. siswanto, s. h., mm. (head of services and civil registration). [7] j. wanna, “collaborative government: meanings, dimensions, drivers and outcomes, on o‟flynn”, jannie & wanna, john. collaborative governance: a new era of public policy in australia?, canberra: australian national university e press, 2008. [8] j. harley, n. blismas, “an anatomy of collaboratuon within the online environment, on anandarajan, murugan (ed)”, e-research collaboration: theory, techniques and challengers, heidelberg: springer international publishing, 2010. [9] j. d. donahue, r. j. zeckhauser, collaborative governance: provate roles for public goals in turbulent times, new jersey: princenton university press, 2011. [10] m. holzer et al, an analysis of collaborative governance models the context of shared services dalam lauer schachter, hindy kaifeng, yang (ed). the state of citizen participation in america, charlotte: information age publishing, 2012. [11] c. ansell, a. gash, “collaborative governance in theory and practice”, journal of public administration research and theory, vol. 18, no.4, pp. 543-571, 2007. [12] law number 34, year 2004, concerning the indonesian national armed force. [13] interview results with lt. col. inf rahmat, s. e., m.sc (commander of 0707/wonosobo military district command). [14] interview results with the head of sigedang village. microsoft word 106-112_211.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 3, january 2022, pp.106-112 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id211 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 106 laminar composite materials for unmanned aircraft wings mala utami1*, jonathan ernest sirait2, beny budhi septyanto3, aries sudiarso4, i nengah putra apriyanto5 1,2,3 faculty of defense technology, indonesian defense university, indonesia *corresponding author e-mail: mala.utami@tp.idu.ac.id received nov. 15, 2022 revised dec. 2, 2022 accepted dec. 21, 2022 abstract unmanned aerial vehicles (uavs) have high popularity, especially in the military field, but are now also being applied to the private and public sectors. one of the uav components that require high material technology is the wing. the latest material technology developed as a material for unmanned aircraft wings is a composite material that has high strength and lightweight. this research aims to identify composite materials that can be used for unmanned aircraft wing structures. the method used in this research is a qualitative method with a literature study approach. the results of this theoretical study show that some of the latest composite materials that have been developed into materials for unmanned aircraft wings are laminar composites with a sandwich structure. laminar and sandwich composites consist of various constituent materials such as balsa wood fiber-glass and polyester resin, microparticles, carbon fibre reinforced polymer, polymer matrix composites reinforced with continuous fibers, polymer matrix composites, e-glass/epoxy, kevlar/epoxy, carbon/epoxy, woven fabrics, acrylonitrile butadiene styrenecarbon (abs) laminated with carbon fiber reinforced polymer (cfrp) and uniaxial prepreg fabrics. laminar and sandwich composite materials are a reference for developing unmanned aircraft wing structures that have resistant strength and lightweight. © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: uav wings, composite materials, laminar composites, sandwich composites 1. introduction an unmanned aerial vehicle (uav) can be defined as a type of aircraft that is not controlled by a pilot, but uses aerodynamic forces with a lift so that it can fly autonomously or be remotely controlled, can be recovered or disposed of, and can carry payloads that can be tailored to the desired task and operation [1]. uavs are increasing in use for both civilian and military use and are preferred because they are more cost-effective and more versatile. so in the last few decades uavs have become very popular due to their versatility [6]. currently, unmanned aerial vehicles (uavs), or in indonesia known as unmanned aircraft (drones) have high popularity so the development of good materials at a low price becomes a goal. not only that but designing uavs also requires engineers to design and produce on a large scale with limited time [3]. the development of uavs in the aviation industry is to find materials or materials that have high speed. the advancement of uavs is highly dependent on innovations in various technologies such as control systems, computer technology, and communication integration. innovations in manufacturing techniques and materials are also important to develop and improve uavs’performances by producing durable and lightweight dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.106-112 107 structures. this can be achieved by applying innovative composite materials with high strength, ballistic and rigid properties. advanced composite materials are made of fibrous materials embedded in a resin matrix, generally laminated with fibers oriented in alternating directions to form the strength and stiffness of the combined material [3]. wing development for unmanned aerial vehicles (uavs) is a multi-stage work such as airfoil selection, geometric calculation, structural design, material selection, numerical analysis, and manufacturing. the main objective in wing development is to design a structure characterized by high strength and low weight. the wing should have a high strength ratio and be supported by lightweight. there will be loads and moments acting on the wing so to overcome the stress due to these loads the wing must have high strength. the weight or weight of the wing must be low because the heavyweight will reduce unwanted efficiency in the engine [3]. with the development of material technology, it is easy to access and purchase composite materials. with the advancement of composite manufacturing technology, to make even complex shaped parts can be made easily in a few days. the use of uav composite materials is different from that of general aviation vehicles, where most of the structures are made of aluminum and titanium in addition to carbon fiber composites. whereas almost all uav structures are made of carbon fiber composites [2], it becomes possible to manufacture a uav in a laboratory or workshop for 4 or 5 people in a few weeks. in addition, maintenance and repair of uavs can also be done quickly and easily because they are assembled from small, cheap, and easy-to-manufacture composite components. composite materials offer an excellent strength-to-weight ratio with greater manufacturability of complex parts, unique contours, and special features, especially in aircraft applications. one of the basic aircraft components of concern in the application of composite material structures is the wing profile [6]. figure 1. comparison of stiffness and strength with a weight between composite materials [4] dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.106-112 108 in the selection of composite materials for uavs that have high criteria, it means that the selected material must have resistant strength and be lightweight. for example, polymer matrix composites reinforced with continuous fibers are a good choice. these materials are characterized by young's modulus values twice as high as those of aluminum alloys and twice as lightweight [5]. the difficulty of using composite materials lies in the structure, the use of composite materials requires knowledge of material constants and mechanical properties. correctly defining the characteristics of the composite material will guarantee that the material can be a good structure and have the desired reliability of results. the use of composites in aircraft is increasing day by day, especially in military aircraft. composite materials have the advantages of high strength and lightweight which are very well applied to complex parts, unique contours, and special features, especially as aircraft materials. one aircraft component that is very suitable for using composite materials is the wing profile. therefore, this paper raises the issue of the use of composite materials in unmanned aerial vehicles (uavs), especially on the wings. this paper is a theoretical study that aims to increase the knowledge of authors and readers in material engineering technology and its application in the military. 2. research method this research uses a qualitative method with a literature review approach. the discussion or analysis is carried out based on the works of research results related to the topic and the results of thoughts that have been produced by researchers and practitioners. the literature review is one of the techniques that can be used in research. a literature review has its own difficulties when compared to other research techniques. as it requires a high understanding of the researchers in conducting a study of a problem to be solved related to the theory to be used, and the model or method to be carried out. the stages in this literature review research are as follows. a. finding and determining relevant literature, this activity requires high focus and shrewdness in finding data sources, especially secondary data. journals, articles, and books are the main sources in this research, the more sources used, the better the results obtained. b. conducting literature screening, at this second stage, the researcher must be able to filter the selection of sources that have been obtained to be used in problem-solving. of the many sources obtained, they are evaluated to adjust to the objectives of the research to be achieved. c. strengthening the topic with the sources that have been obtained, at this stage, this is the level of difficulty in the literature review because it must be able to strengthen existing theories with sources and discuss gaps in the form of advantages or disadvantages of each source. d. conclude based on the outcome of the discussion so as to reach a solution to the problem raised. 3. results and discussion the definition of composite material is a material consisting of two or more phases with significantly different properties (physical and chemical). combined together to form a new material with different characteristics from its components. the resulting composite material properties are beneficial properties that cannot be achieved with one phase/component alone. and what is unique is that each component remains separate in the finished structure [3]. one of the most common examples of composites is fiber-reinforced composite materials that consist of high-strength and modulus fibers in a matrix material. reinforced steel bars embedded in concrete provide an example of fiber-reinforced composites. in a composite, the function of the fiber is to carry the load exerted on the composite structure and provide stiffness, strength, thermal stability, and other structural properties. while the matrix material serves as a component that binds the fibers together, transfers fiber loads, and provides protection to reinforce the fibers against chemical attack, mechanical damage, and other environmental effects such as moisture and others [6]. the composite industry has grown rapidly with the advent of better plastic resins and good reinforcing fibers. as dupont developed the aramid fiber known as kevlar, it has become a standard in armor due to its high ductility. in addition, carbon fibers were also developed so since this time composites have become a dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.106-112 109 substitute for metals as a new material. at present, of course, the composite industry continues and is still growing, its growth as a metal replacement material as an aircraft material, especially in unmanned aircraft [7]. composites have unique advantages over other monolithic materials such as high strength properties, high stiffness, durable life, low density, and adaptability to the structure being created. in addition, recent composite materials are exploring improvements such as corrosion resistance, wear resistance, appearance, temperature-dependent properties, thermal stability, thermal insulation, thermal conductivity, and acoustic insulation. the basis that makes composite materials have superior structural performance lies in the high specific strength (strength to density ratio) and high specific stiffness (modulus to density ratio) and the anisotropic and heterogeneous character of the material. the anisotropic and heterogeneous character also provides the freedom to design structures with optimal configurations to obtain certain functions [8]. composite materials can be classified into several types, namely [9]: a. first classification, based on matrix constituents. organic matrix composites (omcs), metal matrix composites (mmcs), and ceramic matrix composites (cmcs). the term organic matrix composites are generally assumed to cover two classes of composites, namely polymer matrix composites (pmcs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites. b. the second classification refers to reinforcement. fiber reinforced composites, laminar composites, and particulate composites. c. fiber reinforced composites, are composites in which fibers as reinforcement are embedded in the matrix material. these composites are called discontinuous fiber composites or short fiber composites with properties that vary depending on the length of the fiber. d. laminar composites, composites consisting of material held together by a matrix. sandwich structures fall under this category. e. particulate composites, composites consisting of particles distributed or embedded in the matrix body. the particles are in the form of flakes or powders. article board, concrete, and wood are examples. in its application as a leading material in uavs, especially wings, ceramic materials used are various as described above. based on research conducted by lamaini et al., [10] the sandwich structure made consists of balsa wood, fiberglass, polyester resin, and microparticles used to close the pores of the balsa wood surface. the results of the mechanical properties analysis of the uav wing structure can be seen in that the sandwich structure can be used in uav applications. the developed uav wing weighs 800 grams, 20 mm camber thickness with a length of 20 mm and a span of 70 mm. tensile, compressive, and flexural tests have been carried out on the sandwich structure. the results of the average tensile and compressive properties of the composite can compete with existing composite materials. the lay-up method can cost production and can also be used in large-scale production. so it can be concluded that balsa wood-based sandwich composites can be used as uav wing structures. all main components in the aircraft are made of cfrp (carbon fibre reinforced polymer) composite material consisting of woven and uniaxial prepreg fabrics. uniaxial prepreg fabrics aim to ensure volume consistency and will provide a smooth overlap. a low-cost manufacturing process can be achieved by reducing the number of parts and a fabrication process that does not require costly autoclaving. the characteristics obtained from the test results of the uav wing structure with composite materials are the shaker-table approach to simulate the wing on the uav. the shaker-table method produces a signal of greater magnitude with less noise when compared to data obtained from a full aircraft configuration [11]. table 1 shows previous research on material utilization for uav wings, with authors, titles, methods and type of composite materials given. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.106-112 110 table 1. previous research on material utilization for uav wings author (year) title methods composite material lamani, shivaji., stanvil dsouza, dane hubert saldanha, granvil dsouza and madhurima r londhe. (2020) [10] analysis, fabrication and testing of a sandwich composite for an uav wing hand lay-up technique sandwich composite (fiberglass and polyester resin and microparticles) j. simsiriwong & r. warsi sullivan. (2012) [11] experimental vibration analysis of a composite uav wing the form of woven and uniaxial prepreg fabrics carbon-fiber reinforced polymer (cfrp) composite basri, e. i., sultan, m. t. h., m., f., basri, a. a., abas, m. f., majid, m. s. a., ahmad, k. a. (2019) [12] performance analysis of composite ply orientation in aeronautical application of unmanned aerial vehicle (uav) naca4415 wing ply combinations carbon fiber reinforced polymer (cfrp) laminated composite grodzki, w., & łukaszewicz, a. (2015) [3] design and manufacture of unmanned aerial vehicles (uav) wing structure using composite materials. polymer matrix composites reinforced with continues fibers, polymer matrix composites (laminates and sandwich structures) tah’ir turgut (2007) [6] manufacturing and structural analysis of a lightweight sandwich composite uav wing vacuum bagging method with curing at room temperature laminated composite and sandwich structure (eglass/epoxy, kevlar/epoxy, carbon/epoxy) sasi kirono (2015) [13] mechanical properties of unmanned aircraft composite materials a comparison of the mechanical properties of composite materials is carried out by tensile strength testing. front fuselage components upper skin with three layers of carbon fiber, honeycomb, and glass fiber vasić, zoran, stevan maksimović, and dragutin georgijević (2018) [15] applied integrated design in composite uav development pyrolysis of an organic precursor such as rayon or poly-acrylonitrile, or petroleum pitch graphite fibers, glass, carbon and graphite, kevlar, boron and carbon fibers dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.106-112 111 according to research conducted by basri et al., [12], the acp (ansys composite preppost) module is used to apply composite materials with various thicknesses and angles. which is applied to wing skins, spars, and ribs. laminate composite is prepared according to the classical laminate theory (clt) to investigate the behavior of composite sandwich structures subjected to internal influences from applied loads. in ansys, the model of a wing structure is interpreted in the form of shell elements (lamina). the effect of ply orientation on the naca 4415 uav wing composite laminate was evaluated. analytical predictions show that the stress state developed in the variation of fiber orientation with ply-angle has a significant influence on the strength. finite element analysis studies show the total displacement values obtained are within the acceptable range. unmanned aerial vehicle (uav) wings according to their purpose vary in airfoil shape, thickness, chord dimension, span, surface area, and geometry. despite the differences, the design concept is similar to all types of structures. due to the high requirements of modern uav (high-strength-low-weight) composite materials, especially polymer matrix composites reinforced with continuous fibers are the most appropriate choice. to transfer such loads, composite structures have been designed. the first proposed structure is a laminated composite consisting of glass cloth (outer) and unidirectional carbon cloth (inner) reinforced with balsa wood ribs for proper shape. the construction made is a type of sandwich structure, since the upper and lower layers of fabric are separated with balsa wood ribs. the second analysis structure is characterized by an additional foam core separating the glass-carbon fabric layers. numerical analysis of composite structures based on the same boundary conditions showed that the sandwich structure is characterized by the deflection of the foam core layer under the load of 11.34 mm 3 times smaller than the carbon fiber laminate deflecting 32.16 mm considering the same weight. lightweight composite structures based on carbon, glass fibers produced by the vacuum bag technique minimize the creation of voids (bubbles and wrinkles) and allow to obtain of high fiber content which translates into higher strength of the created structures [3]. according to research by vasić et al [15] composites with graphite fiber materials are the strongest and stiffest materials widely used in unmanned aircraft structural systems. placing fibers in graphite composites, it will increase the strength and stiffness of the composite material. tensile testing of coupon specimens was conducted to obtain the modulus of elasticity of the composites used in the uav. the elastic properties obtained from the mechanical tests were used in the elemental analysis of the uav wing. the woven fabric was modeled as a 2-d orthotropic layer in the analysis. in addition to mechanical testing, elastic properties were also obtained by two other methods. one method is the composite micromechanics approach. in this approach, the properties are obtained based on the volume fraction of the constituents and their respective mechanical properties. the woven fabric is modeled as a biaxial cross-ply laminate in the analysis. another method used to derive elastic properties is the approximate approach. this approach is based solely on the rule of mixtures. in this case, the woven fabric is also modeled as a 2-d orthotropic layer. it can be concluded from the results of the full-wing analysis that the three material definitions used to give consistent and acceptable results. moreover, if the displacement results are observed, it is clear that they are almost the same [10]. research has been conducted by galatas et al [16] using the latest sandwich composite structure consisting of acrylonitrile butadiene styrenecarbon (abs) laminated with carbon fiber reinforced polymer (cfrp) layer with abs/cfrp/abs arrangement. a series of tests were conducted with tensile measurements for 3d printed samples with varying filler densities and cfrp layers. the results showed that the abs/cfrp/abs sandwich structure during the tensile tests exhibited brittle properties while it was ductile for the monolithic abs samples. 4. conclusions laminar composites type composite material with sandwich structure is the latest composite material and is widely applied as a uav wing structure. laminar composites and sandwiches consisting of various materials such as balsa wood fiberglass and polyester resin, microparticles, carbon fiber reinforced polymer, polymer dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.106-112 112 matrix composites reinforced with continuing fibers, polymer matrix composites, e-glass/epoxy, kevlar/epoxy, carbon/epoxy, woven fabrics, acrylonitrile butadiene styrenecarbon (abs) laminated with carbon fiber reinforced polymer (cfrp)and uniaxial prepreg fabrics. this laminar-type composite material with a sandwich structure has good test values and can be used as a uav wing structure material. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] us department of defense, “dictionary of military and associated terms”, joint publication 1-02. [2] hexcel corporation. unmanned aerial vehicles (uavs). retrieved from https://www.hexcel.com/resources/uav#:~:text=today%2c%20almost%20all%20uav%20structures, addition%20to%20carbon%20fiber%20composites. diakses pada 28 agustus 2022. [3] grodzki w., łukaszewicz a. (2015), “design and manufacture of unmanned aerial vehicles (uav) wing structure using composite materials”. materialwissenschaft und werkstofftechnik, 46(3), 269–278. doi:10.1002/mawe.201500351. [4] http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/interactive_charts/spec-spec/ns6chart.html [5] ch. kassapoglou, “design and analysis of composite structures with applications to aero-space structures”, wiley, 2013. [6] t. tah’ir, “manufacturing and structural analysis of a lightweight sandwich composite uav wing”. thesis. middle east technical university, 2007. [7] s. k. mazumdar, “composites manufacturing: materials, product, and process engineering”. crc press, 2002. [8] i. m. daniel, o. ishai, “engineering mechanics of composite materials”. oxford university press, 1994. [9] r. r. nagavally, composite materials history, types, fabrication techniques, advantages, and applications”. proceedings of 29th irf international conference, 2016. [10] s. lamani, s. dsouza, d. h. saldanha, g. dsouza, m. r. londhe, “analysis, fabrication and testing of a sandwich composite for an uav wing”. 3rd international conference on frontiers in automobile and mechanical engineering (fame 2020). doi:10.1063/5.0033993, 2020. [11] j. simsiriwong, r. w. sullivan, “experimental vibration analysis of a composite uav wing”. mechanics of advanced materials and structures, 19(1-3), 196–206. doi:10.1080/15376494.2011.572248 2012. [12] e. i. basri, m. t. h. sultan, m. f. basri, a. a. abas, m. f. majid, m. s. a. ahmad, “performance analysis of composite ply orientation in aeronautical application of unmanned aerial vehicle (uav) naca4415 wing”. journal of materials research and technology. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt. 2019.06.044. 2019. [13] k. sasi. (2015). “sifat mekanis material komposit pesawat udara tanpa awak”, retrieved from: http://repositori.lapan.go.id/525/1/bunga%20rampai_sasi%20kirono_bppt_2015.pdf, 28 august 2022. [14] j. n. reddy, mechanics of laminated composite plates. crc press, 1997. [15] z. vasić, s. maksimović, d. georgijević, "applied integrated design in composite uav development." applied composite materials 25.2: 221-236, 2018 [16] a. galatas, h. hassanin, y.zweiri, l. seneviratne. "additive manufactured sandwich composite/abs parts for unmanned aerial vehicle applications." polymers 10, no. 11: 1262, 2018. microsoft word 79-85_172.docx defense and vol. 2, may 2 https://doi.org this work is lice to share and ada authorship and in analysis coefficie tarik šaban 1 mechanical e *correspond © the auth 2021. published by arda. 1. introdu small calibe for personal ammunition ammunition due to the m move and th the force w the projectile the surface), in aerodynam three refere are: referenc force of dra dimensionle empirical fo used to pred the projecti developmen d security s 2021, pp.79-85 g/10.37868/ds nsed under a cre apt the material nitial publication s of th ent usin nović1 engineering fac ding author: : hor y uction er ammunitio protection. i n, in the gen generally do movement o he parameters with which th e (namely th , and has a ve mics, in ord ence quantitie ce length, re ag that divi ess quantity c ormulas were dict the press ile for a de nt of comput 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mental tests w tion, on a sp cal expressi rediction of sn 2744-174 ginal research s s on drag as used to ojectile on scribes the l reference parameters m, and the nes drag in of fluid in el, used in o reserved ion of the the model 56, and the analysis of n for weapon ter trajectory small calibe n impact. r is forced to the surface o angentially to quantities [1] ess and these ir flow). the sure gives a which can be ecific part o ons and the aerodynamic 1 h g s y. r o f o ]. e e a e f e c dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.79-85 80 coefficients based on the geometric characteristics of the projectile. the rapid advancement of computer technology has introduced a new discipline called computational fluid dynamics (cfd computational fluid dynamics) which represents the third method in aerodynamics completing the previous two, pure theory and pure experiment. computer fluid dynamics is the art of approximating major partial differential equations which describe fluid flow by simple algebraic expressions [2]. the end result of the application the cfd on the projectile flow is a picture of the flow field around the projectile which allows for a detailed analysis of the influence of individual parameters on the pressure (velocity) distribution and thus on aerodynamic drag coefficient. 2. influence of projectile shape on drag force coefficient in addition to the flow velocity (represented through mach number), the aerodynamic drag coefficient in large extent depends on the geometric characteristics of the projectile. slenderness of the projectile implies the ratio of the length of the projectile to the reference diameter of the projectile. figure 1. shows the dependence of the drag coefficient on the mach number for the three shapes of projectiles. the upper curve represents the drag coefficient for a spherical projectile, the middle curve corresponds to the drag coefficient for the projectile without the rear cone and with front part made with small slenderness, and the lower curve is the drag coefficient of a modern projectile. in terms of projectile slenderness, the sphere has the lowest slenderness and the modern projectile has the greatest slenderness. figure 1. coefficient of drag as a function of mach number depending on the shape [3] all three curves shown in figure 1. have the same trend. in the subsonic area the drag coefficient is constant (middle and lower curve) or changes very little, in the transonic area rises sharply to its maximum value and begins to slowly decline. the trend of a slight decrease in the drag coefficient with an increase in the mach number continues in the supersonic range. it can also be noticed that projectiles with higher slenderness have smaller drag coefficient and that their maximum value of the drag coefficient occurs for the values mach's number closer to one. 3. mathematical model aerodynamics is a theoretical and experimental science, and represents a branch of fluid mechanics. theoretically approach is based on the analytical solution of mathematical models of air flow. an analytical solution gives a complete insight into the physics of a problem, and once determined the analytical solution is suitable for the analysis of the influence of individual parameters in the mathematical model. most airflow problems are described by nonlinear partial differential equations, which do not have a general analytical solution. this is especially true for turbulent flow, which due to the stochastic nature of that flow cannot be described analytically. with the development of computers, conditions were created for the numerical solution of mathematics model. each simulation is based on a mathematical model, which denotes a mathematical notation physical model. dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.79-85 81 the mathematical model includes the following assumptions:  air is a continuum.  air is considered a homogeneous mixture of gases.  the physical properties of air are the same in all directions the air is isotropic.  air is a single-phase fluid.  mass forces are neglected. the continuum assumption implies that the density of the fluid is large enough that even the infinitesimally small element of the fluid contains a satisfactory number of particles so it is possible to specify average velocity and average kinetic energy. that way they can determine flow characteristics (velocity, pressure, temperature, etc.) at each fluid point [4]. continuity behavior can be described by transport equations based on the basic laws of mass conservation, momentum, and energy. the equations derived from the given laws are presented in integral form for an arbitrarily selected part of the continuum, the volume ω bounded by a closed area the limit of the control volume dω (figure 2). the surface element ds is defined by the unit vector of the normal 𝑛 [4]. figure 1. control volume [4] law of mass conversation states: 𝛿𝛿𝑡 𝜌𝑑𝛺 + ρ(�⃗� ∗ 𝑛) 𝑑𝑆 = 0 (1) law of momentum conservation implies: 𝛿𝛿𝑡 𝜌�⃗� 𝑑𝛺 + ρ�⃗�(�⃗� ∗ 𝑛) 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑑𝛺 − ρ(𝑛) 𝑑𝑆 + (𝜏̿ ∗ 𝑛) 𝑑𝑆 (2) law of energy conservation states: 𝜌𝐸 𝑑𝛺 + ∮ ρe(�⃗� ∗ 𝑛) 𝑑𝑆= ∮ k(∇t ∗ 𝑛) 𝑑𝑆 + 𝜌𝑓 ∗ �⃗� + 𝑞 𝑑𝛺 − ∮ p(�⃗� ∗ 𝑛) 𝑑𝑆 + ∮ (𝜏̿ ∗ �⃗�) 𝑑𝑆 (3) here 𝑣 is velocity of airflow, p is pressure, ρ is density, t is temperature, e is total energy, and �̿� is stress tensor. the system of equations describing high-velocity flow cannot be solved analytically. to solve this system it is necessary to introduce a simplification or a problem or the equations. with the development of computers and computer fluid dynamics (cfd) numerical solution of equations describing the flow can be obtained. 4. solving equations using cfd numerical solution of a mathematical model that describes the flow in the considered problem consists of three steps. in the first step, the area is discretized. result of discretization of space is called a geometric grid. on the defined geometric grid it is necessary to discretize the partial differential equations of the mathematical model, respecting specific boundary conditions. the discretization of the equations is carried out by some of dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.79-85 82 the known methods (finite volume method, finite element method, finite difference method etc.). result of discretization of partial differential equation on given geometric web is a system of algebraic equations. the nonlinear system of equations is solved iteratively by a procedure that involves solving a system of linear algebraic equations. a numerical solution is obtained, followed by its analysis, which includes a display of scalar, vector and tensor fields, integration of flow, force, moments, thermal flows, etc., and a diagram of the desired quantities. one of the main prerequisites for using a cfd model is validation model that takes place in several steps [4]:  checking the program code.  comparison of the obtained results with the available experimental data (predicting measurement errors).  sensitivity analysis and parametric study.  application of different models, geometry and initial/boundary conditions.  reports on findings, model limitations, and parameter settings. the aerodynamic drag coefficient of the sphere was used here to verify the flow model for which experimental data are available [3]. the physical model of this case, the sphere in air flow, is shown in figure 3. figure 2. sphere in air flow the diameter of the sphere in the simulations was 2.54 mm and the flow was simulated at different velocities (2; 2.5; 2.64 and 3 mach). pressure and temperature of free air flow in all simulations were: p∞ = 101325 pa and t∞ = 300 k. figure 3. drag coefficient as a function of mach number for spheres with different diameters figure 4 shows a comparison of experimental and numerical results obtained. for free air flow velocity of ma = 2.64 (point c) by numerical simulation the value of the coefficient of drag for the sphere, with diameter 2.54 mm, was cd =0.95, which is about 1% higher than the value obtained experimentally. deviation (relative difference) observed were as follows: for m = 2 the deviation was 3%, for m = 2.5 the deviation was 4%, for m = 2.64 the deviation was 5% and for m = 3 the deviation was 4%. comparing the values, very good agreement was observed between the experimental values and values determined using the ansys fluent software package. dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.79-85 83 5. analysis of results the flow for four 5.56 mm projectiles with different (supersonic) velocities was considered in the research. the following assumptions were adopted for all simulations:  working fluid is air, an ideal gas, which is modified in accordance with compressibility and changes in thermo-physical characteristics with temperature.  density and viscosity depend on temperature, and cp and thermal conductivity are considered constant.  the parameters of free air flow were: p∞ = 101325 pa and t∞ = 300k.  the flow around the projectile is considered compressible and turbulent.  discretization of the spatial domain was performed by non-uniform unstructured mesh.  a "density-based solver" was used, developed for compressible high-speed flows.  the equations were linearized in implicit form, i.e. for given variable, unknown in each cell was calculated using relations that include existing and values from adjacent cells. the flow field around the projectile and the aerodynamic drag coefficient were determined by using fluent program for specified conditions. four small-caliber projectile were used for num. simulations; for these projectiles experimentally determined values of aerodynamic drag coefficient [6] were known. models used were:  5.56 mm ss109,  5.56 mm m855,  5.56 mm l110,  5.56 mm, m856. simulations with free flow for each of the projectiles was performed for velocities in the range of 1.2 up to 3 mach for the following values of mach numbers: 1.2; 1.5; 1.7; 2; 2.5; 2.64 and 3. although all observed projectiles consist of a front part, a cylindrical part and a rear part, on projectiles ss109 and m855 the rear part have the shape of a bevelled cone and on projectiles l110 and m856 the rear part have the edged shape. for this reason, two groups will be formed in the analysis of results. the first group consists of projectiles with a conical rear part, ss109 and m855, and the second group consists of projectiles with a edged rear end, l110 and m856. the results of the simulations, in the form of the drag coefficient values, for the first group of projectiles are shown in figure 5. in figure 5. are also presented the results of experimental tests for projectiles ss109 and m855. figure 4. drag coefficient vs mach number for projectiles 5.56 mm, models ss109 and m855 [5] 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 cd ma ss-109/m855 ss-109 m855 experimental data ss109 experimental data m855 dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.79-85 84 from the figure 5. it can be seen that the agreement of experimental and numerical data in supersonics is very good and the maximum rel. error is 2%. agreement in transonics is somewhat lower, with rel. error of 10%. it can be noticed that the 5.56 mm ss109 projectile has a lower drag coefficient than the 5.56 mm projectile m855 in the supersonic range. observing the pressure distribution [6] around the projectiles 5.56 mm, ss109 and m855, shows that the ss109 projectile has a lower maximum pressure at the top of the front part in relation to the pressure at the top of the front part of the projectile 5.56 mm, m855; this also results in less drag on this part of the projectile. if we compare the pressure distribution at the rear for these two projectiles, it can be seen [6] that the m855 projectile has a lower bottom pressure than the ss109 projectile at the same velocity flow, which results in a higher coefficient of drag for this part and in accordance with the theoretical considerations 5.56 mm projectile ss109 has a slightly larger slenderness of the front part, significantly higher slenderness of the rear end and approximately the same overall slenderness in relation to the 5.56 mm m855 projectile; although it has larger angle of inclination of the rear cone, which is unfavorable, it can be stated that it is better aerodynamically shaped from a 5.56 mm projectile, m855, for flight at supersonic speeds. simulation results, drag coefficient vs ma number, for the second group of projectiles, projectiles 5.56mm, l110 and m856, are shown in figure 6. together with the experimental data. figure 5. drag coefficient vs. mach number for 5.56 mm projectiles, models l110 and m856 [5] on figure 6. it can be seen that the agreement of the experimental with the numerical results is very good and that many points actually match. observing the pressure distributions [6] flowing around the front of the 5.56 mm projectile l110, and around the front part of the projectile 5.56 mm m856, it can be noticed that the pressure at the top of the front of the projectile m856 is less than the pressure at the top of the projectile l110, which also results in less drag on this part. the front of the l110 projectile is also slimmer from the front part of the m856 projectile, resulting in a lower drag coefficient of the front part of the projectile. considering the pressure distribution at the rear of the l110 projectile and at the rear projectile m856, a lower pressure is observed at the rear and at the bottom of projectile 5.56 mm l110. although the m856 projectile has a greater slenderness of the rear and smaller coefficient of drag at the bottom, it can be concluded that the greatest influence on the total coefficient of drag in the supersonic area have the shape and slenderness of the front part of the projectile. figure 6. shows that the 5.56 mm projectile l110 has a lower drag coefficient than projectile 5.56 mm m856 in the considered velocity range. in the range of velocities up to mach 1.5, the trend of the l110 projectile drag curve is the same as the trend of the coefficient curve for projectile m856. at the flow rate m = 1.7, the value of the drag coefficient projectile l110 approaches the value of the drag coefficient of the projectile m856, where the rel. difference is less than 5%. with a further increase in the flow rate, this difference decreases and for m = 3 it is less than 4%. more data from this research can be found in reference [6]. 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 cd ma l110/m856 l110 m856 experimental data m856 experimental data l110 dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.79-85 85 6. conclusions in this paper, the influence of projectile shape for 5.56 mm ammo on aerodynamic drag coefficient is analyzed at supersonic velocities, using computational fluid dynamics. during these analyses, the following was found:  shorter, blunt projectiles have a higher drag coefficient than slender projectiles.  in the supersonic range, the length of the fornt part has a large influence on the drag coefficient and with increasing slenderness of the front of the projectile comes a significant reduction of the coefficient of drag.  at higher (supersonic) velocities, the front of the projectile shaped like a secant has the lowest drag, less so than the conical and tangential front shapes.  the rounded tip of the projectile will result in less drag than the blunt tip.  increasing the slenderness of the rear part of the projectile reduces the coefficient of drag and for supersonic velocities the optimal length of the rear part is between 0.5 and 1 caliber.  the optimal value of the rear cone angle, at supersonic speeds, is 7. in the ansys fluent software package, based on a theoretical consideration of the supersonic projectile flow, a system of equations is chosen to describe the flow of air around projectiles. the domain in which the calculation is performed has been defined and boundary conditions have been set. from the offered software options for solving equations, the solving model was chosen and for each simulation the initial conditions were defined. before num. simulations for projectiles, the model was verified based on the aerodynamic drag coefficients of the sphere for different flow velocities. analysis of the influence of projectile geometrical characteristics on the drag coefficient at zero yaw angle was performed based on the results of numerical simulations. they are simulated for 5.56 mm projectile, ss109, m855, l110 and m856 models. these projectiles have similar outer shape: front part in the shape of a secant, cylindrical part and end part. they differ in the slenderness of individual parts of the projectile, in the slenderness of the whole projectile, by the radii of the ogive, by the shape of the rear part of the projectile. for each of the projectiles, 7 simulations were performed for ma = 1.2; 1.5; 1.7; 2; 2.5; 2.64 and 3. the greatest influence on the drag of the projectile has the shape and slenderness of the front part of the projectile; 5.56 mm ss109 and m855 projectiles have lower slenderness compared to projectiles 5.56 mm l110 and m856. regardless of the slenderness and how the ss109 and l110 projectiles are different they show similar aerodynamic characteristics in terms of the influence of their shape on drag; subsequent analysis of the results concluded that these two projectiles in some parts of the supersonic regime have the same drag. the drag analysis showed that the ss109 and l110 projectiles have less drag compared to projectiles m855 and m856. references [1] s. janković, aerodynamics of projectiles, faculty of mechanical engineering, belgrade, 1979. [2] anderson, j., modern compressible flow, mcgraw‐hill publishing, singapore, 1990. [3] mccoy, r., modern exterior ballistics: the launch and flight dynamics of symmetric projectiles, schiffer publishing ltd, 2nd edition, pennsylvania, 2012. [4] blazek, j., computational fluid dynamics: principles and appications, elsevier science ltd, oxford, uk, 2001. [5] sabanovic t., “analysis of influence of projectile shape on its drag coefficient for 5,56 mm ammunition using cfd”, mechanical engineering faculty, university of sarajevo, 2021. microsoft word 23-28_228.doc issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 4, january 2023, pp.23-28 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id228 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 23 indonesia's role in the g20 presidency during the conflict between russia and ukraine ria purwati1*, hikmat zakky almubaroq2, edy saptono3 1,2,3 republic of indonesia defense university, faculty of defense management, indonesia *corresponding author e-mail: riapurwa21@gmail.com received jan. 13, 2023 revised jan. 31, 2023 accepted feb. 1, 2023 abstract indonesia was appointed as the g20 presidency holder at the 2020 riyadh summit and handed over from italy on october 31, 2021 in rome, italy. along with the g20 presidency activities in indonesia, the conflict between russia ukraine heated up again in early february 2022 after the russian fighter fleet attacked the ukrainian border, precisely in belarus. various impacts were felt by countries around russia-ukraine including indonesia. indonesia as the holder of the g20 presidency in 2022 must take a stand against russia invading ukraine. this paper uses qualitative research methods, data collection techniques in this paper are based on internet-based research. the indonesian government as the g20 presidency has also conducted political, legal and security negotiations that not only talk about the issue of war that occurred between russia and ukraine in early 2022 but also bring the main issue of the economy. indonesia's duty according to the constitution is to encourage that world issues can still be resolved in the g20 forum. indonesia's stance in realizing world peace is enshrined in the preamble of the 1945 constitution. in an effort to create world peace, indonesia is considered to still have to prioritize wise steps. © the author 2023. published by arda. keywords: presidency, g20, indonesia, russia, ukraine 1. introduction the global financial crisis in 2007 has created a negative impact on both developed and developing countries. the global financial crisis occurred due to a lack of international coordination that was responsive to the crisis and unaccountable financial sector regulations (excessive risk taking). the global financial crisis caused developed countries to experience a downturn in their financial sector and impacted the real sector, while developing countries were affected in the field of trade and foreign investment. so the idea of the g-20 leaders meeting group was formed to organize a g20 summit for the leaders or heads of state of the g20 group in washington dc on november 15, 2008 [1]. g20 members began coordinating joint action through an assessment process that identified common goals for the global economy, the policies needed to achieve them, and progress toward meeting those common goals. the fact that gdp per capita in g20 countries is on a lower growth path than before the global financial crisis is a major concern for the g20. nonetheless, employment levels have risen to almost pre-crisis levels. the g20 is a multilateral cooperation forum consisting of 19 major countries and the european union that have middle to high income classes, developing countries to developed countries. g20 members consist of countries from various regions in the world including the united states, canada, mexico, argentina, brazil, united kingdom, germany, italy, france, russia, south africa, saudi arabia, turkey, china, japan, south korea, india, indonesia, australia and the european union. the g20 has no permanent leader or chairman, while the presidency function is held by one of the members for one year [2]. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.23-28 24 indonesia was confirmed as the g20 presidency holder at the 2020 riyadh summit and handed over from italy on october 31, 2021 in rome, italy. indonesia's g20 presidency officially begins on december 1, 2021 until the next presidency handover at the summit at the end of 2022. g20 indonesia consists of various meetings that will be held in several cities in indonesia. about 19 cities besides bali will be involved such as jakarta, bogor, semarang, solo, batam bintan, medan, yogyakarta, bandung, sorong, lombok, surabaya, labuan bajo, lake toba, manado, malang and others. the g20 presidency in 2022 was the first time for indonesia to join the g20 since the international forum was established in 1999. at that time, indonesia was recovering from the 1997-1998 economic crisis and was considered an emerging economy with enormous economic size and potential in the asian region. indonesia was the only asean and g20 member that played an important role in the recovery of the world's health and economy. the 2022 g20 presidency in indonesia could be the right momentum for the indonesian government to reset its focus on the long-term development agenda and to realign the post-covid-19 recovery agenda. indonesia has the opportunity to lead the g20 presidency in harmonizing several global and regional issues. the priority issues discussed at the g20 presidency are understanding the challenges and the need for collective action so that indonesia will focus on three main pillars at the 2022 g20 presidency namely the global health architecture, sustainable energy transition and digital and economic transformation. along with the g20 presidency activities in indonesia, the conflict between russia ukraine heated up again in early february 2022 after the russian combat fleet attacked the ukrainian border, precisely in belarus. the russian troops sent to ukraine are estimated to be in large numbers and can be used as a force to invade ukraine. this was the cause of the escalation of tensions between russia-ukraine after russia had previously been angry at ukraine for having good relations with nato countries [3]. the russia-ukraine conflict has created a catastrophic humanitarian crisis and threatened the stability of geopolitical relations. the war has added to growing concerns of slowing global growth, rising inflation and debt, and a surge in poverty. the main impact of the russia-ukraine conflict on the world economy is rising energy prices and declining confidence in global financial markets, coupled with massive international sanctions against russia. while ukraine is not a significant trading partner for any major economy, it is russia that has a large exposure to the eu and the uk. countries such as china, the united states, germany, france and italy represent one of russia's main import partners, with russian demand accounting for between 1.3-7 % of its gdp [4]. various impacts are felt by countries around russia-ukraine including indonesia. indonesia as the holder of the g20 presidency in 2022 must take a stand against russia's invasion of ukraine. the geopolitical condition caused by the russia-ukraine war is one of the risks faced by the indonesian g20 presidency in 2022. the g20, which was established as a forum for global economic cooperation, is overshadowed by the russiaukraine conflict. according to finance minister sri mulyani, the conflict is a challenge that threatens the values of the g20. for indonesia, managing a meeting in the midst of conflict is a challenge in itself because the indonesian g20 presidency must continue to run according to the agenda of strategic discussions that not only concern indonesia but also the world [5]. there is a sad history in the world economy when there was a monetary crisis that struck from 1997 to 1999. the monetary crisis that occurred led to a movement formed by finance ministers from several major countries in the world. this was later named the g7 or the group of seven. this forum was formed as a response to the concerns that plagued the world community as a result of the monetary crisis that occurred at that time. in 1997 the monetary crisis spread in the asian continent, especially thailand, which experienced a decline in the value of the baht currency. this is because foreign currencies have a minimal nominal amount so that thailand is unable to maintain the value of the baht currency against the united states dollar. this then made thailand have a large debt, which resulted in an economic crisis as a result of the decline in the value of the currency. the development and progress of the world is very much determined by the global commitment in realizing developed and developing countries and having a balance in advancing the economy, environment and social. this commitment is very important in order to synergize the steps and policies of countries in the world in achieving the same goal of prosperity for all. indonesia's involvement in this matter is very important because on several occasions indonesia has become one of the countries capable of synergizing world welfare and peace, one of which is through indonesia's role in initiating countries that are members of asean. therefore, dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.23-28 25 it is not impossible that in 2022 indonesia will be asked to be the g20 presidency which will automatically host the g20 summit in 2022 [6]. in carrying out its duties at the g20 presidency, indonesia took part in helping to resolve the conflict between russia and ukraine. conflict resolution is a social situation in which the conflicting parties in an armed conflict want to make peace and voluntarily choose to coexist and solve the basic causes of the incompatibility of the interests of the two parties so that violence can be stopped [7]. then galtung [8] defines 2 types of peace, namely positive peace and negative peace. positive peace is peace that creates an atmosphere of harmony and harmony between parties who were previously in conflict in social life. meanwhile, negative peace is peace that occurs because of the elimination of things that are seen as negative such as violence, hostility and conflict. in conflict resolution efforts, achieving peace can be done through 3 stages, namely: 1) peacemaking, this stage is the initial stage where peace is sought in conflict resolution. efforts can be made such as negotiations between the two parties and also peace planning. 2) peacekeeping, at this stage the parties must discuss how to implement the results of negotiations and peace plans that have previously been formulated. 3) peacebuilding, at this final stage the parties must rebuild a peaceful atmosphere by restarting communication and cooperation and repairing any damage caused by the conflict. this article discusses indonesia's role in the g-20 forum amid the conflict between russia and ukraine. not only seeing how far indonesia has contributed, but also how important indonesia's position is in playing its role as a member of the g-20. indonesia's contribution can be seen from how it responded to the conflict that occurred between russia and ukraine as a non-aligned country. 2. research method this paper uses qualitative research methods, which are defined as research tools, techniques, and strategies that help writers to collect, interpret and analyze data. qualitative research is a research that basically uses a deductive-inductive approach. this approach departs from a theoretical framework, the ideas of experts, and the understanding of researchers based on their experience which is then developed into problems and their solutions which are proposed to obtain justification (verification) in the form of empirical data support in the report [9]. the data collection technique in this paper is based on internet-based research. the data collected in the form of official reports and press releases from institutions/agencies are categorized as primary data. then data from mass media, articles and scientific journals that have been published are categorized as secondary data. so that the author hopes to provide an in-depth analysis in this paper. 3. results and discussion since december 1, 2021 indonesia has been the g20 presidency country which lasts throughout 2021-2022. the g20 presidency was attended by 19 heads of state, one eu institution, 20,988 delegates consisting of 429 delegates at the g20 summit, 4,581 ministerial meetings, 1,212 sherpa meetings, 8,330 working group meetings and 6,436 engagements groups meeting and is a world forum to discuss world economic issues in a sestimic manner which represents 60% of the world's population, accounts for 80% of world gdp and 75% of world trade [10]. the presence of the g20 is in principle an effort to respond to the problems of global issues, one of which is the global crisis in 1998 which hit the world including indonesia. one of the things that was declared successful in handling the crisis was the policy taken in 2008 which was then followed up through supervision and control of financial problems. the global conditions that occurred in 1998 and 2008 are repeated in 20212022 where there is a crisis due to the covid-19 pandemic which has not subsided, including the global economic crisis which has not subsided. therefore, it is necessary to synergize between g20 members in an effort to overcome the impact of the covid-19 pandemic, including indonesia. there are two important things in indonesia's involvement in the g20 forum, first as a country that seeks to match product quality standards in accordance with global consumers. in this case, indonesia has the opportunity to get input related to its products that are exported abroad. second, indonesia also gets broad market opportunities, technology transfer and open cooperation. indonesia, which has always been a vital dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.23-28 26 point in maintaining regional stability, will be very important to be involved in the g20 forum. in addition, indonesia's involvement is also supported by the interests of a high bargaining power position, because with indonesia's position in the global forum, indonesia's decision can be used as a representation of developing countries in multilateral forums that discuss trade issues at the wto, financial issues at the imf and other relevant issues. developing countries generally have economic problems such as high inflation rates and slow economic growth. inflation is an important economic indicator, its growth rate is always sought to be low and stable so as not to cause macroeconomic impacts that are feared to have an impact on economic instability. the indonesian government through joko widodo stated at the g20 forum that indonesia is very consistent in overcoming problems related to inflation, especially during the covid-19 pandemic by emphasizing consolidation policies with economic diplomacy patterns involving trade, commercial and financial which can certainly overcome the inflation problem that occurs. indonesia's role is very important because it is not only limited to theory but real practice related to the indonesian economy. this means that the indonesian government's political and legal policy at the g20 meeting is to emphasize healthy finance between countries and include healthy competition in financial relations. this practice is certainly very important to do so that the g20 member countries are not exposed to the brink of recession. in another position, the indonesian government as the g20 presidency has also conducted political, legal and security negotiations that not only talk about the issue of war that occurred between russia and ukraine in early 2022 but also bring the main issue of the economy. although the two countries are currently still in military conflict, indonesia has a role to contribute directly in making the two countries maintain economic stability because one of the countries in conflict is the largest wheat supplier in the world, ukraine. this is very important to pay attention to so that the need for wheat is not disrupted and does not become one of the causes of inflation in both g20 member countries and non-g20 members. since 1986, the grouping of finance ministers in the group of seven (g-7) has proved quite important in its function as a forum for informal and substantive discussion on international economic issues. one of the objectives of the forum is to achieve an understanding and closer coordination among policy makers in the g7 countries. on september 25, 1999, in washington dc, finance ministers from the leading industry group group of seven (g-7) announced the formation of the group of twenty (g20). the basic objective of establishing the g20 is to discuss, study and review policy issues among industrialized countries and developing countries with the aim of promoting international financial stability [11]. g20 leaders meet annually and each g20 president invites several state guests annually. in addition, ministers of finance and central bank governors meet regularly throughout the year to discuss measures to strengthen the global economy, reform international financial institutions, improve financial regulations and implement key economic reforms needed in each of the g20 member economies. underpinning these meetings is a yearround program of meetings among senior officials and working groups that coordinate policy on specific issues. in the conflict between russia and ukraine, peacemaking and peacekeeping efforts have been carried out many times but have not really reached a peaceful and peace positive stage, because the conflict is increasingly escalating because the causes of the emergence of the conflict are not really resolved. if this is allowed to continue, the conflict will get bigger and could endanger other countries around russia and ukraine so that peacebuilding efforts are urgently needed so that the two countries can make peace in the long term and the conflict does not escalate again. to reach this stage, cooperation and support from other actors are needed as mediators from nearby countries such as turkey, belarus and our country, indonesia. in this peace process, indonesia became one of the countries that was considered capable of being a mediator and helping to resolve conflicts between russia and ukraine because indonesia already had experience in resolving conflicts, one of which was the cambodia conflict through the jakarta informal meetings in 1988 and 1989. indonesia is also a country that neutral to both russia and ukraine. indonesia as a country that adheres to the free and active principle in foreign relations confirms its consistency with this principle in the crisis between russia and ukraine. the director of europe ii of the ministry of foreign affairs of the republic of indonesia, winardi hanafi lucky emphasized that the principle of free and active does not mean that it is neutral and active, but also contributes both in the form of ideas and assistance for conflict resolution. the attitude taken by indonesia is not just following other countries, but an effort to dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.23-28 27 voice the importance of respecting international legal norms. indonesia will also continue to encourage the use of force to stop so that all parties can resolve the conflict. according to a spokesperson for the ministry of foreign affairs, teuku faizasyah said that there were four points conveyed by the government of indonesia regarding its position on ukraine. first, indonesia is concerned about the escalation of armed conflict in ukrainian territory which is very dangerous to the safety of the people and has an impact on peace in the region. second, indonesia emphasized that it complies with international law based on the un charter regarding the integrity of a country's territory, and condemned any actions that threaten the territory and sovereignty of a country. third, indonesia reiterated that all parties should prioritize negotiations and diplomacy to end conflicts and prioritize peaceful resolution. fourth, the embassy of the republic of indonesia has taken steps to save indonesian citizens in ukraine according to the plan that has been prepared [12]. indonesia made peace efforts by holding meetings with president zelensky as president of ukraine and president vladimir putin as president of russia to open up space for dialogue between the two as a peace effort and encourage an end to the conflict between russia and ukraine. in addition, indonesia's role was even greater during the indonesian presidency at the g20 forum. indonesia's task according to the constitution is to encourage world issues to be resolved in the g20 forum. indonesia's attitude in realizing world peace has been contained in the preamble to the 1945 constitution. in an effort to create world peace, indonesia is considered to still have to put forward wise steps. 4. conclusions indonesia was confirmed as the g20 presidency holder at the riyadh summit 2020 and handed over from italy on october 31, 2021 in rome, italy. the 2022 g20 presidency in indonesia could be the right momentum for the indonesian government to reset its focus on the long-term development agenda and to realign the post-covid-19 recovery agenda. indonesia has the opportunity to lead the g20 presidency in harmonizing several global and regional issues. the priority issues discussed at the g20 presidency are understanding the challenges and the need for collective action so that indonesia will focus on three main pillars in the 2022 g20 presidency, namely the global health architecture, sustainable energy transition and digital and economic transformation. along with the g20 presidency activities in indonesia, the conflict between russia ukraine heated up again in early february 2022 after the russian fighter fleet attacked the ukrainian border, precisely in belarus. the russia-ukraine conflict has created a catastrophic humanitarian crisis and threatened the stability of geopolitical relations. various impacts are felt by countries around russia-ukraine including indonesia. indonesia as the holder of the g20 presidency in 2022 must take a stand against russia's invasion of ukraine. the geopolitical condition caused by the russia-ukraine war is one of the risks faced by the indonesian g20 presidency in 2022. the indonesian government as the g20 presidency has also conducted political, legal and security negotiations that are not only talking about the issue of war that occurred between russia and ukraine in early 2022 but also bringing the main issue of the economy. indonesia's duty according to the constitution is to encourage that world issues can still be resolved in the g20 forum. indonesia's stance in realizing world peace is enshrined in the preamble of the 1945 constitution. in an effort to create world peace, indonesia is considered to still have to prioritize wise steps. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] w. r. astuti, l. m. fathun, "indonesia's economic diplomacy in the g20 economic regime during the joko widodo administration", intermestic: journal of international studies, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 47-68, 2020. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.23-28 28 [2] kominfo, g20pedia, jakarta: djikp kominfo, 2022. 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[9] hardani and et al, qualitative & quantitative research methods, yogyakarta: science library, 2020. [10] martono et al, indonesia 2022 g20 summit: russia vs ukraine war, security and gender, purbalingga: cv. eureka media script, 2022. [11] c. larasati, e. d. natasya, "indonesia's role in the g-20: opportunities and challenges", journal of international relations, vol. x, pp. 42-54, 2017. [12] t. f. arbar, "indonesia's position on the russia-ukraine war", june 30, 2022. [online]. available: https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/news/20220302182710-4-319672/posisi-indonesia-dalam-perang-rusiaukraina. microsoft word modif 3.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 4, january 2023, pp.15-22 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v4.id224 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 15 concept of the defense material system for the security of indonesian national armed personnel against threats mahyaruddin mrp1*, sovian aritonang2 1,2 the republic of indonesia defense university, faculty of defense technology, motion power technology, indonesia. *corresponding author e-mail: mahyarudin.mrp@tp.idu.ac.id received jan. 9, 2023 revised jan. 29, 2023 accepted feb. 1, 2023 abstract it is essential to have materials that can support armor systems for the application of body armor composed of anti-ballistic material from coated fibers in trials in order to defend military personnel with better ballistic performance who are lighter against growing threats and conflicts. to support defense-related ballistics. new materials used in personnel protection systems are the subject of this discussion. as ballistic shields, fiber composite materials are currently used due to their light weight and high flexibility. this essay also discusses a thorough analysis of mechanism performance and failure. this study's goal is to advance knowledge about composite material body armor that is covered with a soft spall liner material, which can be used as a model for lightweight, affordable, and safe designs for military troops in times of conflict. © the author 2023. published by arda. keywords: body armor, fiber materials, ballistic protection. 1. introduction one of the ways the development of the defense industry in the area of materials supports the indonesian national armed defense equipment's availability in preserving and maintaining the security of the territory of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia. one of them is the development of bullet-resistant materials, also known as armor, which has been widely carried out through the development of new materials, composition integration, heat treatment, surface coating, and the manufacture of composites made of both metallic and non-metallic materials[1]. in order to increase defense mobility, particularly in the technology of the defense sector, namely in the material section, the government has developed a policy relating to updating and modernizing defense and security equipment (alpahankam), known as the minimum essential force. [2]. the protection of protective armor parts used to protect a person, vehicle, or device from penetration risks that may occur from devices used for explosive or ballistic events is one highly significant material development. protective armor was typically comprised of metal, ceramic sheet, or a combination of these materials. these materials can be made better despite generally offering decent protection. more specifically, it would be great to offer armor that may be lighter than conventional armor [3]. developing armor that can protect against various projectile threats, such as solid particles and molten metals, is desirable, for example composite fiber material. furthermore, it is better to have defensive armor that is made of materials that are inexpensive and simple to build. similar to soft body armor, stiff plates that shield vital organs from small-arm fire can be added to body armor. body armor has historically had to function against both deformable (bullets) and non-deformable (shrapnel) threats in order to meet international military requirements. usually, each end user develops their own performance requirements. it may incorporate widely accepted (public) standards at times, either with or without the need for extra testing [4]. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.15-22 16 general performance tests, such as those commonly referred to as the v50 test and the v0 test, may be used to test soft body armor. in order to calculate the velocity (v) at which 50% (v50) or 0% (v0) of the projectile completely penetrates an object, it is necessary to repeatedly strike the target with the threat [5]. the standard polymer fiber materials that are used into the present armor protection systems for military vehicles against threats are the first thing we discuss in this review. the review is then divided into four sections, which each highlights a superior mechanical characteristic of polymer composites created for ballistic purposes. epoxy-based composites have a great potential for application in military vehicle body armor in times of war to shield soldiers from threats as an alternative to aramid materials typically utilized in multi-layered armor systems (mas) [6]. 2. research method this paper is review article which explained about the behavior of the defense material concept in protecting indonesian national armed personnel is examined in this research using a qualitative approach of literature review. based on research findings relating to the subjects and ideas that were acquired from earlier researchers and practitioners, the discussion or analysis is conducted. one method of research is conducting a literature review. comparing literatures to other research methods, they each have their unique challenges. because doing a study of an issue that has to be solved in relation to the theory to be utilized, the model to be used, or the method to be used calls for a high level of understanding from researchers. finding and determining the literature that is pertinent to the topic is one of the stages in this literature review research. this activity calls for a high concentration on locating data sources, particularly secondary data in the form of journals, articles, and books; the more sources used, the better the results. filter the sources that have been acquired for use in problem-solving by performing literature screening. at this point, the literature review's difficulty level is at its highest since it must be able to fill in any gaps in the current theories using sources, analyze the benefits and drawbacks of each source, and conclude based on the discussion's findings to provide a solution to the problem. 3. results and discussion 3.1 conditions structure protection from threats studying the development of military equipment is essential, especially in protecting soldiers from enemy threats while maintaining a high level of personnel mobility. this is the result of advances in weapons technology, particularly in the field of materials. because the tni must be free to move in the field, the performance of the necessary personal protective equipment must also be good. the indonesian national army needs to be protected from threats, so protection requirements are important. figure 1. concept of threat protection requirements. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.15-22 17 figure 1 shows the key factors that must be taken into account for protecting military vehicles from threats are ballistic protection, mine protection, noise levels, and the environment. when there is a threat, these components are in the body armor and spall liner to protect military vehicles, especially porcelain. in military operations and peacekeeping, military vehicles are crucial. the type and level of armor protection required for many military vehicles depends on the objective. combat vehicles need to be protected from projectiles, shrapnel, explosive bursts, missiles, and other hazards that could endanger the lives of military personnel [7]. 3.2 body armor made of ballistic panel composite with the growth in threats and conflicts over the past few decades, there has been a lot of interest in the development of personal protection systems with improved ballistic performance and less weight. in this study, many nanomaterials, including carbon nanotubes and graphene with advanced structural and mechanical properties, as well as their strengthening potential of armor composites, are typically used as polymer fibers in the manufacture of body armor [8] examined using a variety of recent studies that are listed in the literature. additionally, natural fibers are incorporated into multi-layered armor systems and ballistic testing that support their importance in the near future. the new materials that are used in specific and important body armor protection systems with the goal of creating the durable and lightweight body armor of the future are the main subject of this brief. table 1. mechanical properties of high-performance polymeric fibers [9] fiber density, (r), (kg/m3 ) modulus (e), (gpa) specific strength (mpa/(g/cm3)) strength (s), (gpa) strain to fracture (e), (%) specific modulus (mpa/(g/cm3)) sonic velocity, vs, (m/s) specific energy absorption capacity (m2 /s2) nylon 6 1140 3 0,44 0,5 18–26 2,63 1622 57,017 s2 glass 2500 86 1,8 4,5 1,8–5,4 34,4 5865 48,600 cotton 1550 6–11 0,19–0,45 0,3–0,7 6–7 3,87–7,10 2663 15,806 silkworm silk (bombyx mori cocoons) 1320 5 0,38 0,5 15 3,79 1946 28,409 spider silk (dragline of nephila) 1320 22 0,98 1,3 40 16,67 4082 196,969 m5 fiber (goal) 1700 450 5,59 9,5 2,0-2,5 264,71 16,269 69,852 m5 fiber (conservation) 1700 300 5 8,5 2,5 176,47 13,284 62,500 zylon hm 1560 270 3,72 5,8 2,5 173,08 13,155 46,474 spectra 1000 970 120 2,65 2,57 3,5 123,71 11,122 46,365 dyneema sk 76 970 116 3,71 3,6 3,8 119,59 10935 70,515 kevlar 29 (1500 denier) 1440 74,4 2,01 2,9 3,38 51,67 7187 34,034 kevlar 49 (1140 denier) 1440 120 2,11 3,04 2,3 83,33 9128 24,277 kevlar 129 (840 denier) 1440 99,1 2,25 3,24 3,25 68,82 8295 36,562 kevlar km 2 (850 denier) 1440 73,7 2,32 3,34 3,8 51,18 7154 44,006 t–1000 (toray) 1820 294 3,88 7,06 2,4 161,54 12,709 46,549 p–120 2190 827 1,02 2,24 0,2 377,63 19,432 1022 swcnt-a 1400 1000 9,29 13 16 714,29 26,726 742,857 swcnt-b 1400 1000 37,86 53 16 714,29 26,726 3,028,571 table 1 displays the relationship of speed and energy absorption capacity in addition to the types of materials punched from the mechanical properties associated with their individual strengths (toughness) [8]. there is a lot of potential for armored applications in the new high-performance fibers based on polypyridobisimidazole that also have very high specific energy absorption capacity and sonic velocity. table 1 illustrates the specific strength of the material plotted against the specific stiffness in figure 2, while the sonic velocity plotted dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.15-22 18 against energy absorption capability (toughness) is shown in figure 2. due to its extremely low specific energy absorption capacity, ultra-high modulus carbon fiber, which has the highest strain wave velocity when compared to other fibers, is frequently employed in ballistic applications. figure 2. specific tensile strength and modulus of high performance fibers [10]. figure 2 illustrates the relationship between high-performance fibers' specific tensile strength and specific tensile modulus when the latter is determined from bending tests and employed in structural composite applications. 3.3 spall liner for soft body armor armored equipment mounted on the hull of a ground vehicle protects the soldier inside the vehicle to increase survivability. there are additional components that exist inside and outside the ground vehicle but do not add to its structural integrity. the composite used is referred to as a spall liner. the term "spall liner" refers to soft materials that are installed in the crew compartment of vehicles and line the interior surfaces of tanks, combat vehicles, and personnel carriers as a form of interior protection. these materials are typically made of laminated aramid fiber, glass fiber, or high density polyethylene (hdpe). the purpose of the spall liner is to shield the defensive personnel from being struck by fragments (spall) created during combat. if the armor system is "overmatched," which is the phrase used when the incoming bullet has more penetrating strength than the armor's stopping capability, spall liners can be added as additional security [6]. figure 2 an d show in examples of a spall liner that helped save individuals who were outclassed. table 2. physical properties of glass fiber, aramid fiber, and ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene (uhmwpe) fiber [7][10] fiber density (g/cm3) young’s modulus (gpa) tensile strength (mpa) uhmwpe fiber 0,97 62-132 2200-3900 aramid 1.44 70-112 1880-2860 s-glass 2.49 89 4750 e-glass 2.55 90 2000 dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.15-22 19 characteristics of the spall liner material, a molecular structure and high-performance chemical and polymer surfaces that is used to make body armor protection vehicles. table 2 displayed to one of the materials that doesn't contain chemical components that are susceptible to attack from aggressive agents is uhmwpe, which has a low surface energy and is very resistant to water, humidity, most chemicals, uv radiation, and microorganisms. this allows it to bond with other polymers and adhere to surfaces for coating or more challenging painting. performance of composite varies with threat. as a result, uhmwpe is a material that is very effective at reducing the threat posed by deformable bullets. for example, uhmwpe can be as little as half to one third the weight of aramid and glass composites and still perform comparably well in stopping typical deformations that an assault rifle or sniper rifle threatens to do on its own. uhmwpe often uses 20– 50% less material for the same performance in terms of fragment protection. it is difficult to predict how different composite materials, such metal or ceramic, will operate in a system composed of several components [6]. 3.4 vehicle spall liners thermoset resins and thermoplastic resins are two types of polymer matrices that are frequently utilized in the military. phenolic, epoxy, vinylester, and polyester are the four most often used thermoset resins in ballistic composites. phenolic resins are frequently selected because they work well with glass and aramid fibers and are fire retardant, liquid and chemical resistant, stiff, and have good ballistic efficiency. because of its excellent toughness, high mechanical and thermal qualities, superior water and thermal resistance, low shrinkage rate, and ease of fabrication, epoxy resin was chosen. vinylesters combine outstanding mechanical characteristics with simplicity in fabrication [11]. this para-aramid fiber is five times stronger than steel and performs better in ballistic tests than nylon. because they have benefits in several aspects, ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (uhmwpe) fibers have started to be exploited for ballistic applications recently [12]. figure 2. a spall liner is used on a light armored vehicle [7]. below is a hypothetical armored personnel carrier with a life-saving spall liner in an overmatch. as can be seen, the spall liner significantly reduced the spread of fragmentation while protecting lives. figure 3. armor design [7]. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.15-22 20 vehicle makers and armored integrators have created a variety of inventive connection techniques that enable soldiers to quickly install these auxiliary systems in the field with extremely basic and limited gear [6]. hardness ratings and impact load resistance are related to resistance to ballistic loads. projectile penetration will be more difficult the harder the material is. however, because to the projectile's high velocity of impact, resistance to shock loads is also necessary, necessitating considerable toughness in the material. a tank is an example of a ground vehicle that needs to have the type of armor used depending on the mission and threat environment. when operating in challenging terrain, special operations must be agile. protection is thus needed from surprise attacks as well as while confronting small arms fire. figure 4. spall liner saves lives in overmatch in hypothetical armor personnel carrier [7]. from the illustration figure 4 show is crew safety from large-caliber armor-piercing (ap) rounds, landmines, and rocket-propelled grenades. special operations vehicles, for example, cannot be constructed for this level of protection and still be agile. material selection is intended to handle the weight required to give protection from such threats. the weight or areal density of the spall liner and the material used in it all affect how far the cone angle can be reduced. as shown in table 2. composite materials with higher performance have a lower cone spall angle while being lighter in weight. utilization of the spall liner has begun to develop into a part of the overall armor system, which will also contain the hull (basic armor), spall liner within the vehicle, and additional armor protection linked to the outside of the vehicle [13]. the objective of additional armor, which is frequently high-hardness steel or ceramic, is to break or bend incoming projectiles, while the metal hull and composite spall coating are designed to catch shards [7]. table 3 displays the stanag 4569 threat level. at the bare minimum range they are anticipated to be encountered, the speeds shown in the table are the anticipated ammunition velocity. in terms of the capacity to penetrate armor, the lower threat levels are the least deadly, and this tendency grows as the threat level rises numerically. occasionally, more than one threat is defined to some extent. for instance, the penetration capabilities of two category 3 threats are comparable. both have 7.62 mm diameter high-penetrating tungsten cores, however one (b32) is significantly heavier (10.0 g vs. 8.4 g) and has a slightly slower velocity (854 m/s vs. 930 m/s) [5]. testing the area density panels above and below the intended v50 results in the answer for threat level 4 being near to the ideal solution. the answer is then extrapolated using the test findings. the most current data, level 5 testing, were conducted on panels with area densities as high as 200 kg/m2, which did not provide the necessary protection. as a result, extrapolation from the tested panel configurations led to the panel constructions proposed in the table for protection level 5. the suggested protection was extrapolated from the areal densities above and below it at all other levels . dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.15-22 21 table 3. threat solutions and composite protection levels for stanag 4569 [5] threat ammunition v0 (m/s) threat type panel construction v50 (m/s) area density required (kg/m2) 5 25 x 137 mm apds-t, pmb 073 1258 auto cannon, apds ammunition 88 mm pmb 073 composite, 25 mm ceramic surface 1258 276 4 14,5 x 114 mm api/b32 911 heavy machine guns, ap ammunition 16,5 mm, facing ceramic 15 mm 911 90,5 3 7,62 x 54r mm b32 api 854 assault rifles and snipers, ap wc core 25 mm api composite, ceramic facing 854 67,5 2 api bz 695 assault rifle 8 mm composite, 8 mm ceramic facing 917 46,6 1 7,62 x 51 mm nato ball 833 assault rifles/ ball round surfaceless composite panels 833 48,2 1 5,56 x 45 mm m193 937 assault rifles/ ball round surfaceless composite panels 937 38,4 when a threat from high-hardness armor with a bullet-defeating system is present, then add the right coating material. through tests and simulation, it was established that the mechanism of the bullet in armor testing includes (a) asymmetrical forces that cause the projectile to deviate from the incidence trajectory, (b) core fracture, and (c) erosion of the nose of the core. with this technique, good agreement was demonstrated between the simulated and experimental base armor penetration depths and the post-ballistic deformation pattern of perforated plates [14]. based on the threat level given in the table, it is clear that military vehicles' body armor needs to be strengthened in addition to being constructed from materials that must be appropriate for the type of threat and the need to produce materials in line with threats now in existence. 4. conclusions the desire for light, flexible, and robust bodies that can give better ballistic protection is growing as technology, particularly in the area of materials, progresses, especially in light of the increasingly deadly dangers that troops will be subjected to. polymer fibers and composites have been used to create a variety of materials that are stiff, strong, and lightweight. without a doubt, the development of fiber as ballistic protection holds significant promise for assisting and protecting indonesian national armed soldiers in the future. the most recent composite material to be developed for vehicle armor body materials is sandwich structure polymer composite material. along with the significance of soft body armor spall liner composites, which are made of a variety of materials including uhmw pe, aramid, s-glass and e-glass to composite material has good test results and can be employed as an armor body structure material to shield troops from dangers. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that none of the topics discussed in this paper are the subject of any known financial or non-financial competing interests held by the authors. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.15-22 22 funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] h. purwanto, r. soenoko, a. purnowidodo, and a. suprapto, "development of ballistic resistant materials as combat vehicle materials in indonesia: review", semin. nas. inov. dan apl. 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[2] y. saputro and c. s. pramudyo, "5m analysis (man, material, machine, money & method) in the development of defense technology in indonesia (case study: pt len industri)", no. november, pp. 96–103, 2022. [3] m. mehara, c. goswami, s. ranjan kumar, g. singh, and m. kumar wagdre, "performance evaluation of advanced armor materials", mater. today proc., vol. 47, no. xxxx, pp. 6039–6042, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2021.04.611. [4] b. schram, r. orr, r. pope, b. hinton, and g. norris, "comparing the effects of different body armor systems on the occupational performance of police officers", int. j. environ. res. public health, vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 1–8, 2018, doi: 10.3390/ijerph15050893. [5] d. fecko, d. lyle, x. gambert, “composite armor solutions for stanag 4569 ballistic protection levels,” agt, 2005. [6] p. v. cavallaro, "soft body armor : an overview of materials ,manufacturing , testing , and ballistic impact dynamics naval undersea warfare center division", nuwc-npt tech. rep. 12, vol. 12, no. august, pp. 1–22, 2011. [7] a. bhatnagar, lightweight ballistic composites: military and law-enforcement applications: second edition, woodhead publishing, 2016. doi: 10.1016/c2014-0-03657-x. [8] z. benzait and l. trabzon, "a review of recent research on materials used in polymer–matrix composites for body armor application", j. compos. mater., vol. 52, no. 23, pp. 3241–3263, 2018, doi: 10.1177/0021998318764002. [9] y. r. mahajan, “in pursuit of the ultimate body armor”, pp. 1–9, 2010. available : https://studylib.net/doc/25719402/in-pursuit-of-the-ultimate-body-armor [accesed : 29 january 2023]. [10] a. h. elkarem, "a study on dyneema fabric for soft body armor", int. j. eng. appl. sci. technol., vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 115–118, 2020, doi: 10.33564/ijeast.2020.v05i02.016. [11] h. pang, l. xu, d. x. yan, and z. m. li, "conductive polymer composites with segregated structures", prog. polym. sci., vol. 39, no. 11, pp. 1908–1933, 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2014.07.007. [12] m. r. m. isa, "processing and characterisation of aramid/carbon hybrid fibre reinforced polypropylene composites", thesis, faculty of science (department of chemistry), university of malaya, 2014. [13] m. mardiyati, "polymer composites as ballistic resistant materials", j. inov. defense and security, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 20–28, 2018, doi: 10.5614/jipk.2018.1.1.3. [14] n. kiliç, s. bedir, a. erdik, b. ekici, a. taşdemirci, m. güden, "ballistic behavior of high hardness perforated armor plates against 7.62 mm armor piercing projectile", mater. des., vol. 63, pp. 427–438, 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2014.06.030. microsoft word 202-article text-368-1-4-20221023.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 3, january 2022, pp.67-73 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id202 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 67 (16pt) (16pt) increasing cultural intelligence for military troops and civilian officers serving in the united nations organization stabilization mission in the democratic republic of the congo (monusco) (16 pt) furqan abdul rais zordi1*, siswo hadi sumantri2, m. adnan madjid3 1,2,3 indonesia defense university, indonesia (9 pt) (9 pt) *corresponding author e-mail: furqan.abdul.r.z@gmail.com received: oct 23, 2022. revised: nov 1, 2022 accepted: nov 2, 2022 abstract the democratic republic of the congo is still experiencing internal political turmoil between the tutsi and hutu tribes. therefore, the united nations through the security council established the united nations organization stabilization mission in the democratic republic of the congo (monusco) to monitor the peace process after the second congo war. several approaches must be applied so that the mission carried out is able to reconcile the conflicting actors. the purpose of this research is to find out the obstacles faced in the monusco mission and their solutions. the method used in this research is to use a literature study and to test the credibility of the data found. the peace mission carried out by monusco can be said to be quite successful despite facing several strategic and operational challenges. the use of cultural intelligence and prospect theory in pre-mission training should be done in order to increase the success of the mission. © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: peacekeeping, cultural intelligence, prospect theory, monusco, democratic republic of the congo 1. introduction the congo conflict was caused by the protracted conflict in the democratic republic of the congo. before the conflict occurred, there were two wars that caused further conflict, namely the first congo war (africa's first world war) and the second congo war (great war of africa). this war was a civil war as well as an international military conflict that took place in the democratic republic of the congo, formerly known as zaire. the beginning of the conflict was caused by a severe economic downturn in 1996 and longstanding inter-tribal disputes under president mobutu sese who was a dictator [1]. in addition, the unstable conditions on the eastern border which were affected by the rwandan genocide also contributed to the escalation of conflicts that occurred in the country. president mobutu sese's deteriorating health condition also caused the government's authority to almost collapse. this put the militias, rebels, and soldiers at odds with each other [2]. ethnic tensions have existed for generations in zaire, especially in the east. these tensions occurred mainly between the indigenous agrarian tribe of zaire, the hutu and the tutsi who settled semi-nomadic and had emigrated from rwanda. the tutsis who emigrated to zaire before congo's independence in 1960 are dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.67-73 68 known as banyamulenge and have citizenship rights under zairian law. while the tutsis who emigrated to zaire after 1960 are called banyarwanda, although the natives often do not distinguish these differences, they still refer to banyamulenge and banyarwanda as foreigners [3]. banyamulenge launched a rebellion aimed at seizing power in the province of kivu in the eastern part of the country of zaire. the rebellion was an anticipatory measure to combat hutu extremist forces who were trying to continue the genocide in zaire. president mobutu sese's harsh policies in dealing with rebellions made him a common enemy at all levels of society. as a result, the new uprising gained massive public support and grew into a general revolution and not just an uprising promoted by banyamulenge. the rebellious militias belonged to the alliance of democratic forces for the liberation of congo (afdl) [4]. the culmination of this war was the occupation of the capital city of kinshasa by the afdl assisted by foreign militaries from uganda, rwanda, and eritrea and the overthrow of president mobutu sese. furthermore, the power was held by the leader of the afdl, namely laurent-désiré kabila. he later changed the name zaire to the democratic republic of congo [2]. the democratic republic of the congo led by kabila shows the similarity in the method of government, this is evident where the social and economic conditions in the country have a higher and more severe level of corruption compared to the era of president mobutu sese's leadership. the economy remained in a state of disrepair and worsened under the kabila government. on the other hand, kabila started an intense campaign of centralization of government that gave rise to new conflicts with minority groups in the eastern part of the democratic republic of the congo who demanded special autonomy [5]. president kabila's leadership is also seen as a “puppet” of foreign governments. in order to dispel this image, he began to fight against his allies from abroad during the first congo war. the culmination of this event was the expulsion of all foreign troops from the democratic republic of the congo on 26 july 1998 [6]. this incident had an impact on the internal political conditions in the country. on august 2, 1998, banyamulenge in goma formed a rebel group called rally for congolese democracy (rcd) and fought against president kabila. rcd itself is also supported by rwanda and uganda [7]. on the other hand, the government of president kabila was supported by namibia, zimbabwe, angola, chan, libya and sudan [8]. in 2001, president kabula was shot and killed by rashide mizele who was his personal bodyguard. in order to fill power, joseph kabila was appointed president by the congo parliament replacing his father [9] [9]. this war ended with a peace agreement between the democratic republic of the congo and rwanda on july 30, 2002 in the pretoria accord [10] and between the democratic republic of the congo and uganda on september 6, 2002 in the luanda agreement [11]. although it has entered a period of peace with its neighbors, the democratic republic of the congo is still experiencing internal political turmoil between the tutsi and hutu tribes. therefore, the united nations through the security council established the united nations organization stabilization mission in the democratic republic of the congo (monusco) to monitor the peace process after the second congo war. in order to increase the success of the peacekeeping mission carried out by monusco in the democratic republic of the congo, several approaches must be applied so that the mission carried out is able to reconcile the conflicting actors. therefore, the authors recommend training and coaching regarding the application of cultural intelligence and prospect theory to peacekeepers serving in the democratic republic of the congo. 2. research method this study uses a documentation study which is defined as a data collection technique by studying documents to obtain data or information related to the problem under study [12]. the data collection technique is done by means of literature study. literature study is a study carried out using literature (library), either in the form of books, notes, or reports on research results from previous researchers [13]. collecting data through library research is done by looking for sources from textbooks, articles, journals, electronic media, magazines and other related sources. credibility testing is carried out by extending observations, increasing persistence, triangulation, negative case analysis, using reference materials, and member checks in order to obtain the dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.67-73 69 degree of accuracy of the research design with the results to be achieved [12]. in addition, this study also uses several theories, which are described below: 2.1. cultural intellegence cultural intelligence is defined as a person's ability to function effectively and in diverse cultural conditions. cultural intelligence is a multidimensional construct that is intended to be used in situations where cross-cultural interactions are required due to differences in race, ethnicity, and nationality [14]. cultural intelligence is also a personality that can be developed (state-like personality) and not a personality that is stable and cannot be changed (trait-like personality). in order to measure a person's cultural intelligence, several measurements are needed based on four indicators, namely [15]:  metacognitive intelligence (metacognitive cq) metacognitive cq shows a person's mental processes in obtaining and understanding cultural knowledge, including knowledge about control over individual thinking processes related to culture [16]. skills related to metacognitive intelligence are the ability to plan, monitor, and revise mental models of personal cultural norms in order to adapt to a country or group of people. individuals who have high metacognitive intelligence are instinctively aware of the cultural preferences of others before and during interacting with them. individuals who have high metacognitive intelligence also question the cultural assumptions of a region and adapt them to their mental models during and after interactions [17].  cognitive intelligence (cognitive cq) cognitive intelligence shows a person's knowledge of norms, practices, and conventions in different cultures and is obtained from education and personal experience. individuals who have high cognitive intelligence are able to understand the similarities and differences across cultures [17].  motivational intelligence (motivational cq) motivational intelligence is the ability to direct attention and personal energy to learn and contribute in conditions that are rich in cultural differences. individuals who have high motivational intelligence are able to direct their attention and personal energy to cross-cultural conditions based on intrinsic interest [18] and belief in their cross-cultural effectiveness [19].  behavioral intelligence (behavioural cq) behavioral intelligence is intelligence that shows a person's ability to show appropriate verbal and nonverbal actions when interacting with people from different cultures. individuals with high behavioral intelligence are able to show behavior that is in accordance with conditions based on their verbal and nonverbal abilities [20]. 2.2. prospect theory prospect theory is a psychological theory that describes how a person's actions in assessing their advantages and disadvantages in an asymmetrical condition [21]. prospect theory begins with the concept of loss aversion which is an asymmetric form of risk aversion. the results of research observations show that people will react differently when faced with potential losses and potential gains. this is based on certain situations when potential losses and potential gains are faced by them. the act of selecting the existing potential is called reference dependence which can be explained as follows: (1) when a person is faced with a risky choice that leads to a potential profit, they tend to avoid risk by choosing an option that has a smaller return but has a higher level of certainty of profit. tall; (2) if faced with risky choices that lead to potential losses, they tend to take risks by preferring options that have lower returns as long as those choices have the potential to avoid losses. 3. results and discussion 3.1. obstacles in the monusco mission the united nations organization stabilization mission in the democratic republic of the congo (monusco) is a united nations peacekeeping force in the democratic republic of the congo (drc) dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.67-73 70 created by the united nations security council in resolutions 1279 (1999) and 1291 (2000) to monitor the second congo war peace process. however, the focus of the mission being carried out shifted to dealing with the ituri conflict, the kivu conflict and the dongo conflict. prior to the issuance of un security council resolution (unscr) 1291, unscr resolution 1258 (1999) was issued with the initial aim of being a military observer in the democratic republic of the congo to observe and report on the compliance of factions in reaching a peace agreement [22]. at this time, unscr resolution 2612 (2021) is the basis used by the united nations to authorize monusco to carry out peace missions in the area [23]. at the start of implementing the measures to end the mission in the drc, it is very important to carry out an impact assessment of the monusco activities. in carrying out such impact assessments, observers may have to change the point of view used in assessing un peacekeeping actions. it should also be acknowledged that peacekeeping missions are only provided with funding sources in locations that do not have high priority and have limited strategic importance. most missions have accomplished much and assisted the international community in monitoring and preventing conflicts from escalating to massive levels of violence. given the relatively few resources allocated to large areas, the achievements of monusco have been impressive. peacekeeping missions do their best to carry out mandates that are often unrealistic or overly ambitious, and measuring their effectiveness should also involve examining the reality of implementing the mandates presented by the security council against the means and capabilities at hand [24]. some of the strategic impacts of the ppb peacekeeping mission in the drc can be traced from the mission carried out by the united nations mission in the democratic republic of congo (monuc), which was the predecessor to monusco. one of them is the success of the mission in the reunification of the country. which if the peacekeeping mission is not carried out properly, it is likely that the drc will not exist in its current form. in addition, monuc/monusco also has a strategic impact in preventing the recurrence of major violent conflicts by using its presence to enable international, national and private sector actors to provide services to the community as well as to stimulate local economies and support democratic politics. the role of monuc/monusco is also very important in monitoring, reporting, collecting and sharing information related to human rights violations in support of international criminal justice and the fight against impunity [24]. on the other hand, the mission carried out by monusco encountered several strategic obstacles, namely: (1) the decreasing level of cooperation between the un forces and the drc; (2) the role of neighboring countries in triggering instability; and (3) the absence of a winner for monuc and monusco on the security council to utilize a mutually agreed blueprint for comprehensively addressing conflict. the mission also faced a number of operational obstacles, namely (1): operational and tactical challenges due to not having adequate facilities and capacity to carry out the mission; (2) the contingent of peacekeepers who do not want to carry out the mandate given; (3) lack of effective leadership and pre-mission training; (4) the problem of multiple interpretations of what peacekeeping and mission mandates are; (5) lack of strategic communication strategies to reduce misunderstandings and to explain the mandate and mission to the drc community or even internally [24]. the rejection of the monusco mission was also voiced by the local community, for almost 25 years, the united nations has continued to renew the mandate of the monusco mission in drc, but from year to year the situation is getting worse [25]. anti-un protests have occurred in recent years. however, the demonstrations that took place in august 2022 were large-scale demonstrations. peacekeepers shoot dead civilians. the demonstration that took place claimed 36 lives, four of whom were peacekeepers. the demonstrations come amid an insurgency by the m23 armed group that has seized swathes of territory in the eastern province of north kivu. protesters say monusco has been slow and has failed to acknowledge rwanda's alleged support for the group. most residents in north kivu province and ituri province want the 12,000 monusco peacekeepers to leave the drc immediately [26]. monusco came to protect the people of drc, but there was only a feeling of insecurity. therefore, monusco has failed in its main mission to protect civilians [27]. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.67-73 71 3.2. applications of cultural intelligence and prospect theory in peacekeeping the use of cultural intelligence in peacekeeping is able to provide a framework for improvement of the design and implementation of cross-cultural activities. in addition, the end of the cold war forced modern military forces to be able to carry out peacekeeping operations as part of a coalition of international cooperation. it is also possible that the commando team on the ground consists of troops with diverse cultural backgrounds. therefore, the application of cultural intelligence is very important to be applied to peacekeepers in order to prepare cross-cultural leadership competencies. several ways that can be done to improve cross-cultural leadership competence can be described below [28].  modified cognitive behavioral techniques (personal reflection, planning and monitoring skills) can be used to train metacognitive intelligence.  training on traditional cultural awareness (specific knowledge about the destination country) can be used to increase cognitive intelligence.  goal setting and goal setting techniques can be used to increase motivational intelligence  dramaturgy approach by way of role playing, performance, and visual arts can be used to train and improve behavioral intelligence. an example of the use of cultural intelligence and prospect theory can be seen in the success of the garuda xii contingent that is part of the u.n. transitional authority in cambodia (untac) in cambodia. the program run by the garuda contingent emphasizes building a common identity and minimizing differences between local residents. the openness of the indonesian military camp to the local population made it easier for the garuda contingent to mingle and discuss with local residents from all walks of life. in addition, the similarity of skin color and high patience greatly benefit them in approaching groups that are quite difficult to approach. the garuda contingent always invites and includes local residents in the activities of indonesian holidays, traditions and customs at the military camp. the garuda contingent's programs such as health and dental care, video broadcasts, sports activities, and village development projects where planning and implementation always involve local communities further increase their trust in the garuda contingent. the local communities who were involved in the garuda contingent's activities were both supporters and members of the conflicting actors. this made the garuda contingent able to carry out development programs in all areas including areas controlled by the khmer rouge where this situation could not be achieved by other peacekeepers serving in cambodia [29]. the actions of the garuda contingent that benefited all parties made the conflicting actors prefer to make peace with common interests. this is in accordance with the determination of reference dependence point 1 where when a person is faced with a risky choice that leads to potential benefits, they tend to avoid risk by choosing the option that has a smaller return but has a higher level of certainty of profit [21]. 4. conclusions although there are differences in social, political and economic conditions between cambodia and the democratic republic of the congo, there are similarities in conflict between the two countries where the conflicting actors have different cultural backgrounds. by placing troops that have high cultural intelligence, the garuda xii contingent is able to increase the percentage of program success that is higher than peacekeepers from other countries. in addition, by giving benefits to all warring parties, the warring actors in the conflict in cambodia decided to make peace. this has proven to be able to restore the stability of social, political and economic conditions in the country. although there has been no research that examines the success of applying cultural intelligence to peacekeeping missions in the democratic republic of the congo, the success achieved by the garuda xii contingent on peace missions in cambodia should be applied in order to achieve conflict resolution that is accepted by all warring parties in the democratic republic of congo. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.67-73 72 declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. acknowledgements thanks are addressed to rear admiral tni (ret.) dr. siswo hadi sumantri., st., m.mt., m.tr.opsla., ciqnr., ciqar., ipu and tni first admiral (ret.) dr. m. adnan madjid, sh., m. hum. as a research supervisor while studying at 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[29] j. b. haseman, "garuda xii: indonesian peacekeeping in cambodia," joint force quarterly, pp. 8994, 1996. microsoft word 26-33_145.docx defense and vol. 1, decem https://doi.org this work is lice to share and ada authorship and in perspec innovati benjamin d 1 industrial and 2 mechanical e *correspond © the auth 2020. published by arda. 1. introdu over the pas export being egypt, saud when it com amount from weapons sal the defense to the policie defense indu one commod spending in level is impa in this indus defense ind posed by ot implemented moreover, s industry dev [3][4]. throughout developed in specializatio land equipm d security s mber 2020, pp g/10.37868/ds nsed under a cre apt the material nitial publication tives and ion syste durakovic1, d mechanical en engineering, int ding author: bd hor y uction st decade, th g the united di arabia, an mes to weapo m those two e trends is un e industry is es a country ustry in total dity would re military are acted by the try. dustry 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activities served that he national ke notable novation leaders in the being india n the industry mbined sale ce on overal country. due ocated for the quantities o hat increased h at the loca ilities created tes the threa hat would be sion, defense ry production wadays it ha shifted from naval, air and 1 h e a, y s ll e e f d al d at e e n s m d dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.26-33 27 the goal of this paper to investigate perspectives of bosnian defense industry in national innovation system as well as global trends and local bosnian defense sector opportunities for generating significant added value through customized innovative solution for targeted global market. national innovation system is defined as “…set of distinct institutions which jointly and individually contribute to the development and diffusion of new technologies and which provides the framework within which governments form and implement policies to influence the innovation process. as such it is a system of interconnected institutions to create, store and transfer the knowledge, skills and artefacts which define new technologies” [5]. the defense industry is primarily a business with the main objective to maximize profit with minimal investments. also, bosnian defense industry has all potential to be recognized as one of the strategic industries for the development of the country. 2. top global market trends for the purpose of this research, global trends are reflected in two directions: spending trends and r&d trends. global defense spending continues to increase despite financial pressure due to covid-19. the global defense spending for period 1988 – 2019 is shown in figure 1. figure 1. global defense spending for period 1988 – 20191 the demand for military equipment is growing as governments around the world focus on military modernization busting worldwide defense expenditure. global defense spending reached us$1.914 trillion in 2019, and continue to grow in 2020 for about 3.9% despite coronavirus pandemic. to identify general trends in different weapons deliveries and to permit comparison between the data, stockholm international peace research institute (sipri) developed a unique system to measure the volume of international transfers of major conventional weapons using a common unit, the trend-indicator value (tiv). the tiv trends of total arm transfer for period 1950 – 2019 is presented in figure 2. figure 2. total arms transfers for period 1950 – 2019 2 1 sipri military expenditure database, https://www.sipri.org/gallery/military-spending-graphics-2019 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 m ili ta ry e xp en di tu re (i n u s$ bi lli on s) year dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.26-33 28 it is observed that tiv had been growing over the time until it achieved a peak in 1982. in period between 1982 and 2002 the tiv was significantly decreased. since 2002 the tiv has been growing until now. it is expected that covid-19 will slightly slow the tiv growth in upcoming period. the trends in r&d are focused on the artificial intelligence systems, additive manufacturing, as well as cost reduction. future weapons are not something so sci-fi nowadays. electric rifles, advanced magnetic armor, robot soldiers, etc. are all being devised today by big, both public and private institutes [6]. defense is interested in technologies, systems and processes that improve intelligence collection, analysis and dissemination across all capabilities within defense and in all domains: land, maritime and aerospace. this includes the advanced use of biometric data, as well as innovation in cyber technology to support every facet of capability development. supporting the shift from intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance to targeting, as well as the advancement of hypersonic technology as an opportunity for defense’s space capabilities also warrant attention in this stream. the relevancy of smart defense in modern international security has been on natos list ever since 2008 financial crisis [7]. 2.1. artificial intelligence global market trends are important indicators for the contractors or companies in the global market as the more updated one is the more market area can be covered. according to case studies done [8], the defense industry shifts towards robotics, cyber weaponry and automated complex systems [9]. starting with the main technological trends, artificial intelligence (ai) has certainly become a great tool for defense industry in the sense of processing large amounts of data with which organizations have struggled over the past few years. data processing done by ai allows people to shift their focus on the results and findings in contrast to primarily producing them. advanced robots and augmented reality are some similar paths companies are already taken interests into with heavily investments already being taking places. 2.2. additive manufacturing 3d printing has become a huge disruptor ever since 2017. the militaries are already looking into the potential of printing spare parts and military equipment in-theatre to drive down costs and drive-up availability. the aerospace and defense (a&d) sector is set to become one of the biggest contributors to 3d printing’s global revenues, predicted to reach a mammoth $1.4 billion by 2019, producing parts in-house, a development that will completely reshape the relationship between contractors and manufacturers [10], [11]. 2.3. cost reduction another trend is cost technology. clean technology measures within the a&d sector include energy efficiency, waste management, recycling, use of digital and paperless products, video conferencing, and many more. according to well defined research the budget for the global defense clean technology market will increase 7.5% between 2016 and 2021. this also includes paperless documents and clean power. a difficulty defense companies face as they try to move forward with these environmentally friendly technology initiatives will be integration with current systems. however, the savings over the long run from eco-friendly and costeffective solutions are worth the initial investment. cost-effectiveness can be listed as the back bone of all the major trends. innovation is the key factor in this industry and those who are willing to adapt are those who survive. technology investments are elements that enable manufacturers to innovate on-the-go. these improvements should lower manufacturers’ costs and help them stay a relevant member of the industry. companies in sectors of the healthcare, software and internet show the substantial grow in the r&d spending over the last fifteen years, while typically spend less on r&d and it has been largely flat over recent years. 2 source: sipri trend indicator values (tivs), http://www.sipri.org/databases/armstransfers/sources-andmethods/ dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.26-33 29 companies from south korea, israel, europe, japan, north america and china demonstrate the most significant growth in r&d spending. figure 3. r&d spending by industry3 3. current state and trend in bosnian defense industry as result of increased global defense spending, in recent years turnover of bosnian defense industry started to grow. reports say that the total income has increased for 21% and the total export has increased for 29% when compared to 2015 [12]. the defense industry is mainly based on the production of ammunition and artillery pieces. this is far away from the time when bosnia as a part of former yugoslavia, produced a wide variety of both complex and non-complex products. being a war-ravaged transition country, the reduction in production is not something out of the ordinary. ukraine, as one of the world’s super power in weapon production, experienced a huge decrease in every branch of their defense industry in their transition period of 1991 to 1999 [13]. through investments in r&d and through arms export to 3rd world countries, ukraine’s defense industry rocketed sky high again. although a small country, with small influence, bosnia can allocate the steps which ukraine undertook in order to get its industry back in its tracks. representative products of bosnian defense industry [14], [15]:  all kinds of small-arms ammunition, ranging from cal. 5.56 to 12.7 mm  artillery howitzers and mortar systems  artillery ammunition, ranging from 75 to 152 mm  mortar ammunition, ranging from 60 to 120 mm  fuses and cartridges  observing and sighting equipment  uniform and soldier protection equipment (military vests, helmets, riot control equipment, boots) recently developed:  self-propelled howitzer 155 mm with fully automatic loading (prototype made) 3 source: capital iq data, strategy and analysis healthcare computing and electronics software and internet auto industries chemical and energy aerospace and defense0 50 100 150 200 250 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 r& d s pe nd in g in u s$ b ill io ns year healthcare computing and electronics software and internet auto industries chemical and energy aerospace and defense dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.26-33 30  light armored vehicle  gun 9 mm and rifle 7.62 mm  rpg 7 following the world defense industry trends and investing in r&d, bosnia can take a piece of the world trade cake. recently, bosnia developed its first fully automatic, mobile artillery piece. it complies with nato standards, is lighter than its french and serbian competition and is ought to cost less than its counterparts. the manufacturer bnt novi travnik, devised everything except the sophisticated electronics and the truck [14]. analyzing the portfolio of local defense industry, it is observed that only recently developed self-propelled howitzer is on the track with global r&d trends. to be on the track with the global r&d trends in defense, a significant upgrade of the existing product is required, and development of solution for the global market. to asses alignment of bosnian defense sector with the global trends, swot analysis is done and the results are provided in table 1. table 1. swot analysis of bosnian defense industry strengths opportunities tradition in making weapons and other metallurgy products reliable, battle tested products skilled workforce brand growth in global defense spending growing trends in smart weapon ammunition artificial intelligence autonomous complex systems bio design drones laser-based weapons to become strategic industry for bosnian economy weaknesses threats insufficient investment in r&d lack of knowledge needed for the creation of more complex weapon systems little or no r&d lack of political stability current world policies world competitors as previously explained, the strengths are analyzed as one of the internal elements of this analysis. in this case, strengths of the bosnian defense industry are tradition in making weapons and other metallurgy products, reliability of products and proven brands. on the other hand, weaknesses of the industry could either be lack of knowledge regarding producing complex weapon systems, as well as insufficient investment in research and development, which are driving forces of industry growth. tapping into the area of drones, or artificial intelligence based systems could be considered as opportunity of defense industry of bosnia, while the competitors and potential political instability as well as new global policies on defense products and distribution are perceived as threats of the industry. along with the pharmaceutical industry, local defense industry has potential to become one of the key sectors of the bosnian innovation system. innovations are key factors to generate significant added-value, to improve economic performance and to ensure business future. opportunities lie in global defense spending growth, growing trends in smart weapon ammunition, autonomous complex systems, artificial intelligence, drones. spending in defense sector on global level is continuously and significantly grooving, therefore this sector should become one of the strategic industries for the bosnian economy and country development. this is an opportunity to invest in end-user-solutions on the global market through this industry, which will have significant added value and a significant share of knowledge. dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.26-33 31 comparing the current production program from the bosnian defense industry with global trends, it is observed that significant upgrade is required to keep pace with global trends, which requires significant investment in research and development. therefore, potential investors as well as the government should recognize their interest in this sector, explore and encourage investors to invest. the r&d expenditure for selected countries as percentage of gdp for period 1996 – 2019 is shown in figure 4. figure 4. r&d expenditure in bosnia and for selected countries4 recent spending on r&d projects in bosnia are one of the lowest in the world as well as the lowest in the region. companies and government from bosnia spend less than 0.2% of gdp on r&d projects, which is about 5 times lower than regional average (compared with neighboring countries) and about 15 times less that the average of top global investor in r&d. to improve economic performance of bosnian defense industry, investment in r&d is necessary, since there is significant positive correlation between investment in r&d and economic performance [16]. over the last decade south korea has the highest grow in r&d spending as percentage of gdp. reforms which took place in south korea would be a good model of restructuring the defense industry and the military in general [4]. making strategic alliances with countries that are already producing sorts of smart weapons would be an important step in the development of a domestic smart weapon or ammunition. obtaining the knowledge through partnerships with countries which are leaders in the market, bosnia would be able to become a regional factor in the production of smart weapons. a good example could be the israel, spain and portugal, which became regional leaders in arms production through investments in r&d, but also through their acute strategic need [17]. 4 the world bank, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/gb.xpd.rsdv.gd.zs bosnia china eu croatia israel japan serbia turkey usa world south korea russia 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 r& d e xp en di tu re (% o f g d p) year bosnia china eu croatia israel japan serbia turkey usa world south korea russia dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.26-33 32 as already stated, bosnia’s ammunition products are already used in many nations, all over the world. they are less expensive but battle proven and reliable. so, there is a solid turf at which bosnia can aim their sights. following trends and further developing the production of arms, increases interest in products which are made in bosnia. cooperation between partners countries can definitely lead them to a profound and well-established r&d and manufacturing industry for the defense systems. for instance, in the us most of the r&d investment were made by business, which is shown in figure 5. figure 5. history of r&d expenditure in the us by business and government [18] recently the business share in the us r&d expenditure is about 67% of total gdp for r&d, while the government is about 33% [18]. 4. conclusion opportunities for bosnian defense industry in global trends are analyzed. the defense industry is primarily a business, and as in every business the main objective is to maximize profit with minimal investments. bosnia is a small country and has negligible influence in the global market of arms. this can be considered as an advantage for bosnian defense sector to be specialized on customized solutions for narrow global market rather than modular ones. customized solutions for narrow global market might be less interesting to big players, which could make some room for bosnian defense industry. current rate of expenditure in the r&d sector is not fare below world average, as well as far below regional average. to bridge the gap between the desire to invest in r&d and the provision of the necessary funds, the public private partnership model could be one with an emphasis innovative solution. in order to achieve this, it is necessary to recognize the domestic defense sector as a strategic branch for economic development. opportunities lie in growing of global expenditure for the defense products and positive trend in artificial intelligence systems. tradition in making weapons and other metallurgy products, reliable battle proven products and skilled workforce are major strengths. among the other domestic sectors, the defense industry along with pharmaceutical has the potential to deliver via r&d end user solutions, which qualifies them to generate increased added-value through the knowledge and branding. therefore, the defense industry through the r&d output may play a key role in the national innovation system and achieve notable positive impact on the national economic performances. 5. references [1] pieter d. wezeman, dr aude fleurant, alexandra kuimova, dr diego lopes da silva, dr nan tian, and siemon t. wezeman, “trends in international arms transfers, 2019,” 2020. [2] aude fleurant, sam perlo-freeman, pieter d. wezeman, siemon t. wezeman, and noel kelly, “the sipri top 100 arms-producing and military services companies, 2015,” 2016. [3] a. kuah and b. loo, “no. 70 examining the defence industrialization-economic growth relationship:the case of singapore with compliments,” 2004. [4] j. carlos and o. torrenova, “global defence industry and the asia-pacific region,” 2012. [5] metcalfe and s., “the economic foundations of technology policy : equilibrium and evolutionary perspectives,” handb. econ. innov. technol. chang., 1995, accessed: mar. 04, 2021. [online]. available: https://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/10021355612. dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.26-33 33 [6] c. denicolo and a. herbert, “industry top trends 2017 aerospace and defense overview,” 2017. [7] i. d. ivanov, “the diffusion of nato partnerships and their effect on alliance’s smart defense.” accessed: mar. 16, 2021. [online]. available: https://www.academia.edu/2022709/the_diffusion_of_nato_partnerships_and_their_effect_on_alli ance_s_smart_defense. [8] uk ministry of defense, “sustainable mod strategy 2015-2025.” accessed: mar. 16, 2021. [online]. available: sustainable mod strategy 2015 to 2025 gov.uk. [9] v. boulanin and m. verbruggen, “mapping the development of autonomy in weapon systems,” stockholm, 2017. [10] “three key trends hitting the defence industry in 2017 defenceweb.” https://www.defenceweb.co.za/joint/science-a-defence-technology/three-key-trends-hitting-thedefence-industry-in-2017/?catid=74&itemid=30 (accessed mar. 16, 2021). [11] “becoming a digital frontrunner in aerospace and defense.” https://www.bcg.com/publications/2017/transformation-becoming-digital-frontrunner-aerospacedefense (accessed mar. 16, 2021). [12] “trends in world military expenditure, 2019 | sipri.” https://www.sipri.org/publications/2020/siprifact-sheets/trends-world-military-expenditure-2019 (accessed mar. 16, 2021). [13] a. j. k. bailes, o. melnyk, and i. anthony, “relics of cold war: europe’s challenge, ukraine’s experience | sipri,” 2003. accessed: mar. 16, 2021. [online]. available: https://www.sipri.org/publications/2003/sipri-policy-papers/relics-cold-war-europes-challengeukraines-experience. [14] “bnt tmh tmih tvornica masina i hidraulike novi travnik bratstvo vojna industrija bih tmih tmh. bosnia and herzegovina | bnt-tvornica mašina i hidraulike, novi travnik.” http://www.bnt-tmh.ba/vojni-program/ (accessed mar. 16, 2021). [15] “unis group – bosnian defence industry.” https://www.unisgroup.ba/ (accessed mar. 16, 2021). [16] ü. ampirik and b. analiz, “paradoks ekonomi, sosyoloji ve politika dergisi paradoks economics, sociology and policy journal relationships between r&d and corporate performance: an empirical analysis in istanbul stock exchange ar---ge ve firma performansi arasindaki i̇lişki: borsa i̇stanbul,” 2016. [17] j. brauer, “the arms industry in developing nations: history and post-cold war assessment,” in arming the south, palgrave macmillan uk, 2002, pp. 101–127. [18] r. d. a. caleb foote, “federal support for r&d continues its ignominious slide.” information technology and innovation foundation, 2019, accessed: mar. 04, 2021. [online]. available: https://itif.org/publications/2019/08/12/federal-support-rd-continues-its-ignominious-slide. microsoft word 195-article text-343-1-15-20220829.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id195 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 50 review of indonesian government policy in procurement plan of dassault rafale fighter aircraft a. wardana1, t. b.cahyana2, h. tahdi3, y. h. yogaswara4 1,2,3,4 faculty of defense technology, indonesia defense university, indonesia *corresponding author e-mail: achmad.wardana@tp.idu.ac.id received aug. 16, 2022 revised aug. 29, 2022 accepted sept. 1, 2022 abstract indonesia's decision to procure 4.5 generation rafale fighter jets has been approved to replace obsolete aircraft, namely the us-made f-16 and the russianmade su-27 and su-30. the selection of rafale was based on indonesia's defense relationship with france which had existed for a very long time, besides that it was also based on the foreign policy adopted by indonesia, namely the free and active policy shown from several defense equipment owned by indonesia, not only from a particular country. this study aims to examine government policies in the plan to procure dassault rafale fighter aircraft for indonesia. this study uses a descriptive qualitative approach through literature review from reputable national and international journals, ebooks, and online media by exploring or explaining more broadly the government policy issues in the plan to procure the dassault rafale fighter aircraft for indonesia. the findings of this study indicate that indonesia is still lagging behind vietnam, thailand, and singapore in terms of the number of first-tier modern combat aircraft that are ready for combat. in addition, purchase of the dassault rafale aircraft must provide effectiveness to improve national defense and security by using a definitive combination of "highlow" that can be adopted from the usaf (united states air force), and also indonesia must be realistic in responding to the regional balance of power (asean) through the realization of the mef towards ief. one important factor that needs to be considered in the procurement agreement is the existence of a strong policy and commitment from the government that emphasizes the transfer of technology (tot) by sending human resources to study and do internships in the development industry. © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: dassault rafale, combination high-low, transfer of technology, mef, ief 1. introduction the process of globalization has touched various fields of human life, in the fields of education, socio-culture, economy, politics, defense and security. they are never separated from the effects of globalization. the transformation process that aims to make people around the world into a single society and interdependent on each other is growing rapidly due to the sophistication of information and communication technology. however, the occurrence of the globalization process as a process that will bring the world under dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 51 one control through one global power has resulted in the dominance of the world community by countries that have great powers that are able to take a role in the process. [1] for indonesia as a developing country with an area that stretches from sabang to merauke and with the fourth largest population in the world, it has not been able to take advantage of the momentum properly. indonesia's strategic position has been used by other countries in various forms, indonesia is used as a consumer in trade for other countries' products, so that indonesia is only used as a market. as an independent and sovereign country, it is fitting for indonesia to increase its defense and security forces. in order to protect the sovereignty of the nation. moreover, in recent times there have been frequent conflicts in the border areas due to illegal fishing by foreign vessels flagged by vietnam, malaysia, china and several other countries who consciously take natural resources and wealth. indonesian sea. besides that, the confrontation carried out by the chinese state over the south china sea dispute by sending several warships in the indonesian maritime border area allowed an open war for the countries with an interest in it. this further emphasizes the importance of the strength of military weapons for the defense and security of the nation. mainly to anticipate conflicts in the southeast asian region by strengthening the military weapons of the indonesian national army (tni). indonesia continues to strengthen its military defenses under the command of defense minister prabowo subianto. recently, indonesia entered into a contract to purchase one of the most sophisticated types of fighter aircraft in the world to improve defense and maintain indonesia's air sovereignty. airspace is one of the most important defenses in military defense. from the news on defense minister prabowo's working visit, the dassault rafale multirole generation 4.5 from france is the strongest candidate, in addition to the hope to get an aircraft from the united states f-15ex. indonesia will buy 42 rafale aircraft and hopes to become the owner of 8 f-15ex. [2] the purchase of 42 rafale fighter planes by defense minister prabowo subianto in early 2022 raised pros and cons. apart from that, purchase of 6 rafale type aircraft (36 planes will follow) with representatives of dassault aviation in jakarta, thursday (10/2/2022). [3] buying a new fighter aircraft is an optionstrategic political and military. this decision, of course, is not just a purchase for valor, but for the defense and security of the country. if it is not used to actively fight, then its existence must be effective in giving effects that affect the defense and security of the country. therefore, this study aims to examine government policies in the plan to procure dassault rafale fighter aircraft for indonesia. 2. research method this study uses a descriptive qualitative approach by exploring or explaining more broadly government policy issues in the plan to procure the dassault rafale fighter aircraft for indonesia. the research focuses on the strategic plan for the procurement of the dassault rafale and the presence of the dassault rafale for indonesia. data collection is carried out through literature studies originating from reputable national and international journals, ebooks, and online media. the literature study in this study was conducted by searching and studying various literatures related to government policies in the plan to procure the dassault rafale fighter aircraft for indonesia. sources of data in this study are books, journals, website pages and other references that are considered relevant to the theme in this study. the author uses data analysis techniques with qualitative descriptive analysis strategies. 3. results and discussion 3.1 global free power index the global free power index is one of the institutions that assesses the military strength of all countries in the world, indicators that assess a country's military strength include several aspects. among them are geography, the number of troops, the strength of military weaponry on land, water and air. until the military budget becomes an assessment aspect. according to several public releases, such as the global free power index, currently the indonesian air force only has about 445 aircraft forces. this fleet consists partly of second-tier light fighter aircraft that are running down. meanwhile, the total area of indonesia that must be dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 52 covered is 1.9 million km2. this does not include important flash points, such as the south china sea, natuna waters, the malacca strait, and parts of the eastern region, which need more attention and fleets. [4] table 1. air force comparison of several asean (source: gfp index, 2022; processed data) countries total aircraft strength fighter/interceptors dedicated attack transport trainers indonesia 445 41 23 66 126 malaysia 144 26 12 18 39 thailand 496 74 18 50 130 singapore 224 100 0 9 36 vietnam 218 75 0 9 30 myanmar 280 55 21 26 93 philipines 182 0 25 21 24 cambodia 23 0 0 4 0 laos 32 0 0 1 4 the data above shows that indonesia's total aircraft strength sub-indicator is at 445 which only loses to thailand at 490, then on the transport sub-indicator, indonesia is superior compared to other asean countries, namely 66. for matters of the number of first-tier modern fighter aircraft that are ready in combat, indonesia is also still lagging behind vietnam, thailand, let alone singapore. indonesia's lack of hitting power in air defense, as the largest country in asean, is quite a contrast to some of its neighbors. in terms of the number of air force personnel, indonesia has an estimated 37,850 personnel, which is still less than thailand with 47,000 personnel, whose area and total population differ greatly (270 million vs. 70 million), and is almost on par with vietnam (95 million people). million people) with a total of 35,000 air force personnel. for this reason, as an effort to anticipate conflicts and attacks on a country, maintenance and renewal of the main weapon system for each country is very important. the modernization of military power is also influenced by advances in defense technology. this reflects alertness, valor as a nation (ksau marsda tni dr. umar sugeng hariyono, s.ip, s.e, m.m.) 3.2 strategic considerations indonesia plans to purchase a number of major modern weapons systems (alutsista) in stages until 2024, in order to fulfill the strategic plan for phase iii of the tni's minimum essential force (mef) program. some of the defense equipment to be purchased include 8 units of multirole combat aircraft f-15 ex (united states) and 42 units of dassault rafale fighter aircraft (france). although there are guidelines for posture, strategic plan and mef, the procurement of defense equipment basically depends on the conditions of the strategic environment that continue to change dynamically. in addition, the procurement of defense equipment also has a contribution to defense diplomacy efforts with other countries of strategic value to the global political constellation. the purchase of these two fighter aircraft can also increase the deterrence effect for indonesia in the region. previously, indonesia planned to procure russian-made fighter aircraft, namely the sukhoi su-35, but the purchase plan was not forwarded by the ministry of defense and tni headquarters. the plan to purchase the dassault rafale & f-15 ex is considered a wise step amid the united states' implementation of the countering america's adversaries through sanctions act (caatsa). caatsa is a rule applied to impose sanctions in the form of sanctions and embargoes against countries that buy weapons from russia, iran and north korea. [4] the addition of the main fighting force is a very important requirement for indonesia. from the global firepower it is clear that indonesia's air combat power is still relatively inadequate. purchasing more precise fighter aircraft is the key word. if it is assumed that the purchase of rafale fighter aircraft is in accordance with the plan, then the combat power of the indonesian air force will increase from 461 units to 503 units of defense equipment. [5] dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 53 3.3 combination “high and low” buying a new fighter is a strategic political and military choice. the decision to operate it is not just a purchase with a certain ability for valor, but for military defense. if it is not used to actively wage war, then its presence must be effective in providing a deterrence, which also affects regional security and as part of the country's political tools. in concocting fighter aircraft postures, we can learn from the usaf example (united states air force), which uses the definitive combination of "high-low". the usaf does not rely on one type of advanced aircraft, but operates several types of fighter aircraft, designed for a specific mission and simplified into two. that is, those with high abilities (high) and those with abilities below (low). table 2. fighter aircraft category fighter aircraft high capability fighter aircraft low capability gd f-111 boeing f/a-18a atau f16 sukhoi su-32fn/34 dassault rafale sukhoi su-27/30/33 eurofighter typhoon boeing f-15k/sg lm f-16c lm f-22a joint strike fighter f-35 "high" fighter aircraft dedicated to air superiority (air-to-air combat). the specifications are very high speed above mach 1.5, long range, sensitive advanced radar, advanced computer that can identify and track multiple targets at once, and can carry multiple air-to-air missiles. the main role of the "high" fighter aircraft is to clear the air combat zone of enemy fighters and air defense systems. this makes the combat area relatively safer for other vehicles, such as tactical bombers and helicopters, which are more vulnerable to attack by aircraft and anti-aircraft defense systems, from that function emerged the f-15 eagle and now its successor is the f-22, the su35, su-57. however, of course this existence is very expensive and requires a high commitment with a long process. therefore, the production of "high" class fighter aircraft is not as high as other classes, and the fleet is also specialized in the elite tier. while the high demand due to conflict persists, the solution is to design a second tier fighter, which has been reduced in specifications and is definitely cheaper. however, the line which was less sophisticated than the first tier was covered by a sizable quantity of the second tier fleet. for "low" fighter aircraft, its main role is to strike the ground with more air-to-surface. air-to-air missiles still exist, but only as a limited support tool for self-defense. "low" fighter planes will rely on their friends "high" fighter planes to guard and defend themselves from enemy threats. “low” fighter designs are usually smaller and have a shorter cruising range. the maximum speed is lower, the radar is not as sophisticated as the “high” class, and the avionics are simpler. an example of a fighter of this category is the f-16 fighting falcon, then now there is the f-35. [6] 3.4 mef to ief according to the expert staff coordinator (koorsahli) ksau marsda tni dr. umar sugeng hariyono, s.ip, se, mm, in his doctoral dissertation explained that the indonesian air force is still far from the ideal number of aircraft fleet needs with a total of around 600 units. the plan to develop the power towards the ideal essential force (ief) for the period 2024-2039 requires at least 348 aircraft to be added. [7] assuming the posture of the fighter aircraft is in the 30-40% range, it means that the indonesian air force still needs more than 100 units of first-tier modern fighter aircraft (comparable to and above the f-16 specifications) to reach the ideal essential force (ief). in practice, the air defense posture of each country or defense agency of course does not or cannot be exactly the same as the usaf's, due to financial constraints and so on. however, the basis of reference for the us setting the definition of high-low was because it had been actively fighting in various combat theaters outside its own territory. of course, the indonesian air force dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 54 is not required to have a 100% same definition of fleet posture, but the usaf approach can be adopted, according to the advantages of each type of aircraft that can be acquisition. [6] if indonesia's current free-active policy tends to be oriented towards the us and allied defense equipment, the posture of its fighter aircraft can modify the usaf high-low , to then equalize its position with thailand and approach or slightly exceed singapore. the uniformity of the fighter aircraft fleet is very important, especially since the tni is currently strengthening its network centric warfare system. the strength of the indonesian air force cannot be dominated, for example, fighter aircraft made in the us vs. russia. this is because it will cause system conflicts in the field, in addition to disrupting the smooth interoperability of the three dimensions. not only is it an up-to-date fighter specification, but the presence of an ideal fighter combination at the outermost air base, and cruising range (including response time) around flash points is imperative. [6] plan a is a combination of f-15ex aircraft (not yet us approval), rafale (bright, but not final), old f16s, and some sukhois. however, indonesia must also have a plan b. for example, the rafale as the "high" aircraft and the f-16 "low". then, another decade or two, the f-16 was dethroned by the rafale, and the "high" role was filled by the f-15ex or f-35 and others. [6] 3.5 rafale fighter aircraft secretary general of the ministry of defense marsdya donny ermawan taufano in the webinar 'welcoming the rafale plane', said that indonesia currently only relies on 33 f-16 aircraft that are more than 30 years old. meanwhile, 16 sukhoi su 27 and su 30 fighters are almost 20 years old. under these conditions, it is the obligation of the ministry of defense to plan fighter aircraft that will serve in the 2030s and 2040s. the government's decision to choose the rafale fighter is based on technical and non-technical considerations. choosing products made in france is safer from us sanctions against russia or better known as caatsa (countering america's adversaries through sanction act). this is inseparable from the military competition between the us and russia. in addition, the certainty of technology transfer of the rafale fighter is more secure than the previous two types of fighter aircraft. [8] rafale is known as a versatile aircraft because it can be used for various missions. for example, interdiction (ban), aerial reconnaissance (air reconnaissance), ground support (ground support), anti-ship strike (anti-ship attack) and nuclear deterrence mission (nuclear prevention mission). dassault rafale fighter specifications: 1. generation 4.5 aircraft. 2. maximum speed 1.8 mach or 750 knots. 3. maximum altitude 50,000 feet. 4. has an 'active electronically scanned away' radar. 5. has a wingspan of 10.9 meters, length 15 .30 meters and 5.30 meters high. armament specifications dassault rafale: 1. the mica combat and self-defense missile. 2. meteor long range rocket. 3. high agile and manouvrable munition extended range equipped with gps and infrared. 4. aircraft-brake-powered air missiles. 5. scalp long range missile. 6. am39excocet anti-ship missile. 7. laser guided bombs with warheads ranging from 500-2,000 pounds. 8. internal gun with 2,500 rounds/minute nexter30m791 mm in addition, for special missions, the rafale can deliver mbda nuclear missiles. with the addition of the main combat defense equipment in the form of the rafale type fighter aircraft, it is certain that the combat dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 55 power of the indonesian air force is the strongest in southeast asia for now. however, it must still be noted that the very large area of the air boundary with the four sector commands (kosek) of the national air defense command (korhanudnas) which includes: jakarta, makassar, medan and biak is not sufficient. the current number and posture of the main combat defense equipment can only support a maximum of 30 units per korhanudnas. seeing the development of the global geopolitical situation which is full of uncertainty after the start of the russian invasion of ukraine, the indonesian government needs to consider the fulfillment of the main combat defense equipment which is relatively adequate, sophisticated and modern. thus, the sovereignty of indonesia's airspace is not easily threatened and violated by foreign parties and is protected from enemy attacks if at any time there is a war between indonesia and other countries. 3.6 transfer of technology (tot) transfer of technology is one way to eliminate the limitations that hinder mastery of technology and towards increasing mastery of technology. the policy is a strategy in developing the capacity of human resources so that their productivity will increase even more. increased human productivity will produce quality and competitive products. [9] in the contract for the purchase of 42 rafale aircraft made by dassault, a memorandum of understanding (mou) of the offset and tot program cooperation between dassault and pt di was also made. the dassault rafale aircraft procurement contract agreement should emphasize the transfer of technology (tot) by sending human resources to study and do internships in the development industry. in addition to hr offsets, there is also a need for an offset scheme for the production of aircraft components in indonesia by the national industry, namely pt dirgantara indonesia (pt di). as a strategic national asset, pt di requires continuity between human resources and facilities that are recognized by authority globally. pt di's business portfolio consists of aircraft (airplane and helicopter), aircraft services (maintenance, overhaul, repair and alteration), aerostructure (parts and sub assemblies, assemblies tools and equipment), engineering services (communication technology, simulator technology, information technology). solution, design center) should focus on optimizing the national aviation system as a provider and supporter of commuter aircraft and tni defense equipment. the development strategy must prioritize the importance of the independence of the nation and the mastery of technology by the nation's own children. for this reason, the government needs to include elements of science and technology for human resource development in the defense equipment spending agreement. it must be admitted that the human resources we currently have are still limited, both in terms of quality and quantity. hr is the main component in determining the success of r&d work. the limited quality and quantity of technology experts will only shackle the r&d function. r&d is a bridge that connects science and technology with human interests. therefore, r&d agencies must be supported by qualified technology experts and in sufficient numbers. every effort and effort must be made to increase the number of transfer of technology (including transfer of technology/tot) of a general nature, or military, in accordance with the demands of the required disciplines. [10] the development of the defense technology industry does require a strong commitment from the government. this commitment is certainly related to the development of the defense industry, including the offset policy in it, as an effort towards indonesia's defense independence. the government holds the main control in the development and implementation of offset policies because the support of funds, human resources, and political will is very much needed. however, if this policy is carried out optimally, we will see an independent indonesia and talk a lot on the international stage. [11] in addition, the role of academics can help maximize the absorption and dissemination of knowledge that can help smooth the transfer of knowledge needed to support technology transfer. in addition, influential factors in technology transfer include production facilities, managerial capabilities of human resources, and government commitment in transfer projects. technology. in technology transfer, a large investment is needed to prepare the required production support facilities. investment is needed to support the success of the technology transfer process. the success dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 56 of technology management in a country depends on the political commitment of the government to be able to increase mastery of certain technologies, such as making regulations that support the achievement of mastery of technology, and other supports such as financial support aimed at the success of technology management in the context of mastering certain technologies. [12] defense minister prabowo's military diplomacy, which has been active for the past year, must be able to produce concrete results. it must no longer run aground, such as the planned acquisition of the su-35 and the development of kfx/ifx, where almost a decade has been wasted, swallowing the bitter pill of defense equipment politics and the complexities of aerospace technology. the issue of the balance of power in asean and the potential conflict between the south china sea and china are definitely part of indonesia's ammunition, in lobbying for defense equipment needs to other strong democratic countries, such as the us and its allies. the successive governments must also faithfully guard this vision and commitment. [6] 4. conclusions based on the results of the analysis, conclusions can be drawn in this study as follows. the existence of indonesia, which is in the southeast asian region as well as bordering the pacific ocean, makes the country characterized by the archipelago must have a military force that is capable of dealing with various external threats. especially in the southeast asia region. so that the strength of military weapons for a country is very important to anticipate various threats that have the potential to come to disturb the security and peace of a country. fighter aircraft dassault rafale that has been carried out by the ministry of defense so that its existence becomes effective in formulating defense postures, the usaf approach (united states air force) the definitive combination of "high-low" can be adopted according to the advantages of each type of aircraft that can be acquired. in fulfilling its defense equipment, indonesia must also be realistic in responding to the balance of regional power, namely asean. the realization of the mef towards ief must adapt, for example, to the air power of three strong neighboring countries, such as vietnam, thailand and singapore. thus, the sovereignty of indonesia's airspace is not easily threatened and violated by foreign parties and is protected from enemy attacks if at any time there is a war between indonesia and other countries. the dassault rafale aircraft procurement contract agreement should emphasize the transfer of technology (tot) by sending human resources to study and do internships in the development industry. in addition to hr offsets, there is also a need for an offset scheme for the production of aircraft components in indonesia by the national industry. this policy does require a strong commitment from the government. the government holds the main control in the development and implementation of offset policies because the support of funds, human resources, and political will is very much needed. if this policy is carried out optimally, we will see an independent indonesia and speak a lot on the international stage. references [1] m. a. wibowo, "eksistensi tni dalam menghadapi ancaman militer dan nir militer multidimensional di era milenial". kemhan ri : edisi khusus (wira), 2019. [2] t. p. sorongan, "prabowo borong 42 jet tempur rafale", cnbc indonesia, 2022. [3] f. c. farisa, "deretan alutsista yang di beli prabowo". kompas, indonesia, 2022. [4] a. fitri, p. dalam n. kepakaran, s. pertahanan, p.penelitian b.keahlian sekjen, dpr ri, 2022. [5] mujiburrahman, "menakar kekuatan tni au pasca kontrak pembelian rafale", politik dan keamanan budget issue brief vol 02, ed 3, maret 2022. [6] d. toruan, "menanti kombinasi maut jet tempur indonesia", armory reborn 6, 2021. [7] f. setiawan, "menuju ideal essential force (ief), indonesia perlu menambah 348 unit pesawat untuk tni au, air space riview, 2018. [8] b. santosa, "pembelian pesawat rafale," kompas, indonesia , 2022. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 57 [9] m. waluyo, "transfer teknologi dan keberlanjutan industri", lipi, 2018 [10] i.samego, s. pertahanan-keamanan negara, "analisis potensi dan problem", (jakarta: the habibie center, pp. 227-228, 2001. [11] r. m. j. indrawan, "kebijakan ofset dalam membangun kemandirian pertahanan negara", 2016. [12] r. l. muchtiwibowo, "transfer of technology," jurnal industri pertahanan, volume 1, no 1 , 2019. microsoft word 195-article text-343-1-15-20220829.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id195 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 50 review of indonesian government policy in procurement plan of dassault rafale fighter aircraft a. wardana1, t. b.cahyana2, h. tahdi3, y. h. yogaswara4 1,2,3,4 faculty of defense technology, indonesia defense university, indonesia *corresponding author e-mail: achmad.wardana@tp.idu.ac.id received aug. 16, 2022 revised aug. 29, 2022 accepted sept. 1, 2022 abstract indonesia's decision to procure 4.5 generation rafale fighter jets has been approved to replace obsolete aircraft, namely the us-made f-16 and the russianmade su-27 and su-30. the selection of rafale was based on indonesia's defense relationship with france which had existed for a very long time, besides that it was also based on the foreign policy adopted by indonesia, namely the free and active policy shown from several defense equipment owned by indonesia, not only from a particular country. this study aims to examine government policies in the plan to procure dassault rafale fighter aircraft for indonesia. this study uses a descriptive qualitative approach through literature review from reputable national and international journals, ebooks, and online media by exploring or explaining more broadly the government policy issues in the plan to procure the dassault rafale fighter aircraft for indonesia. the findings of this study indicate that indonesia is still lagging behind vietnam, thailand, and singapore in terms of the number of first-tier modern combat aircraft that are ready for combat. in addition, purchase of the dassault rafale aircraft must provide effectiveness to improve national defense and security by using a definitive combination of "highlow" that can be adopted from the usaf (united states air force), and also indonesia must be realistic in responding to the regional balance of power (asean) through the realization of the mef towards ief. one important factor that needs to be considered in the procurement agreement is the existence of a strong policy and commitment from the government that emphasizes the transfer of technology (tot) by sending human resources to study and do internships in the development industry. © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: dassault rafale, combination high-low, transfer of technology, mef, ief 1. introduction the process of globalization has touched various fields of human life, in the fields of education, socio-culture, economy, politics, defense and security. they are never separated from the effects of globalization. the transformation process that aims to make people around the world into a single society and interdependent on each other is growing rapidly due to the sophistication of information and communication technology. however, the occurrence of the globalization process as a process that will bring the world under dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 51 one control through one global power has resulted in the dominance of the world community by countries that have great powers that are able to take a role in the process. [1] for indonesia as a developing country with an area that stretches from sabang to merauke and with the fourth largest population in the world, it has not been able to take advantage of the momentum properly. indonesia's strategic position has been used by other countries in various forms, indonesia is used as a consumer in trade for other countries' products, so that indonesia is only used as a market. as an independent and sovereign country, it is fitting for indonesia to increase its defense and security forces. in order to protect the sovereignty of the nation. moreover, in recent times there have been frequent conflicts in the border areas due to illegal fishing by foreign vessels flagged by vietnam, malaysia, china and several other countries who consciously take natural resources and wealth. indonesian sea. besides that, the confrontation carried out by the chinese state over the south china sea dispute by sending several warships in the indonesian maritime border area allowed an open war for the countries with an interest in it. this further emphasizes the importance of the strength of military weapons for the defense and security of the nation. mainly to anticipate conflicts in the southeast asian region by strengthening the military weapons of the indonesian national army (tni). indonesia continues to strengthen its military defenses under the command of defense minister prabowo subianto. recently, indonesia entered into a contract to purchase one of the most sophisticated types of fighter aircraft in the world to improve defense and maintain indonesia's air sovereignty. airspace is one of the most important defenses in military defense. from the news on defense minister prabowo's working visit, the dassault rafale multirole generation 4.5 from france is the strongest candidate, in addition to the hope to get an aircraft from the united states f-15ex. indonesia will buy 42 rafale aircraft and hopes to become the owner of 8 f-15ex. [2] the purchase of 42 rafale fighter planes by defense minister prabowo subianto in early 2022 raised pros and cons. apart from that, purchase of 6 rafale type aircraft (36 planes will follow) with representatives of dassault aviation in jakarta, thursday (10/2/2022). [3] buying a new fighter aircraft is an optionstrategic political and military. this decision, of course, is not just a purchase for valor, but for the defense and security of the country. if it is not used to actively fight, then its existence must be effective in giving effects that affect the defense and security of the country. therefore, this study aims to examine government policies in the plan to procure dassault rafale fighter aircraft for indonesia. 2. research method this study uses a descriptive qualitative approach by exploring or explaining more broadly government policy issues in the plan to procure the dassault rafale fighter aircraft for indonesia. the research focuses on the strategic plan for the procurement of the dassault rafale and the presence of the dassault rafale for indonesia. data collection is carried out through literature studies originating from reputable national and international journals, ebooks, and online media. the literature study in this study was conducted by searching and studying various literatures related to government policies in the plan to procure the dassault rafale fighter aircraft for indonesia. sources of data in this study are books, journals, website pages and other references that are considered relevant to the theme in this study. the author uses data analysis techniques with qualitative descriptive analysis strategies. 3. results and discussion 3.1 global free power index the global free power index is one of the institutions that assesses the military strength of all countries in the world, indicators that assess a country's military strength include several aspects. among them are geography, the number of troops, the strength of military weaponry on land, water and air. until the military budget becomes an assessment aspect. according to several public releases, such as the global free power index, currently the indonesian air force only has about 445 aircraft forces. this fleet consists partly of second-tier light fighter aircraft that are running down. meanwhile, the total area of indonesia that must be dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 52 covered is 1.9 million km2. this does not include important flash points, such as the south china sea, natuna waters, the malacca strait, and parts of the eastern region, which need more attention and fleets. [4] table 1. air force comparison of several asean (source: gfp index, 2022; processed data) countries total aircraft strength fighter/interceptors dedicated attack transport trainers indonesia 445 41 23 66 126 malaysia 144 26 12 18 39 thailand 496 74 18 50 130 singapore 224 100 0 9 36 vietnam 218 75 0 9 30 myanmar 280 55 21 26 93 philipines 182 0 25 21 24 cambodia 23 0 0 4 0 laos 32 0 0 1 4 the data above shows that indonesia's total aircraft strength sub-indicator is at 445 which only loses to thailand at 490, then on the transport sub-indicator, indonesia is superior compared to other asean countries, namely 66. for matters of the number of first-tier modern fighter aircraft that are ready in combat, indonesia is also still lagging behind vietnam, thailand, let alone singapore. indonesia's lack of hitting power in air defense, as the largest country in asean, is quite a contrast to some of its neighbors. in terms of the number of air force personnel, indonesia has an estimated 37,850 personnel, which is still less than thailand with 47,000 personnel, whose area and total population differ greatly (270 million vs. 70 million), and is almost on par with vietnam (95 million people). million people) with a total of 35,000 air force personnel. for this reason, as an effort to anticipate conflicts and attacks on a country, maintenance and renewal of the main weapon system for each country is very important. the modernization of military power is also influenced by advances in defense technology. this reflects alertness, valor as a nation (ksau marsda tni dr. umar sugeng hariyono, s.ip, s.e, m.m.) 3.2 strategic considerations indonesia plans to purchase a number of major modern weapons systems (alutsista) in stages until 2024, in order to fulfill the strategic plan for phase iii of the tni's minimum essential force (mef) program. some of the defense equipment to be purchased include 8 units of multirole combat aircraft f-15 ex (united states) and 42 units of dassault rafale fighter aircraft (france). although there are guidelines for posture, strategic plan and mef, the procurement of defense equipment basically depends on the conditions of the strategic environment that continue to change dynamically. in addition, the procurement of defense equipment also has a contribution to defense diplomacy efforts with other countries of strategic value to the global political constellation. the purchase of these two fighter aircraft can also increase the deterrence effect for indonesia in the region. previously, indonesia planned to procure russian-made fighter aircraft, namely the sukhoi su-35, but the purchase plan was not forwarded by the ministry of defense and tni headquarters. the plan to purchase the dassault rafale & f-15 ex is considered a wise step amid the united states' implementation of the countering america's adversaries through sanctions act (caatsa). caatsa is a rule applied to impose sanctions in the form of sanctions and embargoes against countries that buy weapons from russia, iran and north korea. [4] the addition of the main fighting force is a very important requirement for indonesia. from the global firepower it is clear that indonesia's air combat power is still relatively inadequate. purchasing more precise fighter aircraft is the key word. if it is assumed that the purchase of rafale fighter aircraft is in accordance with the plan, then the combat power of the indonesian air force will increase from 461 units to 503 units of defense equipment. [5] dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 53 3.3 combination “high and low” buying a new fighter is a strategic political and military choice. the decision to operate it is not just a purchase with a certain ability for valor, but for military defense. if it is not used to actively wage war, then its presence must be effective in providing a deterrence, which also affects regional security and as part of the country's political tools. in concocting fighter aircraft postures, we can learn from the usaf example (united states air force), which uses the definitive combination of "high-low". the usaf does not rely on one type of advanced aircraft, but operates several types of fighter aircraft, designed for a specific mission and simplified into two. that is, those with high abilities (high) and those with abilities below (low). table 2. fighter aircraft category fighter aircraft high capability fighter aircraft low capability gd f-111 boeing f/a-18a atau f16 sukhoi su-32fn/34 dassault rafale sukhoi su-27/30/33 eurofighter typhoon boeing f-15k/sg lm f-16c lm f-22a joint strike fighter f-35 "high" fighter aircraft dedicated to air superiority (air-to-air combat). the specifications are very high speed above mach 1.5, long range, sensitive advanced radar, advanced computer that can identify and track multiple targets at once, and can carry multiple air-to-air missiles. the main role of the "high" fighter aircraft is to clear the air combat zone of enemy fighters and air defense systems. this makes the combat area relatively safer for other vehicles, such as tactical bombers and helicopters, which are more vulnerable to attack by aircraft and anti-aircraft defense systems, from that function emerged the f-15 eagle and now its successor is the f-22, the su35, su-57. however, of course this existence is very expensive and requires a high commitment with a long process. therefore, the production of "high" class fighter aircraft is not as high as other classes, and the fleet is also specialized in the elite tier. while the high demand due to conflict persists, the solution is to design a second tier fighter, which has been reduced in specifications and is definitely cheaper. however, the line which was less sophisticated than the first tier was covered by a sizable quantity of the second tier fleet. for "low" fighter aircraft, its main role is to strike the ground with more air-to-surface. air-to-air missiles still exist, but only as a limited support tool for self-defense. "low" fighter planes will rely on their friends "high" fighter planes to guard and defend themselves from enemy threats. “low” fighter designs are usually smaller and have a shorter cruising range. the maximum speed is lower, the radar is not as sophisticated as the “high” class, and the avionics are simpler. an example of a fighter of this category is the f-16 fighting falcon, then now there is the f-35. [6] 3.4 mef to ief according to the expert staff coordinator (koorsahli) ksau marsda tni dr. umar sugeng hariyono, s.ip, se, mm, in his doctoral dissertation explained that the indonesian air force is still far from the ideal number of aircraft fleet needs with a total of around 600 units. the plan to develop the power towards the ideal essential force (ief) for the period 2024-2039 requires at least 348 aircraft to be added. [7] assuming the posture of the fighter aircraft is in the 30-40% range, it means that the indonesian air force still needs more than 100 units of first-tier modern fighter aircraft (comparable to and above the f-16 specifications) to reach the ideal essential force (ief). in practice, the air defense posture of each country or defense agency of course does not or cannot be exactly the same as the usaf's, due to financial constraints and so on. however, the basis of reference for the us setting the definition of high-low was because it had been actively fighting in various combat theaters outside its own territory. of course, the indonesian air force dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 54 is not required to have a 100% same definition of fleet posture, but the usaf approach can be adopted, according to the advantages of each type of aircraft that can be acquisition. [6] if indonesia's current free-active policy tends to be oriented towards the us and allied defense equipment, the posture of its fighter aircraft can modify the usaf high-low , to then equalize its position with thailand and approach or slightly exceed singapore. the uniformity of the fighter aircraft fleet is very important, especially since the tni is currently strengthening its network centric warfare system. the strength of the indonesian air force cannot be dominated, for example, fighter aircraft made in the us vs. russia. this is because it will cause system conflicts in the field, in addition to disrupting the smooth interoperability of the three dimensions. not only is it an up-to-date fighter specification, but the presence of an ideal fighter combination at the outermost air base, and cruising range (including response time) around flash points is imperative. [6] plan a is a combination of f-15ex aircraft (not yet us approval), rafale (bright, but not final), old f16s, and some sukhois. however, indonesia must also have a plan b. for example, the rafale as the "high" aircraft and the f-16 "low". then, another decade or two, the f-16 was dethroned by the rafale, and the "high" role was filled by the f-15ex or f-35 and others. [6] 3.5 rafale fighter aircraft secretary general of the ministry of defense marsdya donny ermawan taufano in the webinar 'welcoming the rafale plane', said that indonesia currently only relies on 33 f-16 aircraft that are more than 30 years old. meanwhile, 16 sukhoi su 27 and su 30 fighters are almost 20 years old. under these conditions, it is the obligation of the ministry of defense to plan fighter aircraft that will serve in the 2030s and 2040s. the government's decision to choose the rafale fighter is based on technical and non-technical considerations. choosing products made in france is safer from us sanctions against russia or better known as caatsa (countering america's adversaries through sanction act). this is inseparable from the military competition between the us and russia. in addition, the certainty of technology transfer of the rafale fighter is more secure than the previous two types of fighter aircraft. [8] rafale is known as a versatile aircraft because it can be used for various missions. for example, interdiction (ban), aerial reconnaissance (air reconnaissance), ground support (ground support), anti-ship strike (anti-ship attack) and nuclear deterrence mission (nuclear prevention mission). dassault rafale fighter specifications: 1. generation 4.5 aircraft. 2. maximum speed 1.8 mach or 750 knots. 3. maximum altitude 50,000 feet. 4. has an 'active electronically scanned away' radar. 5. has a wingspan of 10.9 meters, length 15 .30 meters and 5.30 meters high. armament specifications dassault rafale: 1. the mica combat and self-defense missile. 2. meteor long range rocket. 3. high agile and manouvrable munition extended range equipped with gps and infrared. 4. aircraft-brake-powered air missiles. 5. scalp long range missile. 6. am39excocet anti-ship missile. 7. laser guided bombs with warheads ranging from 500-2,000 pounds. 8. internal gun with 2,500 rounds/minute nexter30m791 mm in addition, for special missions, the rafale can deliver mbda nuclear missiles. with the addition of the main combat defense equipment in the form of the rafale type fighter aircraft, it is certain that the combat dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 55 power of the indonesian air force is the strongest in southeast asia for now. however, it must still be noted that the very large area of the air boundary with the four sector commands (kosek) of the national air defense command (korhanudnas) which includes: jakarta, makassar, medan and biak is not sufficient. the current number and posture of the main combat defense equipment can only support a maximum of 30 units per korhanudnas. seeing the development of the global geopolitical situation which is full of uncertainty after the start of the russian invasion of ukraine, the indonesian government needs to consider the fulfillment of the main combat defense equipment which is relatively adequate, sophisticated and modern. thus, the sovereignty of indonesia's airspace is not easily threatened and violated by foreign parties and is protected from enemy attacks if at any time there is a war between indonesia and other countries. 3.6 transfer of technology (tot) transfer of technology is one way to eliminate the limitations that hinder mastery of technology and towards increasing mastery of technology. the policy is a strategy in developing the capacity of human resources so that their productivity will increase even more. increased human productivity will produce quality and competitive products. [9] in the contract for the purchase of 42 rafale aircraft made by dassault, a memorandum of understanding (mou) of the offset and tot program cooperation between dassault and pt di was also made. the dassault rafale aircraft procurement contract agreement should emphasize the transfer of technology (tot) by sending human resources to study and do internships in the development industry. in addition to hr offsets, there is also a need for an offset scheme for the production of aircraft components in indonesia by the national industry, namely pt dirgantara indonesia (pt di). as a strategic national asset, pt di requires continuity between human resources and facilities that are recognized by authority globally. pt di's business portfolio consists of aircraft (airplane and helicopter), aircraft services (maintenance, overhaul, repair and alteration), aerostructure (parts and sub assemblies, assemblies tools and equipment), engineering services (communication technology, simulator technology, information technology). solution, design center) should focus on optimizing the national aviation system as a provider and supporter of commuter aircraft and tni defense equipment. the development strategy must prioritize the importance of the independence of the nation and the mastery of technology by the nation's own children. for this reason, the government needs to include elements of science and technology for human resource development in the defense equipment spending agreement. it must be admitted that the human resources we currently have are still limited, both in terms of quality and quantity. hr is the main component in determining the success of r&d work. the limited quality and quantity of technology experts will only shackle the r&d function. r&d is a bridge that connects science and technology with human interests. therefore, r&d agencies must be supported by qualified technology experts and in sufficient numbers. every effort and effort must be made to increase the number of transfer of technology (including transfer of technology/tot) of a general nature, or military, in accordance with the demands of the required disciplines. [10] the development of the defense technology industry does require a strong commitment from the government. this commitment is certainly related to the development of the defense industry, including the offset policy in it, as an effort towards indonesia's defense independence. the government holds the main control in the development and implementation of offset policies because the support of funds, human resources, and political will is very much needed. however, if this policy is carried out optimally, we will see an independent indonesia and talk a lot on the international stage. [11] in addition, the role of academics can help maximize the absorption and dissemination of knowledge that can help smooth the transfer of knowledge needed to support technology transfer. in addition, influential factors in technology transfer include production facilities, managerial capabilities of human resources, and government commitment in transfer projects. technology. in technology transfer, a large investment is needed to prepare the required production support facilities. investment is needed to support the success of the technology transfer process. the success dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 56 of technology management in a country depends on the political commitment of the government to be able to increase mastery of certain technologies, such as making regulations that support the achievement of mastery of technology, and other supports such as financial support aimed at the success of technology management in the context of mastering certain technologies. [12] defense minister prabowo's military diplomacy, which has been active for the past year, must be able to produce concrete results. it must no longer run aground, such as the planned acquisition of the su-35 and the development of kfx/ifx, where almost a decade has been wasted, swallowing the bitter pill of defense equipment politics and the complexities of aerospace technology. the issue of the balance of power in asean and the potential conflict between the south china sea and china are definitely part of indonesia's ammunition, in lobbying for defense equipment needs to other strong democratic countries, such as the us and its allies. the successive governments must also faithfully guard this vision and commitment. [6] 4. conclusions based on the results of the analysis, conclusions can be drawn in this study as follows. the existence of indonesia, which is in the southeast asian region as well as bordering the pacific ocean, makes the country characterized by the archipelago must have a military force that is capable of dealing with various external threats. especially in the southeast asia region. so that the strength of military weapons for a country is very important to anticipate various threats that have the potential to come to disturb the security and peace of a country. fighter aircraft dassault rafale that has been carried out by the ministry of defense so that its existence becomes effective in formulating defense postures, the usaf approach (united states air force) the definitive combination of "high-low" can be adopted according to the advantages of each type of aircraft that can be acquired. in fulfilling its defense equipment, indonesia must also be realistic in responding to the balance of regional power, namely asean. the realization of the mef towards ief must adapt, for example, to the air power of three strong neighboring countries, such as vietnam, thailand and singapore. thus, the sovereignty of indonesia's airspace is not easily threatened and violated by foreign parties and is protected from enemy attacks if at any time there is a war between indonesia and other countries. the dassault rafale aircraft procurement contract agreement should emphasize the transfer of technology (tot) by sending human resources to study and do internships in the development industry. in addition to hr offsets, there is also a need for an offset scheme for the production of aircraft components in indonesia by the national industry. this policy does require a strong commitment from the government. the government holds the main control in the development and implementation of offset policies because the support of funds, human resources, and political will is very much needed. if this policy is carried out optimally, we will see an independent indonesia and speak a lot on the international stage. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] m. a. wibowo, "eksistensi tni dalam menghadapi ancaman militer dan nir militer multidimensional di era milenial". kemhan ri : edisi khusus (wira), 2019. [2] t. p. sorongan, "prabowo borong 42 jet tempur rafale", cnbc indonesia, 2022. [3] f. c. farisa, "deretan alutsista yang di beli prabowo". kompas, indonesia, 2022. [4] a. fitri, p. dalam n. kepakaran, s. pertahanan, p.penelitian b.keahlian sekjen, dpr ri, 2022. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.50-57 57 [5] mujiburrahman, "menakar kekuatan tni au pasca kontrak pembelian rafale", politik dan keamanan budget issue brief vol 02, ed 3, maret 2022. [6] d. toruan, "menanti kombinasi maut jet tempur indonesia", armory reborn 6, 2021. [7] f. setiawan, "menuju ideal essential force (ief), indonesia perlu menambah 348 unit pesawat untuk tni au, air space riview, 2018. [8] b. santosa, "pembelian pesawat rafale," kompas, indonesia , 2022. [9] m. waluyo, "transfer teknologi dan keberlanjutan industri", lipi, 2018 [10] i.samego, s. pertahanan-keamanan negara, "analisis potensi dan problem", (jakarta: the habibie center, pp. 227-228, 2001. [11] r. m. j. indrawan, "kebijakan ofset dalam membangun kemandirian pertahanan negara", 2016. [12] r. l. muchtiwibowo, "transfer of technology," jurnal industri pertahanan, volume 1, no 1 , 2019. microsoft word 29-35_231.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 4, january 2023, pp.29-35 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v4.id231 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 29 implementing elements of national security by fulfilling the rights of indigenous people of laman kinipan in central kalimantan (indonesia) khairul umam manik1*, i gede sumertha2, pujo widodo3 1,2,3 faculty of national security, republic of indonesia defense university, indonesia *corresponding author e-mail: khairulmanik26@gmail.com received 25.1.2023. revised 22.2.2023. accepted 23.2.2023 abstract the laman kinipan indigenous people have been in an agrarian conflict with pt sawit mandiri lestari for years; they claim that pt sml has taken their indigenous territory, mainly consisting of customary forest, with a permit issued by the indonesian government. pt sml cleared thousands of hectares of kalimantan forest, which sparked protests from indigenous peoples. the landclearing act affected indigenous peoples in several aspects, such as massive floods that had never happened before, to violent conflicts that befell indigenous peoples. this study aims to find out how the fulfillment of the rights of the laman kinipan, indigenous people, towards the realization of indonesia's national security. this research was conducted using interviews and literature studies with an analysis process using the theory of national security with subtheories of environmental security and human security. the results of this study indicate that the government's failure to fulfill the demands and rights of indigenous peoples affects national security, namely environmental security and human security. the researchers conclude that this conflict is a threat to national security, especially from environmental and human security elements. the government can accelerate the realization of national security if it fulfills the rights and demands of the laman kinipan indigenous people. © the author 2023. published by arda. keywords: national security, environmental security, human security, laman kinipan, pt sawit mandiri lestari, agrarian conflict 1. introduction national security is a function inherent in a country to guarantee security. national security aims to ensure that the state is free from threats that could affect state sovereignty. buzan divides the types of security into five areas: military, economic, social, political, and environmental. in the post-cold war era, national security is no longer focused on protection from military threats but on several other areas [1]. in realizing comprehensive national security, the government must carry out several ideal functions, such as national defense, state security, public security, and human security [2]. when several functions, such as public security and human security, are not fulfilled, that is when conflicts can arise. conflicts have become part of various aspects of life. various elements of life, such as the economy, socioculture, politics, and resources, can trigger conflict. dahrendorf argues that conflicts and clashes will always occur in social life, where people are obedient to changes [3]. one type of conflict that still frequently occurs in indonesia is the agrarian conflict. agrarian conflicts occur for the following reasons: 1. granting of permits/rights/concessions by public officials such as the minister of forestry, minister of dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.29-35 30 energy and mineral resources, head of the national land agency, and regional heads such as governors and regents who classify land/managed areas/natural resources owned by a group of people into concessions of giant business entities in production, extraction, and conservation. 2. violence, manipulation, and deception being committed to acquiring large-scale land for large development projects in production, extraction, or conservation. 3. attempts or actions to expel rural people from the land/area under management/natural resources/which are included in the concession areas of significant business entities. 4. the emergence of resistance from the group [4]. the plantation sector is the sector with the most significant number of agrarian conflicts, with conflicts occurring within it, followed by the forestry, infrastructure, property, mining, military facilities, coastal marine, and agribusiness sectors. the agrarian conflicts claimed victims from the community who fought for their rights in agrarian conflicts. during 2020, the agrarian conflicts that occurred resulted in 169 victims from the community who experienced persecution, criminalization, and even casualties [5]. one of the agrarian conflicts still occurring since 2020 is the agrarian conflict involving the laman kinipan indigenous community. the laman kinipan indigenous community is one of the various indigenous communities registered by the indigenous territory registration agency. the laman kinipan indigenous community is located in kinipan, batang kawa district, lamandau regency, central kalimantan province. sourced to the website of the indigenous territory registration agency (brwa), the laman kinipan, indigenous people have an area of 16,132 hectares of indigenous territory with geographical conditions in the form of hills. the area includes the area of the village of kinipan and indigenous forests. most of the laman kinipan indigenous people have a source of income from gardening [6]. the agrarian conflict involves private company pt sawit mandiri lestari (sml) that produces palm oil. the background to this conflict was a permit granted by the ministry of environment and forestry to release a forest area of 19,091 hectares through a letter on march 19, 2015. in addition, there is also a decree of the minister of agrarian and spatial planning/head of the national land agency number 82/hgu/kematr/bpn/2017 concerning the granting of cultivation rights in the name of pt sml covering an area of 9,435.2214 hectares which became the legal basis for pt sml to take over several areas, including areas of laman kinipan indigenous community. the permits from the ministry of environment and forestry and the letter for granting business use rights (hgu) for pt sml were deemed legally flawed because they were issued without any discussion and without the consent of the laman kinipan indigenous people who live in the area and as the owner of the indigenous territory [7]. until 2019, based on the mapping of the hgu area by the ministry of agrarian affairs and spatial planning/national land agency, the indigenous area in the form of the laman kinipan indigenous forest had been evicted for the benefit of pt sml's capitalism [7]. it is per law number 5 of 1960 concerning basic agrarian regulations and regulation of the minister of agrarian affairs and spatial planning/national land agency number 10 of 2016, explaining that in the process from the beginning, there were communal rights over indigenous territories until the issuance of communal rights certificates. accordingly, indigenous territories, including indigenous forests, will remain in the name of indigenous peoples. communal rights are certificates from the national land agency given to indigenous peoples who have lived in the indigenous territory for many years and obtain approval from regional heads such as the governor or regent/mayor. based on these legal regulations, it can be stated that land included in these indigenous territories can no longer be classified as state land but as indigenous land controlled by indigenous peoples. so that if the government wants to grant usufructuary rights over indigenous community communal land, this must be based on the approval of indigenous peoples [8]. this flawed legal basis created a conflict between the laman kinipan indigenous community and pt sml. the conflict started when there was a disagreement between the lamandau regency government and the laman kinipan indigenous people regarding the boundaries of the area between kinipan village and karang taba village, which border each other. pt sml insists that the land being worked on then was the laman kinipan indigenous people assessed as indigenous territory, and the area of kinipan village entered the karang taba village area [9]. meanwhile, according to the indigenous territory registration agency dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.29-35 31 (brwa), there is already a detailed map of the boundaries of kinipan and other villages, which is made in detail to show the locations of certain trees, certain places in the area of the village of kinipan. the map has also been approved by the villages bordering kinipan, except for batang kawa village, which is also part of the area where pt sml's land clearing plan is planned. then in january 2019, the regent of lamandau determined the border between kinipan village and batang kawa village, which drew protests from the residents of kinipan village because it did not match the map made by them and at the same time, aborted agreements with other villages which had approved the map of the kinipan village border. this conflict escalated into violent conflict when the police arrested efendi buhing, the head of the laman kinipan indigenous community, on charges of stealing a chainsaw used by pt sml. this incident stems from the guard being carried out by the indigenous kinipan youths in the forest area where pt sml employees cleared the land. the failure of the negotiation process between pt sml employees and indigenous youths led to the laman kinipan indigenous youths confiscating the tools used to clear the land. pt sml then reported this to the police, which forced efendi buhing and indigenous youths to be detained, becoming a form of violent conflict. 2. research method this research uses qualitative methods. the use of qualitative methods is one of the choice for researchers because they want to get a comprehensive picture of the implementation of elements of national security through fulfilling the rights of the laman kinipan indigenous people. according to taylor et al. (2016), qualitative research refers in a broad sense to research that produces descriptive data of people's own written or spoken words and observable behavior. the data needed to complete this research was obtained from interviews conducted with various parties, such as the alliance of indigenous peoples of the archipelago (aman), the indigenous territory registration agency (brwa), and the indonesian forum for the environment (walhi). in addition, this research topic is analyzed using several theories, which are described below. 2.1. environmental security environmental security studies according to the united states environmental protection agency (epa), environmental security is a process in which solutions to environmental problems contribute to national security goals [10]. the issue of environmental security has begun to experience an increase in its discussion since world war ii ended and the start of the cold war. when the two big blocks of countries at that time were competing to increase capabilities in the field of technology, the drastic increase in the number of industries could be marked by the increasing intensity of various kinds of pollution from the industrial sector [11]. environmental damage and climate change have been proven to be one of the causes of violent conflict within and between countries. in addition, environmental damage and environmental change issues are among the leading causes of a decline in the level of the economy, which directly or indirectly has a significant impact on the capacity of military forces and resources for a country's defense [12]. in some developed and developing countries, natural resources and environmental services are essential drivers of economic growth and employment levels. income and employment in primary sectors, such as agriculture, forestry, fishing, and mining, and services that depend on the environment, such as tourism, can be negatively affected by environmental changes. as an economy's natural capital base erodes, so does the long-term effectiveness of its military. environmental security is a process in which solutions to environmental problems contribute to national security goals. the issue of environmental security has begun to experience an increase in its discussion since world war ii ended and the start of the cold war. when the two big blocks of countries at that time were competing to increase capabilities in the field of technology, the drastic increase in the number of industries could be marked by the increasing intensity of various kinds of pollution from the industrial sector [11]. environmental damage and climate change have been proven to be one of the causes of violent conflict within and between countries [13]. in addition, environmental damage and environmental change issues are among the leading causes of a decline in the level of the economy, which directly or indirectly has a significant impact on the capacity of military forces and resources for a country's defense [12]. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.29-35 32 2.2. human security united nations development program (undp) broadens the conceptualization of security by defining human security as security from chronic threats such as hunger, disease, and oppression and protection from sudden and painful disturbances in the pattern of daily life [14]. according to undp, some of the components of human security are individual-centered components, such as economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security [14]. one of the efforts by the un in human security was establishing the human security commission in 2001. in responding to this issue, the human security strategy was made proactive by emphasizing conflict prevention and peacebuilding rather than in the form of humanitarian response assistance [15]. in achieving human security goals, the human security commission proposes two main strategies: protection of empowerment. protection strategies refer to the norms, processes, and institutions that protect people from critical and widespread threats [16]. this strategy is top-down in its implementation, where the state must show its responsibility to form a protective human security structur [15]. the implementation of national security, which is comprehensive and includes a combination of territorial security (defense) and human security, must involve all elements of society by cooperating with all state institutions. this comprehensive nature of national security raises the implication that one or only a few institutions cannot handle the concept of national security because it has become a standard security, so there must be a form of cooperative security between all components, both military and civilian [17]. 3. results and discussion 3.1. environmental security and laman kinipan agrarian conflict environmental security is one of the elements of national security because of the importance of environmental issues in the current era as the earth ages and human innovation progresses at the expense of many aspects of the environment, such as deforestation, the disposal of carbon gas emissions by companies and government elements, motorized vehicles, burning fossil fuels for electricity generation, and others. deforestation has a significant influence on the issue of national security. deforestation has several significant effects, such as global warming, which results in rising sea levels, the loss of millions of species of flora and fauna in forest areas, and various threats of major disasters and becomes a threat to national security if it continues to be maintained [18]. in addition, according to the ministry of defense of the republic of indonesia (2015), the indirect impact of climate change on national security is that basic human needs will be disrupted and cause disruptive impacts on national security. it will be difficult for humans to readjust themselves to manage stress. it will eliminate political stability, a weakened economy, a crisis of basic human needs such as water, food, and various diseases to both vertical and horizontal conflicts. in addition, the impact of climate change due to deforestation on the laman kinipan indigenous forest has caused a major flood disaster that had never happened before. natural disasters ultimately affect national security [19]. today, the impact of climate change is starting to be felt, such as increasing temperatures due to global warming and rising sea levels due to melting ice at the poles, which will threaten national security for countries which makes the issue of environmental security one of the vital security issues to be discussed. long term deforestation to clear land has been scientifically proven to exacerbate environmental damage. some of the impacts of deforestation on environmental damage are a decrease in the quality of the atmosphere layer, contributing to an increase in greenhouse gasses which leads to an increase in global temperatures [20]. bruhl and simonis revealed that three things accelerate environmental degradation/damage, namely: 1. the attitude of humans who over-exploit resources, both non-renewable resources and renewable resources. 2. the burden on the earth exceeds its limits and carrying capacity. 3. human activity often destroys ecosystems [21] in the laman kinipan indigenous area itself, environmental issues are important because the indigenous forest area has many functions, namely as a producer of oxygen, as ecological wealth in it, as a place for indigenous peoples to find a source of livelihood, and so on [22]. in addition, the geographical location of the village of kinipan, which is downstream of the batang kawa river watershed, makes kinipan the last place of defense dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.29-35 33 for the batang kawa watershed. suppose deforestation in the kinipan affects the watershed area in the kinipan. in that case, the upstream part of the river and along the batang kawa watershed will be damaged, affecting the villages around the batang kawa watershed [23]. in another source, the impact of the deforestation of the laman kinipan indigenous forest, which was replaced by an oil palm plantation owned by pt sml itself, had an ecological impact in the form of the presence of an unprecedented big flood disaster in the village of kinipan due to the loss of forest areas that function as rainwater catchment areas [24]. environmental degradation is a threat to national security in indonesia. the laman kinipan agrarian conflict is based on the fact that pt sml carried out deforestation of indigenous forest areas, which have been well guarded and managed by the laman kinipan indigenous people. massive deforestation of forest areas to be planted with oil palm and lasting for decades will threaten environmental security. another impact of deforestation that the residents of kinipan directly felt was a natural disaster in the form of a massive flood that inundated the area around the batang kawa river, including the residential area of the laman kinipan indigenous people. this unprecedented big flood is the impact of deforestation, which has been functioning as a rainwater catchment area. when the soil cannot absorb water, the nearest destination for water is the batang kawa river which causes the river to overflow. natural disasters threaten national security because they can disrupt the stability of various fields, such as the economy, society, and politics, and cause damage to public facilities and infrastructure. environmental security ultimately significantly influences national security because if environmental security is threatened, many negative impacts will be generated and felt by various parties. 3.2. human security and laman kinipan agrarian conflict in terms of elements of human security/human security/social security, the conflict that occurs is a threat to human security. the agrarian conflict of the laman kinipan indigenous community, in addition to causing violent conflict between indigenous peoples and the indonesian national police who received pt sml's complaint in 2020, also caused horizontal conflict between indigenous peoples who had different opinions about the takeover of pt sml's indigenous forest [23]. in the white paper by the ministry of defense of the republic of indonesia (2015), conflicts are part of a social disaster threatening national security that the government of indonesia must anticipate. the state must guarantee human security because security is an essential element of national security. threats to human security ultimately lead to national security itself. one of the theories of human security established by the united nations development program is security from fear. the human security approach to protecting individuals from violent conflict while recognizing that the threat of violence is closely related to poverty, lack of state capacity, and other forms of injustice. this approach argues that a limited focus on violence is a realistic and manageable approach to human security. this approach's main concerns are emergency relief, conflict prevention and resolution, and peacebuilding [25]. the laman kinipan agrarian conflict affected the human security of the laman kinipan indigenous people. related to the impact of environmental security, natural disasters in the form of floods threaten the human security of indigenous peoples because they cause health problems, potential casualties, loss or damage to their homes, and difficulties in earning income. human security is threatened due to the destruction of nature and the environment for the benefit of a few people who expect material gain. apart from that, this conflict also threatens the human security of the laman kinipan indigenous people, as evidenced by the excessive detention of the head of the laman kinipan indigenous community effendi buhing by law enforcement officers. effendi buhing, who was detained by coercion which led to violent conflict, violated a person's human rights. in addition, the impact of this conflict on threats to human security is acts of violence, intimidation, land clearing, and the arrest of members of the indigenous community who are not proven to have committed a crime [26]. we can see that this is a form of violation of a person's right to maintain human security. if this conflict becomes a protracted conflict, then the potential for conflict escalation and the scope of the conflict can become more significant and threaten the stability of national security because one form of threat to national security is a social disaster which includes conflict. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.29-35 34 4. conclusions the goal of the state to guarantee national security must be realized not only from one or several elements of security but includes all elements of national security. national security will be threatened if one or several elements of national security are threatened. in this study, the case of agrarian conflict involving the laman kinipan indigenous community and pt sawit mandiri lestari can pose a threat to national security if it is studied using the theory of national security with two examples of elements of national security, namely environmental security and human security. this conflict has become a threat to environmental security because of the environmental destruction carried out by pt sawit mandiri lestari through a large-scale deforestation program in kalimantan forests which also seized the laman kinipan customary forest area. deforestation has been proven as one of the causes of threatening environmental degradation. forest management by the laman kinipan indigenous community which is carried out sustainably and does not damage the environment will ensure environmental safety from major forms of deforestation for the benefit of capitalism. conflicts that have reached violent conflicts have demonstrated threats to human security. conflict as a form of the social disaster becomes an obstacle to the realization of national security. in addition, environmental security threats are related to social security due to natural disasters that have occurred and have had an impact on the basic rights of the kinipan people who are victims of flood disasters, such as health problems, building damage, and food shortages. the form of criminalization against the residents of kinipan who fight for their rights is a form of threat to social security and a violation of human rights. by resolving conflicts and fulfilling the rights and demands of the laman kinipan indigenous community, two elements of national security, namely environmental security, will be realized and can accelerate the realization of national security. acknowledgements gratitude are addressed to major general tni (ret.) dr. i gede sumertha ky, psc, m.sc and major general tni dr. ir. pujo widodo, s.e., s.h., s.t., m.a., m.si., m.d.s., m.si. (han) as the research supervisors during the study time of the corresponding author at the peace and conflict resolution studies, faculty of national security, republic of indonesia defense university. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] b. buzan, people, state, and fear: an agenda for international security studies in the post cold era, 2nd edition, london: harvester whatseaf, 1991. [2] j. sudarsono, lemhannas seminar in cikeas bogor, interview, 2007. [3] g. ritzer, d. j. goodman, modern sociological theory, jakarta: kencana, 2010. [4] n. f. rachman, "the explanatory chain of chronic agrarian conflicts", bhumi jurnal agraria dan pertanahan, no. 37, pp. 1-14, 2013. [5] agrarian reform connsortium, "notes on the end of year 2020", 2020. 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[21] t. brühl, u. e. simonis, "world ecology and global environmental governance", discussion papers, research professorship environmental policy, 2001. [22] b. herinata, interviewee, eecutive director of walhi central kalimantan. [interview]. 28 april 2022. [23] f. kurnianto, head of aman central kalimantan, interview, 21 june 2022. [24] save our borneo, "accepting the ecological impact, kinipan experienced a major flood", 9 july 2020. [online]. available: https://saveourborneo.org/terima-dampak-ekologi-kinipan-banjir-besar/. [25] united nations development programme, "human development report 1994", undp, 1994. [26] cnn indonesia, "the head of the kinipan indigenus community was released after being arrested by the police", 27 august 2020. [online]. available: https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/2020082717405012-540047/ketua-adat-kinipan-dilepas-usai-ditangkap-polisi. microsoft word 22-31_187.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 3, august 2022, pp.22-31 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id187 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 22 minimum viable product: a robot solution to eod operations hamza bećirspahić1*, haris basarić2, tarik namas3, benjamin duraković4 1 mechanical engineering department, international university of sarajevo, bosnia 2,3 electrical and electronics engineering department, international university of sarajevo, bosnia 4 faculty of engineering and natural sciences, international university of sarajevo, bosnia *corresponding author e-mail: hamzabecirspahic@gmail.com received feb. 27, 2022 revised jun. 19, 2022 accepted jun. 28, 2022 abstract this paper presents design and development of eod robot, with mvp characteristics. the design is based on a solid base structure with arm manipulator attached to the base. the overall dimensions of the robot are 590x860x340 mm and it weighs 55 kg. the robot is capable of towing heavy objects as well as lifting sensitive objects. the robot has a maximum horizontal reach of 1400 mm and a vertical of 1200 mm. the robot is tested according to guidelines developed in the usa, as much as the conditions allowed. briefly, the results can be summarized as follows: the setup time for the robot is 10 minutes, it can reach speeds up to 8 km/h, it has a towing capacity of 40 kg and the maximum communication reach is 20 m. among successful tests, the weaknesses were also found which act as a guide for future designs and developments. these weaknesses are what mvp concepts are actually developed for. © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: explosive ordnance disposal, eod robot, ordnance, robot testing, minimum viable product, mvp 1. introduction landmine and cluster munition monitor reported that around 26 states and 3 other areas are contaminated by cluster munition remnants, as of august 2021 [1]. cluster munition remnants are defined, by the convention on cluster munition, as conventional munition designed to disperse explosive submunitions, weighing less than 20 kg and including that submunition, that failed to detonate [2]. it is very easy to conclude that the impact is still widely present and it is being addressed by many organizations, international as well as national. in bosnia and herzegovina, among the countries most hit by cluster munition and landmine contamination, the problem is still being addressed, as the country asked for the extension of the deadline for clearance in 2021 and expects clearance to be completed by late 2022 [1]. there is one more problem authors found. the defense industry companies, locally, are testing explosives at their premises and after an unsuccessful testing usually the human operator dismantles the explosive by hand which can lead to severe injuries, not uncommon to occur in these companies. this and the facts mentioned in the first paragraph, are what inspired and motivated the authors to try to contribute to a solution. the solution, as seen by the authors, is a remotely controlled robot that is equipped with a manipulator and a gripper and capable of handling operations that are required in an explosive ordnance disposal (eod). since eod robots are readily available on the market, some of the most popular are presented in table 1. dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.22-31 23 table 1. eod robots available on the market company model max. lift capacity weight reach (forward) speed reference 1. telerob, germany teodor evo 100 kg 383 kg 1860 mm 3 km/h [3] 2. northrop grumman, u.s.a. andros f6a 61 kg 220 kg 1440 mm 4.8 km/h [4] 3. qinetiq inc., u.s.a. talon 68 kg 81 kg 1570 mm n/a [5] 4. l3harris technologies, u.s.a. t7 113+ kg 322 kg 2200 mm 8+ km/h [6] 5. superdroid robots, u.s.a. lt2-f “bulldog” 7+ kg full extension 40 kg 1220 mm 2 km/h [7] 6. superdroid robots, u.s.a. hd2-s “mastiff” 9+ kg full extension 68 kg heaviest configuration 890 mm 2 km/h [8] 7. nic instruments ltd., united kingdom zeus 15 kg 51.7 kg 1460 mm 3 km/h [9] teodor evo is an eod robot developed by telerob company. the robot is capable of performing not just eod operations but also cbrn operations, which stands for chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear threats. it is equipped with a 6 degrees-of-freedom manipulator and an onboard tool magazine for convenient remote tool change. it has intuitive control handling and it is very popular with military and law enforcement agencies [3]. andros f6a is an eod robot developed by a subsidiary company of northrop grumman, remotec inc. it is distinguished by the capability to pneumatically release its wheels for width reduction when applications demand it. it is equipped with a 7 degrees-of-freedom manipulator and capable of 3-4 hours on mission operations [4]. talon robots are eod robots developed by qinetiq inc. they are in active service since 2000s when they were used in bosnia and herzegovina for the disposal of live explosives. talon robots are also one of the lightest robots on the market that are equipped with multiple degrees-of-freedom manipulators. it can also be equipped with multiple cameras with the option to be mounted with thermal cameras as well. the advantage of talon certainly is the number of options that the controller comes with, for example, it comes as lcu, meaning laptop control unit, as well as trc, tactical robot controller [5]. t7 is a heavy-duty robot developed by l3harris technologies in the united states. it is designed to assist not exclusively eod operations but also hazmat, meaning hazardous materials cleanup, intelligence and surveillance operations as well. it can be mounted with many different tools such as a disruptor, which blasts pressurized water to neutralize the threat on-site, a forklift and many different sensors such as the sensors for cbrn operations. one of the most significant characteristics of this robot is certainly the haptics control it utilizes. haptics provide the operator with the sense of touch and proximity, almost as good as a bare hand can provide [6]. superdroid robots company manufactures the model lt2-f, commonly known by the name “bulldog”. this model comes in many different configurations. it can be equipped with a 4-axis or a 6-axis arm manipulator, that can be equipped with wire cutters, different sensors for different applications. the arm manipulator can dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.22-31 24 be shortened or removed as well to aid in low clearance areas. as previously listed models it can be applied in many different scenarios, ranging from eod to remote surveillance and building cleanups [7]. hd2-s also known as the “mastiff” is another model manufactured by superdroid robots. this model is a bit bulkier model compared to lt2-f model. it as well comes in different configurations and can be equipped with wire cutters and application dependent sensors. capable of staying operational up to 8 hours [8]. zeus eod robot is developed by nic instruments ltd. it is a very reliable product that utilizes a very effective communication type, an fsk, meaning frequency shifting keying, which is a communication type that employs alternating frequencies used in communication to avoid any noise disturbances. it is equipped with a battery capable of operating from 2-4 hours, mission dependent. it comes in different configuration with different arm sections, meaning different degrees-of-freedom manipulators [9]. the preferred communication in unmanned vehicles utilizes the ems (electromagnetic spectrum), between operator unit and robot, because it ensures a long range of operation. the waveforms of the communication are encrypted, especially when used in military applications [10]. sometimes ems is not applicable, because of strong interferences or large pieces of metal, which disrupt the signal. in those instances, some manufacturers provide a cable connection, which can reach up to 200 m, ideally a fiber optic cable [9]. the pricing of these robots is not readily available on the official websites of the companies. an interesting article, which presents cost-wise accessible eod solutions, states that the range of prices for commercial robots, such as the ones presented in table 1., is from $40 000 to $150 000 [11]. the purpose of this paper is to design a minimum viable product for eod operations. an iterative designbuild-test cycle is performed with the aim of developing a low-cost optimal physical platform for eod robot in the category. the configuration test purpose is to quantitatively evaluate the packaging and setup tools used to start up the robot. the goal is to come up with metrics about the weight of packaging, setup time from configuration to deployment, weights of the control unit and the tools needed for repair. particularly, the following objectives are achieved: physical design and development, mobility test on a flat paved terrain, mobility test with towing capacity, radio communications test by establishing a line of sight, manipulation test grasping dexterity and robot configuration for logistics tests. 2. methods the design of an eod robot proposed by the authors was inspired by the robots readily available on the market. the base structure of the robot is made from steel bars, roughly 25 cm2 in cross-section area. the bars are welded together to form a structure that consists of two rectangles connected by bars with an angle, as seen from the side. the rectangle closer to ground level is reinforced by bars welded to form a cross like symbol. four dc motors are used to power mobility and they are welded on to the lower rectangle, with steel axels welded on them and to the wheels. the wheels are standard inflatable rubber wheels that come from small garden carts. the manipulator is made of three steel bar segments. the first segment is welded to the bottom of the base structure at its middle and extends some 50 cm from the weld. the second segment is welded to a door hinge which is welded to the first segment and the same procedure is applied to the third segment as well. the gripper is positioned at the end of the third segment and is made from aluminum. it is manufactured on a cnc machine and coated in plastics on the inside to secure maximum gripping. the manipulation of the arm is made possible by three linear electrical actuators which can lift weights up to 100 kg, respectively. the actuators are fastened to the segments of the arm manipulator by screws and nuts. the whole base structure is enclosed by plywood pieces and inside is the „brain“ of the robot. electronically, the robot is manipulated by simple relays which are powered through a car battery of 12 v. the opening and closing of switches, depending on the operation that needs to be applied, and the relays is controlled by raspberry pi which is powered by a power bank. the underlying circuit is called an h bridge. the communication with the robot is established through the wireless network connection that raspberry pi emits. the final design elaborated is presented in figure 1. followed by table 2. where the components used in the manufacturing are briefly presented. dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.22-31 25 as the title of this paper suggests, the authors presents a minimum viable product (mvp), described as: “a version of a new product that allows a team to collect the maximum amount of validated learning about the customers with the least amount of effort “, by eric ries, founder of lean startup methodology [12]. figure 1. design of the robot table 2. list of components built in physical steel platform number. component specifications quantity 1. motor 12v high torque motors 4 2. wheel 20 cm diameter wheel 4 3. relay 5v 8 channel output relay board, maximum current 10a 2 4. raspberry pi raspberry pi model 4 1 5. battery 12v car battery 1 6. actuator linear electric actuator 12v, maximum load capacity 100 kg 3 7. power bank 5v dc power bank 1 it is important to emphasize the viable part of the name as well as the minimum part and not fall into the trap of favoring one over another [13]. in other words, the product has to satisfy the functionality requirements. the authors do emphasize that their design is not fully functional as compared to the robots listed in table 1. in the introduction. the department of homeland security of u.s.a. alongside with the national institute of standards and technology wrote a guide on the topic of testing and validating performance indicators of response robots, which include robots applied in dismantling explosive devices, searching for survivors in collapsed structures, investigating of illicit border tunnels and many more fields of application [14]. under the sponsorship of department of homeland security, the response robots undergo real-life scenarios which can include navigating through the test site and execution of different tasks such as: climbing stairs, handling of objects with manipulators, testing of communication range and many more [14]. the tests performed in this research are: logistics robot test configuration, mobility on a flat paved terrain, mobility with towing capacity, radio communications establishing a line of sight, manipulationgrasping dexterity [14]. the mobility on a flat paved surface evaluates the speed of the robot. it is done by navigating the robot between two pylons 50 m apart. average time is calculated from 10 repetitions. mobility with towing capacity evaluates the maximum capacity the robot can tow on a flat paved surface. average time for 10 repetitions is used as a metric. radio communications test method establishes a line of sight which is the maximum downrange distance at which the robot completes the tasks to verify the functionality of control, video, audio dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.22-31 26 and sensing mechanisms. manipulation evaluates the grasping dexterity of the arm manipulator. it is measured by the number of pick-and-place operations a robot can complete in as little time possible. in addition to tests elaborated above, energy consumption of the robot is also measured. it is evaluated using a multimeter, which measures how much current is drawn by actuators under specified load application. 3. results and discussion as a result of the methods used in the construction of the robot, the basic specifications of the robot are presented next. the robot`s base structure is roughly 590 mm in width, measurement which includes wheels, 820 mm in depth, measured from the center of the wheels and 340 mm in height, measured from the ground up. the arm manipulator has a maximum reach of roughly 1400 mm in horizontal direction and a maximum reach of 1200 mm in the vertical direction. the overall weight of the robot is roughly 55 kg, which includes all inside components. the dimensions are displayed in figure 2. figure 2. dimensional sketch of the robot the robot`s functionality is measured according to the guidelines presented in the methods section. the guideline was written by the department of homeland security with its associates. the authors specifically chose applicable tests from the guideline such as setup time, speed test, mobility with towing capacity, radio communication test, object manipulation and lifting capacity. the test results are briefly presented in table 3. table 3. test results setup time speed mobility with towing capacity flat paved surface mobility radio communication test manipulation of objects lifting capacity 10 min up to 8km/h 40 kg 10 repetitions in 10 min 20 m line-ofsight 3 objects per 10 min at full extension 15 kg the first test conducted is the robot test configuration which measures the setup time of the robot and its equipment. the authors also took into consideration the transport of the robot using an automobile. since the height of the arm, when all the actuators are in the fully retracted position, prevents the robot to fit into an average size automobile, a necessary measure is to dismantle the actuator, stemming from the base of the robot to the arm, to be able to fit the robot into the automobile. this increases the setup time which amounts to 10 minutes and includes: extracting the robot from the car, connecting the actuator that was dismantled previously, connecting the power wires to the car battery, connecting the power bank to the raspberry pi and finally connecting the laptop to the wi-fi connection of the raspberry pi. the most time-consuming setup dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.22-31 27 process is surely the connection of the actuator which requires the use of ordinary plyers and a size 13 wrench. to conclude the results, setup time amounts to 10 minutes, with the weight of the equipment of 4 kg (laptop as the control unit, plyers and a wrench, additional wiring for repair). the second test conducted is the „speed test“. according to authors measuring, the robot can achieve speeds up to 8 km/h, which is competitive enough. the authors note that the robot does not possess speed control, since the dc motors are taken form windshield car wipers and are programmed to utilize one speed of motion. on the bright side, these dc motors can generate around 30 nm of torque, well enough to power the robot. mobility with towing capacity is the test that the authors conducted inside the laboratory where the robot is constructed. the maximum tow value tested is 40 kg. the robot`s capability of towing motion was also successfully tested with the towing of a wheeled chair with a person sitting on the chair. although the chair is wheeled, this test proves that the robot has substantial towing capacity. radio communications test, testes the capability of the robot to continue working and receiving signals from the control unit far away from it. this test is probably the weakest point of the robot, since the communication with the robot is achieved through wi-fi signal of the raspberry pi. the furthest distance away from the control unit, at which the communication still operates without interferences is roughly around 20 m. this distance is further lowered with the introduction of obstacles such as walls. this weak point is surely something the authors are working to improve. manipulation of objects is a test which measures the capability of the robot to pick-and-place as many objects in as little time possible. the authors do mention here that the gripper is designed in a such a way, that the objects need to be gripped with the very tip of the gripper in order to lift them. this especially applies to thin objects such as bottles, which would otherwise fall through the gripper because of the width of the gripper at its middle. the authors manipulated objects such as bottles, desk chairs, bricks, metal objects etc. one of the disadvantages of the gripping of the robot is the fact that the whole robot needs to be moved in order to place the end of the gripper in the position to grab an object. this is due to the fact that the arm can only be manipulated in the vertical direction. to conclude, due to the limitations in the mobility of the arm, the robot can pick-and-place only 3 objects in the time span of 10 minutes. in addition to these tests, a diagram of the lifting capacity of the robot is presented in figure 3. below. the outer circle presents the lifting capacity at maximum extension and the inner circle represents the lifting capacity at full retraction. these values can be narrowed down to a single value because the lifting is executed only using one actuator at a time. here the values differ only because of the fact that the arm is loosely constructed and is not capable of handling higher loads at full extension. figure 3. lifting capacity in relation to reach dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.22-31 28 further tests are related to energy consumption also related to the lifting capacity. the relationship between current consumption and lifting capacity is shown in figure 4. figure 4. current consumption vs. load values figure 4. shows current consumption on different loads expressed in kg that is needed for actuator. it can be seen that the relationship is almost linear. also considering manufacturer’s datasheets it should be indeed linear. peak current consumption is 2.3 2.5 a for the 20 kg load with 12 v source configuration. for loads less than 6 kg energy consumption is 1 a or less. power-vise 30 w of power is used at peak. measurement is done by using a multimeter device (also can be done using amperemeter or oscilloscope). actuators are connected in series and tested for various loads with constant 12 v voltage supply. figure 5. below shows how speed of the motor is slowly decreasing when the load is increased. the relationship is also linear. figure 5. speed vs. load values value drops slightly from 28 mm/s for load <2 kg to around 25.6 mm/s for the 20 kg load. first measurement experiment is done using timer and measuring tape. time is measured for 5 seconds with exact starting point after which distance is measured after timer is stopped. this measurement was repeated several times. second technique was directly programming actuators to be switched for exact amount of time controlled by main controller. this gives exact and more precise time of 5 s. dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.22-31 29 based on the test result obtained in this research, a comparative analysis is done and the results are listed in table 4. table 4 in this research briefly presents the comparative advantages and disadvantages of authors eod robot to the robots availaible from table 1. in the introduction section. in a nutshell, authors robot is lower in performance features compared to models teodor evo and model t7, which mainly reflects in lower weight and lifting capabilities. on the other hand, lower cost presents an important advantage compared to these two models. competitive performances can also be observed compared to models zeus, hd2-s, lt2-f, andros f6a. these are mainly in regards to reach and lifting capacity. a significant advantage in lifting capacity, speed and reach potential performances are achieved compared to models hd2-s, lt2-f and andros f6a. to summarize, authors eod robot has a high potential to compete against the models already available on the market. table 4. comparative results model specification this eod robot this eod robot max. lift capacity: 20 kg weight: 55 kg reach (forward): 1400 mm speed: up to 8 km/h  competitive in category teodor evo [3] max. lift capacity: 100 kg weight: 383 kg reach (forward): 1860 mm speed: 3 km/h  lower category  lower performances  lower cost as an advantage andros f6a [4] max. lift capacity: 61 kg weight: 220 kg reach (forward): 1440 mm speed: 4.8 km/h  same category  competitive reach potential  higher speed of mobility  lower overall weight talon [5] max. lift capacity: 68 kg weight: 81 kg reach (forward): 1570 mm speed:  same category  lower lifting capacity t7 [6] max. lift capacity: 113+ kg weight: 322 kg reach (forward): 2200 mm speed: 8+ km/h  lower category  significantly lower lifting capacity  lower reach lt2-f “bulldog” [7] max. lift capacity: 7+ kg full extension weight: 40 kg reach (forward): 1220 mm speed: 2 km/h  same category  significantly higher lift capacity  competitive performances per each parameter  lower cost as an advantage hd2-s “mastiff” [8] max. lift capacity: 9+ kg full extension weight: 68 kg, with the heaviest configuration reach (forward): 890 mm speed: 2 km/h  significantly higher reach potential  higher speed of mobility  competitive overall weight  higher lifting capacity at full extension zeus [9] max. lift capacity: 15 kg weight: 51.7 kg reach (forward): 1460 mm speed: 3 km/h  same category  higher overall weight  competitive reach potential  competitive lift capacity dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.22-31 30 4. conclusion this paper presents the design and development of an mvp eod robot, specifically designed to operate with explosive devices in their removal, disposal and neutralization. this mvp design is functionality-wise limited, due to budget limitations, but nevertheless, presents a solid opportunity for testing and presentation purposes. the final design is 590x820x340 mm in dimensions, weighs 55 kg with a maximum manipulator reach of 1400 mm. the vertical reach is 1200 mm. the setup time of the robot with all of its configurations is 10 minutes, and the equipment weighs 4 kg which includes a laptop, as a control unit, plyers, a wrench and some additional wiring for repairs. compared to models from table 1. authors robot lacks a control unit which is highly durable and easily carried. other equipment is carried independently and also lacks a custom-made bag. the setup time is mostly slowed because of the fact that the manipulator must be partially dismantled to fit into an average size car. models from table 1. usually come with a modular manipulator and other accessories which are easily mounted on the robot. slower setup time is also due to the fact that the raspberry pi needs to be manually turned on with a power cable and the program needs to be compiled each time the session is ended. fortunately, these specifications are easily made easier and improved. the robot can reach a speed of 8 km/h due to its high torque dc motors. the towing capacity is roughly 40 kg, which highly depends on the surface of the motion. the weakest point in the design is the communication reach, which is limited by wi-fi signal, to 20 m. the second weakest point is the gripping, which needs to be very precise, especially for thin, narrow objects, such as bottles. compared to the robots from table 1, this low-cost eod robot platform represents a solid foundation into further design and development endeavors, which will hopefully take place in the near future. the plan for future work is to upgrade the existing physical platform to an autonomous eod robot with the ability to detect explosive devices and mark them or safely dispose of them. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] “cluster munition monitor 2021”, reports, http://www.the-monitor.org/en-gb/reports/2021/clustermunition-monitor-2021.aspx (accessed apr. 10, 2022). [2] o. english and f. spanish, “diplomatic conference for the adoption of a convention on cluster munitions convention on cluster munitions,” 2008. [3] “teodor evo.” https://www.telerob.com/en/products/teodor-evo (accessed apr. 11, 2022). [4] “home northrop grumman.” https://www.northropgrumman.com/ (accessed apr. 11, 2022). [5] “bomb disposal robot qinetiq.” https://www.qinetiq.com/en-us/capabilities/robotics-andautonomy/talon-medium-sized-tactical-robot (accessed apr. 11, 2022). [6] h. technologies, “ruggedized robot for military, police and hazardous missions,” 2020. [7] “lt2-f bulldog lightweight tactical support robot by superdroid robots.” https://www.sdrtactical.com/robots/sdrt_bulldog.php (accessed apr. 18, 2022). [8] “hd2-s mastiff heavy-duty support robot by superdroid robots.” https://www.sdrtactical.com/robots/sdrt_mastiff.php (accessed apr. 18, 2022). [9] “zeus bomb disposal robot manufacture & supply | nic instruments.” https://www.nicltd.co.uk/zeus-ultimate-modular-unmanned-ground-vehicle/ (accessed apr. 18, 2022). [10] “unmanned systems integrated roadmap unt digital library.” https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc949794/ (accessed apr. 18, 2022). [11] t. andrew czop, k. hacker, j. murphy, t. zimmerman, a. czop, and t. zimmerman titan, “lowcost explosive ordnance disposal robot using off-the-shelf parts,” https://doi.org/10.1117/12.602526, vol. 5804, no. 27, pp. 130–140, may 2005, doi: 10.1117/12.602526. [12] “minimum viable product what is a mvp and why is it important?” https://www.productplan.com/glossary/minimum-viable-product/ (accessed may 08, 2022). dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.22-31 31 [13] “what is a minimum viable product (mvp)?”, agile alliance. https://www.agilealliance.org/glossary/mvp/#q=~(infinite~false~filters~(tags~(~’mvp))~searchterm~ ’~sort~false~sortdirection~’asc~page~1) (accessed may 08, 2022). [14] “department of homeland security response robot performance standards”, nist, https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/department-homeland-security-response-robot-performancestandards (accessed may 08, 2022). microsoft word 16-25_72.docx defense and vol. 1, no. 1, https://doi.org this work is lic others to share a authorship and in an over fragmen alan catov 1 defense tech *catovic@m © the auth 2020. published by arda. 1. introdu in the analy velocity of experimenta warheads de mechanical c fig. 1 show the mechan the primary explosive is rapid chemi amounts of detonation i products can thousand de reactions is expansion of fig d security s , december 20 g/10.37868/ds censed under a c and adapt the mat nitial publication rview of nts for hi ic1* hnology departm mef.unsa.ba hor y uction ysis of high e the fragmen al research h epends on th characteristic ws a schemat nism of fragm explosive ch s transformed ical reaction gaseous pr s so high th n significantl egrees celsiu very high (s f the detonat gure 1. schem studies 020, pp.16-25 ss.v1i1.72 creative commo terial for any pur in this journal. f gurney igh expl ment, mechani abstract the litera ammunitio that can be we perform keywords: explosive (h nts, which i has shown t he ratio of ex cs of warhea tic represent mentation is c harge and pro d very quick s in the mat roducts expa hat the chem ly expand in us, and the p several hund tion products matic represe ns attribution l rpose (even comm y method osive mu cal engineering ture survey on is presente e used for di med using the fragment ve he) warhead s very impo that the init xplosive cha ad body mate ation of the complex. th oceeds with kly from a p tter are char anding at hi mical reaction to the enviro ressure of th dred thousan s occurs, whi entation of th license (https://cr mercially), in any 16 d for es unition g faculty, univ y, related to ed. the basi ifferent mun e gurney me elocity; gurn ds with fragm ortant param tial velocity arge mass c erial, type of he warhea he process of the detonatio potential for racterized by igh speed. t ns inside the onment. the he detonation nd bars). due ich causes th he he warhe reativecommons. y medium with an timating versity of saraje o the initial ic gurney m nition configu ethod for a di ney constant; mentation, it meter of the of fragmen and mass o f explosive ch ad detonation f projectile ex on of the ma rm into mec y the release the formatio e explosives temperature n products a e to such a s he projectile b ead detonatio org/licenses/by/4 n acknowledgem g the ini evo, bosnia and l velocity o model for fra uration, is pr ifferent proje warhead det is necessary terminal ba nts formed b of warhead b harge, and its n process (co xpansion beg ain charge, w hanical work e of heat and on rate of g are complet e of the deton t the time of state of gas, body to expa n process [ad issn origi 4.0/ ) that allows ment of the work's itial velo d herzegovina of fragment agment initia resented. th ectile types i etonation; y to determi allistics. the by fragment body m meta s detonation ontrolled fra gins with the whereby the e k. explosion d the forma gaseous pro ted before th nation produ f completion a process o and and to fra dopted from n 2744-1741 inal research s s ocities of ts for he al velocity, he research s given. ne the initia eoretical and tation of he al, as well a parameters. agmentation) e initiation o energy of the ns caused by ation of large ducts during he detonation ucts is severa n of chemica of the sudden agment. 12] 1 f al d e s ). f e y e g n al al n dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.16-25 17 data on the initial velocity of the fragments are needed to be able to estimate the elements of the trajectory of the fragments, and thus their kinetic energy at a given moment (during movement through the atmosphere). the measure of the explosive power is mainly expressed in the literature using the strength of the shock wave generated by that explosive, or on the total chemical energy that the explosive contains. in this way, the velocity of the shock wave, the detonation pressure, and the heat generated by the detonation of explosives can be expressed. although this way of understanding and assuming the properties of explosives is accurate, it does not provide information on the initial velocity that an explosive can communicate during detonation of munition to fragments [1]. during world war ii, physicist ronald w. gurney published several scientific papers explaining how the initial velocity of fragments could be calculated with relatively high accuracy. his scientific works thus created a method that is still used today to calculate the initial velocity of fragments. this method was developed to suit different systems and configurations of metal-explosive systems. although the shock wave plays a very large role in the transfer of energy from explosives during detonation to metal, gurney in his method does not take into account the properties of the shock wave itself. in his research, gurney assumed [1] that during detonation, a final amount of energy is released by the explosives, which is converted into kinetic energy of fragments and kinetic energy of detonation gases. he also assumed that detonation gases have a uniform density and a linear one-dimensional velocity profile. the gurney method can be used for all one-dimensional metal-explosive systems. the gurney constant, which appears in his method, can be estimated experimentally (explosive cylinder expansion test), computer programs (in hydrocodes), and analytical models. henry (1967), jones (1980) and kennedy (1970) reported gurney’s constant values for certain explosives while dobratz (1982) made the greatest contribution [2]. some researchers (kennedy, randers-pehrson, lloyd, odinstov) have proposed certain modifications of the gurney model, and other authors (hirsch, chanteret, chou-flis, kleinhanss, hennequin) have applied the gurney method to imploding configurations (configurations where the explosive is on the outside and the body on the inside; i.e. liner and explosive in heat warheads). modifications of the gurney base model mainly consisted of deriving formulas for geometric configurations of systems not covered by the original gurney model, and for a larger range of m/c ratios. henry (1967), jones (1980), and kennedy (1970) also used gurney’s method for different metal-explosive configurations. hirsch (1986) modified the basic gurney formulas for exploding cylinders and spheres to extend their use to lower metal to explosive mass ratios m/c [2]. another extension of the gurney method was given by chanteret (1983) who developed an analytical model for symmetric geometric configurations. fucke et all. (1986) and bol and honcia (1977) measured fragment velocities for large m/c ratios [2]. karpp and predeborn (1974, 1975) showed that the assumptions about the initial velocity of the fragments obtained by the gurney method are adequate for cases when the flow is one-dimensional and for practical c/m relations that can be encountered in reality (0,1 <c / m <2) [2]. aziz et al. performed an analysis for an open sandwich configuration, where the metal was considered a solid, and where the gases were approximated by the ideal gas equation [1]. butz et al. (1982) analyzed gurney’s model for symmetric sandwich configuration. they found that the gurney model fully follows the results obtained experimentally, and even for very small m/c ratios. the smallest ratio they considered was 0,05, and even for such a small ratio, the gurney model gave a result that agrees with the experimental result [1]. cooper states that the gurney constant can be estimated using the detonation velocity of explosives [3]. different authors [4-11] investigated the influence of rarefaction waves from two ends in cylindrical warheads, since the length of casing is not infinite, and consequently, fragment velocities are lower than the gurney velocity prediction. gao [4] concluded that the fragment velocities in the central part of the warhead are not influenced by rarefaction waves when the l/d ratio (slenderness) was more than 2. huang et al. [11] proposed modified formula for the fragment velocity from the cylindrical casing, initiated at one end. charron [10] also analysed rarefaction waves influence on fragment velocity. in recent times, numerical simulations in terminal ballistics are increasingly used. they are based on the formulas of continuum mechanics, using conservation equations, together with constitutive equations that define the behavior of the material, and specifying the initial and boundary conditions related to a given problem. dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.16-25 18 2. gurney method the gurney equation describes the initial velocity of the fragments as a function of the ratio of the mass of the explosive charge to the mass of the metal body and the empirically determined constant (gurney constant). in deriving the gurney formula, a hollow cylinder of mass m, of inner radius r, filled with an explosive of mass c and density  is considered. the initial velocity of the fragments for the cylindrical configuration of the metal body and explosive can be written in the form:         2 1 2 c m e vm (1) where the parameter e2 represents the gurney constant (the name characteristic gurney velocity can also be found in the literature) and depends on the m/c ratio. the quantity e (so-called gurney energy) has the dimension of energy per unit mass (j/kg), so the parameter e2 has the dimension of velocity (because the unit for energy is j = kgm2/s2). the generalized gurney formula (for different body warhead shapes) can be written in the form: 1 0 2 2            g g n n c m ev (2) where the constant ng can have value of 1, 2 or 3, depending on whether the body is a flat, cylindrical or spherical configuration. a schematic representation of possible configurations is given in fig. 2. a detailed derivation of these formulas can be found in references [2,14]. fig. 2 expressions for initial velocities of fragments in different geometric configurations [adopted from 2] the expression for the initial velocity of fragments in flat symmetrical sandwich configurations (expression 2 at ng = 1) can be used to calculate the parameters of explosive-reactive armor on tanks. expression 2 at ng = 3 is applied to hand grenades and some types of cluster projectiles, while expression 2 at ng = 2 is reduced to expression (1) and is used to estimate the initial velocity of fragments in most he warheads. theoretically, the maximum initial velocity of the fragment is obtained when the mass of the body m approaches zero, and for cylindrical configurations it is ev 22max0  . the gurney constant can be estimated using tests, computer programs (using i.e. jwl equations of state for explosives), and analytical models (i.e. kamlet and finger use thermochemical parameters of explosive charge to estimate the gurney constant; kennedy gives the expression e  0,7ed, where ed is the detonation heat of the explosive). cooper states that the gurney constant can be estimated via the detonation velocity of explosives d (which, depending on the density and composition of the explosives, can be determined in computer programs, i.e. explo5), by the expression: 97,2/2 de  (3) the value of 2.97 from expression (3) was obtained by averaging the values of e2 for known explosives (table 1). this relationship is capable of accurately predicting e2 of sensitive and moderately sensitive near ideal explosives; however, this equation is somewhat unsuitable for predicting e2 of insensitive and nonideal explosives (ie. nto, pbx-9502, afx-902), because it overestimates e2 of insensitive explosives [20]. dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.16-25 19 table 1 shows the values of density, detonation velocity and gurney constant for different types of explosive charges. similar data for different types of explosives can be found in the nato manual aastp-1 [13]. table 1. experimental values of density, detonation velocity and characteristic gurney velocities for different types of explosives [3] explosive density (kg/m3) det. velocity (m/s) gurney constant (m/s) ed 2/ composition a-3 1590 8140 2630 3,09 composition b 1710 7890 2700 2,92 composition c-3 1600 7630 2680 2,85 cyclotol (75/25) 1754 8250 2790 2,96 h-6 1760 7900 2580 3,06 octogen 1835 8830 2800 3,15 lx-14 1890 9110 2970 3,07 octol (75/25) 1810 8480 2800 3,03 pbx 9494 1840 8800 2900 3,03 pbx 9502 1885 7670 2377 3,23 petn 1760 8260 2930 2,82 rdx 1770 8700 2830 2,97 tetril 1620 7570 2500 3,03 tnt 1630 6860 2370 2,89 tritonal (80/20) 1720 6700 2320 2,89 in real conditions, the initial velocity of the fragment represents the resultant of the initial velocity of the fragments (gurney expression), the translational velocity of the projectile at the moment of impact on the target and the rotational velocity of the warhead (if the warhead rotates during the flight; gyroscopic stabilization). but since the translational and rotational velocity components are much smaller, only the initial velocity value, determined by the gurney method, is usually used in the calculations. using gurney's methodology to estimate the initial velocity of the fragments ome does not make large errors in determining the total initial velocity of the fragments. by considering the values of the projectile's impact velocities (which are generally different for each angle of incidence), the calculation can be potentially closer to the real situation, with the spray of fragments moving in the direction of the projectile's movement. in an axisymmetric system with variable diameter, the c/m parameter is calculated depending on the axial position. this means that the initial velocity of the fragments will also vary, depending on the position on the projectile body. the initial velocities of the fragments, calculated by gurney's formula, agree well with the test data for he projectiles, as shown in fig. 3 (left). fig. 3 (right) shows a comparison of the initial velocities, calculated by the gurney method, with the experimental data for a steel cylinder with ratio l/d = 2 (ratio of length and diameter; warhead slenderness), filled with composition b and initiated from the left side. fig. 3 illustrates how effects in the end part of the cylinder can affect the prediction of the initial velocities. figure 3. comparison of the gurney method with experimental data [adopted from 2] dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.16-25 20 the standard cylinder test, developed at lawrence livermore national laboratory (llnl), is used in the research of the phenomenology of the expansion of metal cylinders due to the action of explosive charges. several types of explosives can be used, as well as several types of cylinder materials (i.e. copper and two types of steel with different percentages of carbon and alloying elements). karpp and predebon observed that in most of these experiments the maximum initial velocity of the fragments was achieved at the expansion ratio of the body r/r0 = 2 (the diameter of the body in the process was expanded twice compared to the initial one). even at the ratio r/r0 = 1,75 about 92% of the maximum initial velocity of the fragments has already been achieved. nevertheless, it seemed necessary to consider the effects of gas leakage through the end parts of the cylinders, and to include the obtained models in non-stationary numerical simulations, to obtain more accurate values of initial velocities. in this sense, karp and predebon used the hemp program, based on the finite element method, to model the process of natural fragmentation. the standard jwl equation of state for explosives was used, the cylinder was modeled as an elasto-plastic material, and the effects of gas leakage were taken into account. a comparison was made with the experimental data, for cylinders with different types of steel and with geometric ratios l/d = 2. the explosive charges were tnt, composition b and octol. the agreement between the experiments and the calculation in the program was great [15]. when estimating fragment initial velocity for he projectiles, the gurney model and cad techniques for modeling can be used (fig. 4). i.e. 3d models of projectiles can be divided into quasi-cylindrical segments, with characteristic front, center and rear part. for each segment of the projectile body, the initial velocity of the fragments is determined separately, using expression (1), and thus the profile of the initial velocities of the fragments along the projectile body can be obtained. it is usually assumed there is no expansion of the projectile body before fragmentation and that the initial velocity vector of the fragments is normal to the projectile body on each segment. crull and swisdak [17] follow a similar procedure in their research. figure 4. a 3d model of a he projectile, divided into segments [16] numerical simulations are used often during the past 20 years, especially with the introduction of cheap and powerful processor clusters. these simulations are based on the conservation equations, with the use of equations of state, material strength, and fracture models. figure 5 shows the results of a numerical simulation of the detonation of a 155mm he m107 projectile, performed by prytz et al. [18] in the autodyn, where the analysis of the initial velocities of the fragments was performed and compared with the values obtained in the split-x program. the results show a relatively good agreement of the values of the initial velocities of the fragments, and potential for using the simulations for calculation of fragment initial velocities. figure 5. initial velocities fragments for 155mm m107 (split-x and autodyn) [18] dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.16-25 21 3. application of gurney method to he projectiles in our research (zecevic et al. [19]), we analyzed the influence of explosive type and projectile design on the values of the initial velocities of fragments for different types of he projectiles (artillery and mortar projectiles, as well as rocket projectiles warheads). figures 6 and 7 show the influence of explosives type (tnt and composition b) on the initial velocity of fragments for several types of he projectiles (152 mm m84 artillery projectile, 128 mm m87 missile warhead and 120 mm mortar projectiles, models w1 and w2). the abscissa on the diagrams represents the relative distance of individual projectile segments from the top of the projectile. the diagrams show that the use of explosives with better detonation characteristics (higher density, higher detonation velocity and higher detonation pressure of composition b compared to tnt charge) can significantly increase the initial velocity of the fragments. figure 6. variation of initial velocity of fragments, depending on the type of explosives (tnt and composition b) for mortar he projectiles 120mm (warheads w1 and w2) [19] figure 7. variation of initial velocity of fragments, depending on the type of explosives (tnt and composition b charge) for rocket projectile warhead model 128mm he m87 and artillery projectile model 152mm he m84 [19] figure 8 shows the influence of projectile design on the values of the initial velocity of fragments for several types of he projectiles (artillery projectiles 105mm, 122mm, 152mm and 155mm, rocket projectile warheads 128mm and mortar projectiles 120mm). the diagrams in fig. 8 show that by changing only the design of the projectile (i.e. increasing the ratio of the mass of the explosive to the mass of the projectile body c/m, reducing the thickness of a body) can also significantly increase the initial velocity of the fragments on individual segments of the projectile. the maximum initial velocities of the fragments are achieved in the central parts of the he projectile, where the largest mass ratios c/m are present. fig. 8 also shows the simultaneous influence of both the type of explosive and the design of the projectile on the initial velocity of the fragments for 122mm caliber artillery projectile. thus, the 122mm he m76 projectile, which has a higher c/m ratio and explosive (composition b) with better detonation characteristics than in the case of 122mm of-462 (tnt) projectile, has a higher initial velocity of fragments on all projectile segments. the higher initial velocity generally corresponds to the higher kinetic energies of the fragments leading to a larger lethal zone of the projectile. dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.16-25 22 if we look closely at initial velocities values of fragments for projectile 122mm he of-462 (maximum value of around 1200 m/s) in fig. 8, the front part of the 122mm of-462 projectile has somewhat higher initial velocities. on the other hand, the rear spray of fragments has a lower initial velocity, because of the smaller c/m ratio. figure 8. influence of projectile design on the values of the initial velocity of fragments for several types of he projectiles [19] catovic [20] provided a different way of displaying the initial velocities of fragments (comparing i.e. to fig. 8), presented via a polar diagram (grapher software can be used) in which one axis represents the initial velocities of the fragment (units m/s) and the angular axis of the diagram represents the angles measured from the projectile axis to the centers of the individual projectile segments. the point of origin (lower part of fig. 9) is represented by the projectile center of mass. the directions in the lower part of fig. 9 (on the projectile) should not be confused with the initial velocity vectors; they serve here only to estimate the angles measured from the projectile axes to the centers of the individual projectile segments (in order to construct the diagram in fig. 10). such diagrams can be useful in visualization of the parameters for he projectile terminal ballistics. we used polar diagrams also in our model for determination of he projectile lethal zones [21]. in our research [20] we used the gurney model also as an integral part of a new method for determination of lethal radius for high-explosive artillery projectiles (fig. 10). in this model, the values of the initial velocity of fragments are required in order to accurately calculate fragment trajectory through the atmosphere on its way to the target. this method showed promising results confirming the applicability of the gurney model. dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.16-25 23 figure 9. variation of initial fragment velocity for 122mm he of-462 projectile as a function of segment position, presented using the polar diagram [adapted from 20] figure 10. body segments of artillery projectiles, for which gurney method is applied, used in our model for determination of the lethal radius [20] dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.16-25 24 4. limitations of gurney model the scope of application of gurney equations is limited due to certain assumptions taken when deriving them. henry (1967), jones (1980) et al. and kennedy (1970) made a list of these limitations, and they are cited by walters and zukas [2]: range of m/c ratio. henry (1967) claims that gurney's equations give good results for the range 0,1 < m/c < 5, while kennedy (1970) claims that the range of application of gurney's equations is 0,2 < m/c < 10. acceleration phase. the gurney method in its basic form is not able to analyze motion during acceleration. therefore, henry (1967) and jones (1980) et al. took advantage of the assumption of a linear velocity profile in uniformly dense gas and combined it with the gas state equation to obtain acceleration when moving a metal plate, and came to two conclusions. the first conclusion is that detonation gases must be fully allowed to expand to atmospheric pressure, and the second is that the fragment will reach the calculated velocity only if no external force acts on it in the acceleration phase. assumption of the gas velocity profile. assumptions of the linear velocity profile and constant density of the expanding gas are essential assumptions. gurney's method in its basic form neglects the effect of maximum pressure. on the other hand, although these assumptions give certain errors, they greatly facilitate and shorten the derivation of gurney formulas. resistance to deformation. the forces in the metal that oppose the deformations are not taken into account, except for inertia. these forces reduce the assumed initial velocity of the fragment. metal fragmentation. metal disintegration is possible when the m/c ratio is < 2 for high-density explosives. the explosion can in some cases be prevented if a cavity of a few millimeters is made between the explosive and the metal. early cracks on the projectile body. leakage of detonation gases through cracks in the body can significantly reduce the assumed initial velocity of the fragment, depending on the geometry of the crack and the amount of gas released. 5. conclusions the literature related to the initial velocity of fragments for he ammunition is presented. the basic formulas for fragment initial velocity, that can be used for different configurations of munition, are presented. in the last part, the research we performed using the gurney method for different types of projectiles is given. the gurney model for fragment initial velocity, which can be used for various ammunition setups, is described. the research we conducted using the gurney method for various types of projectiles is given. the results show that the use of explosives with better detonation characteristics and geometry with higher c/m ratio one can increase the initial velocity of the fragments. limitations of gurney model are also presented. references [1] j. a. zukas, w. p. walters, explosive effects and applications, springer, new york, 1993. [2] w. p. walters, j. a. zukas, fundametals of shaped charges, wiley-interscience publication, 1989. [3] p. p. w. cooper, explosives engineering, wiley, 1996. [4] y.g. gao, s.s. feng, b. zhang, t. zhou, "effect of the length-diameter ratio on the initial fragment velocity of cylindrical casing", iop conf. series: materials science and engineering, doi:10.1088/1757899x/629/1/012020, 2019. [5] t. zulkoski, "development of optimum theoretical warhead design criteria", naval weapons center, china lake ca, 1976. [6] z. guo, g.-y. huang, c. liu, s. feng, "velocity axial distribution of fragments from non-cylindrical symmetry explosive-filled casing", international journal of impact engineering, vol 118, pp. 1-10, 2018. [7] e. hennequin, "influence of the edge effects on the initial velocity of fragments from a warhead", nasa sti/recon technical report, 1986. dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.16-25 25 [8] g. randers-pehrson, "an improved equation for calculating fragment projection angle", proceedings of the 2nd international symposium on ballistics, pp. 223-226, 1976. [9] d. felix, i. colwill, e. stipidis, "real-time calculation of fragment velocity for cylindrical warheads", defence technology, vol 15, pp. 264-271, 2019. [10] y. j. charron, "estimation of velocity distribution of fragmenting warheads using a modified gurney method", thesis, faculty of the school of engineering of the air force institute of technology air training command, 1979. [11] g. huang, w. li, s. feng, "axial distribution of fragment velocities from cylindrical casing under explosive loading". international journal of impact engineering, vol 76, pp. 20-27, 2015. [12] r. m. lloyd, conventional warhead systems physics and engineering design, progress in astronautics and aeronautics, vol. 179, 1998. [13] manual of nato safety principles for the storage of military ammunition and explosives, nato/pfp unclassified, aastp-1 (edition 1), part ii, may 2006. [14] j. carleone, tactical missile warheads, american institute of aeronautics and astronautics, washington, 1993. [15] r. r. karpp, w. w. predebon, "calculations of fragment velocities from naturaly fragmenting munitions", brl, aberdeen proving ground, maryland, july 1975. [16] a. catovic, "prediction of terminal-ballistic parameters for the natural fragmentating high-explosive warheads using experimental data and numerical methods", thesis, faculty of mechanical engineering sarajevo, 2019. [17] m. crull, m. m. swisdak, "methodologies for calculating primary fragment characteristics", department of defense explosives safety board, alexandria, va, october 2005. [18] a. prytz, g. odegarstuen, e. sogstad, b. marstein, e. smedtad, "fragmentation of 155mm artillery gerande simulations and experiment", 26th international symposium on ballistics, miami, florida, september, 2011. [19] b. zecevic, j. terzic, a. catovic, s. serdarevic-kadic, "influencing parameters on he projectiles with natural fragmentation", 9th seminar new trends in research of energetic materials, university of pardubice, pardubice, april 19–21, 2006. [20] a. catovic, e. kljuno, "a novel method for determination of lethal radius for high-explosive artillery projectiles", defence technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2020.06.015, 2020. [21] b. zecevic, a. catovic, j. terzic, "comparison of lethal zone characteristics of several natural fragmenting warheads", central european journal of energetic materials, issn 1733-7178, vol 5(2), pp. 67-81, 2008. microsoft word 213-article text-453-1-18-20221226.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 3, january 2022, pp.121-129 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id213 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 121 potential utilization of the weapon system tank boat in strengthening the defense of indonesian as a maritime country agus nugraha1*, yayat ruyat2, susilo adi purwantoro3 1 faculty of defense technology, republic of indonesia defense university, indonesia 2 faculty of defense technology, republic of indonesia defense university, indonesia 3 faculty of defense technology, republic of indonesia defense university, indonesia *corresponding author e-mail: sicepe92@gmail.com received dec. 1, 2022 revised dec. 25, 2022 accepted dec. 26, 2022 abstract indonesia is the largest maritime country in the world with 80 percent of its territory in the form of oceans. this makes it difficult to supervise the security and sovereignty of the republic of indonesia, especially in the maritime sector. therefore, it is necessary to design a fast catamaran concept that is good and responsive as a tool for war and security in indonesia's maritime territory. this study aims to design the concept of a tank boat type ship and a weapon system based on domestic weapons technology. the method used is the house of quality data analysis technique which is the first stage of implementing quality function deployment (qfd) in classifying user needs based on the level of importance so that a priority scale is obtained. from the results of the analysis using the quality function deployment (qfd) method, the level of user needs for ships and weapon systems on tank boats based on weapons technology is obtained by determining the benchmark performance (bp) value for the highest to lowest design characteristics. in this case, there are several main points for the desired user needs in the operational requirements and weapon systems for the tank boat object, including tank boat has a lightweight, the weapons used have high precision, weapons must be free from itar (international traffic regulations), the flexibility of weapons to be integrated with the vehicle, the main target is a vital target or vvip, and security. the results of the study indicate that there is a need for a weapon system on the tank boat to support the defense of the maritime state. this research is expected to be used as a starting point for further research related to ships and weapon systems that can be used on tank boat rides. © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: weapon system, tank boat, quality function deployment, benchmark performance, maritime state defense system. 1. introduction indonesia is the largest maritime country in the world with 80% of its territory in the form of oceans. the total area of indonesia reaches 7.81 million km² of which 2.01 million km² of land area, thus the area of the indonesian territorial sea reaches 3.25 million km² and the sea area of the exclusive economic zone (eez) reaches 2.55 million km² [1].the dynamics of the development of the strategic environment, both global, regional, and national, always bring changes to the complexity of threats and challenges to national defense [2]. the complexity of the threat can be seen from the type, perpetrator, and source of the threat. the types of threats and challenges are no longer dominated by military threats, but also by non-military threats. threat actors are not limited to state actors, but also non-state actors. both of them can be a threat (hybrid threat) that dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.121-129 122 is an actual or potential threat. the existence of the nation and state is at stake to face these threats, including indonesia. therefore, the national defense policy should be able to face the threats posed by the dynamics of the development of the strategic environment, both nationally, regionally, and internationally. quite a several foreign warships were detected late and entered indonesia as a result of the lack of supervision of indonesia's maritime territory. these conflicts can cause conflicts between countries, especially indonesia and other countries, which can eventually heat up and trigger military resistance. this is a special task for the state and the tni to maintain security and sovereignty in the maritime sector by providing regional defense in the form of military attacks using indonesian alusista to the opposing party. it takes a strong fleet to repel their presence so that the problem does not recur. to enforce a security system at sea, the system must be built using the principle of synergizing forces between all agencies implementing security enforcement at sea. this synergy will create unity in the organizational structure, mechanisms, and procedures for implementing security at sea carried out by its officers with the ultimate goal of upholding sovereignty and sovereign rights as regulated in unclos 1982 [3]. the criteria for fulfilling the operational requirements for tank boats include being able to operate in indonesian waters, and being faced with the implementation of the marine defense strategy, which is used as a guideline in deploying operational elements including tank boats so that they can have firepower weapons against targets at sea. sea level and strategic targets on land that are deadly, where their presence will have a large deterrence impact and adapt to the development of weapons technology. based on the fulfillment of the minimum essential force (mef) priority for the strategic plan (renstra), through presidential regulation (perpres) no. 42 of 2010, the defense industry policy committee (kkip) was formed. kkip was formed to carry out the task of fostering the domestic defense industry to formulate policies and increase the productivity of defense equipment independently. the mef, which adjust to the strategic plan or to the stages that have been made by kkip is inseparable from the management of the state defense system that must be fulfilled by the government, in this case not only the fulfillment of the main weapon system equipment (alutsista) but also the alutsista modernization program [4]. the chronology of the "antasena" tank boat program began with an oral statement from the indonesian minister of defense, mr. gen. tni (ret.) ryamizard ryacudu about his interest in the tank boat program when the tank boat model was displayed at the armored vehicle asia (ava) conference in april 2015. work the tank boat was realized in collaboration with the indonesian defense industry (pt. pindad and pt. lundin banyuwangi) with cmi defense from belgium. with a memorandum of understanding between pt. pindad (persero), pt lundin, and cmi defense s.a which was held on september 10, 2015. the use of the alutsista tank boat has a very strategic meaning because the threat to state sovereignty, especially in the field of transnational crime and infiltration from outside the territory of indonesia through a 12 nautical mile territorial area is very high. the indonesian archipelago bordering neighboring countries is close to each other and requires extensive patrol monitoring. therefore, security vulnerabilities across territorial sea borders, if only rely on the capabilities of the tni-al, polairud, or other marine security institutions. with so many straits, bays, or sea boundaries that have a level of security threat and traffic that is vulnerable to the presence of security elements, it is necessary to develop and initiate other dimensions that cannot be separated from the duties of the tni by law 34 concerning the tni. the role of the infantry unit at the level of the infantry battalion can help increase the level of security in the 12 nautical mile territory if it is equipped with a tank boat with an adequate firing range. furthermore, during the presentation of the tank boat program to the minister of defense on january 6, 2016, the minister of defense expressed full support for the tank boat program to be realized and realized where funding is planned from the ministry of defense through apbn-p. director general pothan kemhan conveyed to the president director of pt. pindad on march 8, 2016, about the planned funding support and assignment of tank boat prototype development activities which were followed up with a cooperation agreement between pt. pindad and pt. lundin on 10 june 2016, which arranged the contribution of each party to the tank boat program. the innovation of a system for purchasing military weapons equipment is very important because it aims to reduce the burden of foreign exchange and the effect on the balance of payments, thereby stimulating the development of the domestic defense industry. the choice of weapons has a very political impact, if there are conditions that hinder the development of a defense posture such as an embargo, then innovation and planning dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.121-129 123 are needed to design an independent weapon system because this is an important part of the transition mechanism for procurement and replacement of weapons systems [5]. organizationally, the infantry battalion is divided into six types of infantry battalion based on three typologies of the area, namely urban, mountain forest and sea, river, and coastal swamps. for infantry units to be able to carry out tasks in various areas of the republic of indonesia, transportation equipment in the water is needed that can operate effectively and efficiently with reliable maneuvers and maximum firepower in these areas. based on the above background, the researcher formulates the problem and makes the research question, namely how is the potential utilization of the weapon system tank boat in strengthening the defence of indonesia as a maritime country? to answer the formulation of the problem above, the researcher uses several theories related to the potential utilization of the tank boat weapon system in strengthening indonesia's defense as a maritime state. in seeing the potential use of the tank boat weapon system in strengthening indonesian defense, a strategy is needed to maximize the utilization of the resources owned. by definition, strategy is an action or activity carried out by an organizational leader in achieving the goals that have been set by using the resources they have. strategy theory is more planning (planning) which connects all existing aspects (means) and uses them optimally [6]. strategy talks about schemes and steps to achieve a goal. carl von clausewitz's opinion in his book on war states that strategy is the use of engagement for war. the strategy focuses on the use of strength in carrying out engagement efforts to achieve goals. strategy theory explains how to determine goals for all existing elements to support the process of achieving goals. the existence of a strategy is very important to guide steps in the development of an uncertain situation. the strategy assumes that the future cannot be predicted but that the strategic environment can be studied and accessed to be able to formulate anticipatory steps. adds if the strategy is implemented by applying ends, ways, and means in a strategic environment to achieve the desired goals [6]. ends is an objective or goal to be achieved by considering the variables contained in the strategic environment. these goals are contained in the policies made by the state to achieve strategic results in realizing an interest. ways is a strategic concept to answer how to achieve certain goals by applying national power (1). mathematically, strategy is assumed to be a means plus a goal, with the formula st = w + m + e with description: st (strategy) = strategy, w (ways) = the way to reach the goal, m (means) = resources, facilities, and infrastructure that can be used to achieve goals, and e (ends) = goals defined in the policy. this conception will narrow down to the question of who does what, where, when, how, and why. the strategic concept must be able to provide guidelines for the implementation and implementation of national power to achieve national goals. in formulating a strategy, of course, one must take into account in detail measurable related ends, means, and ways. this is important for success in achieving goals. the means are a limitation for the type and level of supporting elements in encouraging the achievement of a goal. in strategy, means can be tangible or intangible. for example, tangible means include forces, people, equipment, money, and other supporting facilities. meanwhile, intangible means include a will, courage, spirit, and intellect [6]. the development of technology, especially technology in the field of weapons, has become a threat that is realized through an increasingly strong military force, considering that countries in the world are currently trying to allocate defense budgets for the sake of increasing and developing their military strength as the main mission of self-defense (self-defense). research on weapons technology and the purchase of high-tech military equipment from other countries. threats are the main factors that form the basis for drafting the design of the national defense system, both actual and potential. state defense efforts are carried out through the development of the national defense posture. the development of the national defense posture is carried out on an ongoing basis to realize strength, capabilities, and titles. the development of the military defense posture is directed at fulfilling the minimum essential force (mef) of the main components and preparing other defense components. the military defense posture consists of main components, reserve components, and supporting components, which are directed through building strength, abilities, and titles. the military defense posture is prioritized to deal with actual threats by not ruling out potential threats and other threats. in the 2015 defense white paper of the republic of indonesia, it is explained that the tni's posture includes 3 things, namely strength, ability, and title. in the context of the use of the tank boat weapon system in strengthening indonesia's defense as a maritime country, it requires development in the aspect of equipment developed through various plans. quality function deployment (qfd) is a method used to develop and plan products so that the development team can specify in detail the needs and desires of customers [7]. meanwhile, daetz explains that qfd is a systematic planning dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.121-129 124 process created to help companies organize all the elements needed to define, design, and manufacture products or provide services that can meet customer needs [8]. broadly speaking, quality function deployment is a systematic planning process that was created to help an agency or company to be able to manage all elements that can design, define, and create products or provide a service that can meet customer needs. the main tool of qfd is the arrangement of matrices by collecting, interpreting, documenting, and prioritizing customer requirements. the starting point for qfd is the customer and the wants and needs of the customer (voice of the customer). the qfd process starts with customer needs and then continues through 4 main points, namely product planning, product design, process planning, and process control planning. in addition, there is a house of quality, which is the first stage in implementing qfd, formed by compiling one or more matrices that are interconnected and developed to determine the relationship between customer needs and technical parameters of the product or service. this matrix explains what the customer's needs and expectations are and how to fulfill them. the stages in implementing it are through 3 phases, namely the first phase by collecting customer needs (voice of customer), the second phase by compiling the house of quality, and the third phase of analysis and interpretation of the previous stages. this phase is carried out in various ways in each phase. research with the same topic is not widely carried out, but there is one study that discusses the optimization of the shape of the catamaran ship demihull to improve the quality of seakeeping which is also discussed in this study, but this research has differences in the optimization of the shape of ship demihull to improve the quality of seakeeping following the standards of general seakeeping criteria for military ships. the demihull form used is npl hull form series 4b 2. research method this study uses a qualitative method with an emphasis on an object in this case the tank boat. research using the qualitative method is defined as a research procedure that produces descriptive data in the form of written or spoken words from people [9]. one of the research designs that can be used in qualitative research and is considered suitable for this research is the case study approach, namely the design of the weapon system on the tank boat through the system engineering approach. the research design that is used as a reference is considered suitable because it is following the theory from the design system engineering approach book [10] which states that to carry out development, research must at least have standard stages starting from the user need phase, conceptual design, preliminary design, detail design, production/construction, and product use, support, and disposal. this research focuses on conceptual design with the implementation of the system life cycle in the acquisition phase including user needs and conceptual design. 3. results and discussion the potential use of the tank boat weapon system in strengthening indonesia's defense as a maritime country. a. platform tank boat after obtaining the criteria from the operational requirements, then the determination of the platform of the tank boat is based on the number of components that will be installed on the ship. the components that will be installed on this tank boat can be seen in table 1. table 1 platform tank boat components no component amount dimensions l x b x h (mm) weight (kg ) 1 main engine 1 dimensions [p × p × t] (mm) 1812x1293x1414 2300 2 thermal camera 1 15.18" x 18.68" x 50 x 30 30 3 turret 1 12 m 4000 4 life raft 2 900 x 550 x 380 56 5 navigation bridge sistem 1 according to spesification 250 6 rgb 1 p=7800, w=2500 450 7 battery 12 v 8 578 x 254 x 219 200 8 thrust vectoring 1 suitable for turbojet engines 200 9 ae 2 1029 x 629 x 251 824 dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.121-129 125 10 frest water 2 in accordance ga 100 11 fuel oil 10 in accordance ga 142 12 diesel oil 2 in accordance ga 428 13 crew 4 360 total weight 8320 table 1 shows the number of components along with their dimensions and total weight. the total weight of this component will be used as the ship's payload. so the payload of the tank boat is 8320 kg. b. ship design stages the process of designing a ship is iterative, that is, all planning and analysis are carried out repeatedly to achieve maximum results when the design is developed. the spiral design is divided into 4 stages, namely: concept design, preliminary design, contract design, and detail design [11]. in this study, the design of the catamaran tank boat warship was only limited to concept design. therefore, the design process discussed is only a concept design. figure 1. spiral design stages [12] there are four stages in this design spiral, including: a. concept design concept design is an advanced stage after the owner's requirement. the concept of ship design is the designer's task to define an object to fulfill mission requirements and comply with existing constraints/problems. to create a concept, approach formulas, curves or experience are used to make initial estimates that aim to get an estimate of the cost of building a ship. the results of this design concept stage are generally in the form of drawings or sketches, either partially or completely b. preliminary design preliminary design is the second stage in designing the ship. preliminary design is a further technical endeavor that will give more detail to the design concept. in conjunction with the spiral diagram, the preliminary design is the second iteration or the second path in the spiral diagram. what is meant by detail includes features that have a significant impact on the ship, including the initial approach to the costs required. examples of adding details are the calculation of the longitudinal strength of the ship, the development of the midship section of the ship, a more accurate calculation of the weight and center of gravity of the ship, draft, stability, and others. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.121-129 126 c. contract design the contract design stage is an advanced stage after the preliminary design stage, namely the development stage of ship design in a more detailed form that allows shipbuilders to understand the ship to be built and accurately estimate all shipbuilding costs. the main purpose of the design contract is to produce a document that describes the ship that will be built soon. furthermore, these documents will be the basis of the contract or development agreement between the ship owner and the shipyard. the components included in the contract design are as follows: (1) arrangement drawing, (2) structural drawing, (3) structural details, (4) propulsion arrangement, (5) machinery selection, (6) propeller selection, (6) generator selection, (7) electrical selection. the components above are also known as key plan drawings. the key plan drawings must present in detail the ship's features according to the request of the ship owner or ship owner. d. design details detail design is the last stage of the process of designing a ship. at this stage, the results of the previous stages will be developed into a more detailed working drawing as a whole. ship construction plans will be discussed in detail at this stage. the biggest part of this process is the production of working/field drawings required in the production process. the purpose of this tank boat design is to determine the operational requirements of the catamaran combat boat assault warship, obtain the main size of the catamaran tank boat assault warship and obtain the lines plan and general plan of the catamaran tank boat assault warship with turbojet. before entering the calculation process and the design stage, it is necessary to plan the criteria that will be used for the tank boat starting from the criteria that have the most influence on the design process. the criteria are the type of hull and material. for a detailed explanation, see the following sub-sections: a. hull type from the decision tree image, we get three types of hulls as the preferred candidate for the tank boat. the three types of hulls have advantages and disadvantages, as follows: 1) monohull is a hull monohull type which has shortcomings in terms of stability, easy rolling, and relatively small deck area figure 2. mono hull [13] 2) the catamaran has the advantages of a catamaran hull compared to a monohull hull, namely: a) large deck area. b) can maintain speed in the sea with high waves. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.121-129 127 c) have a stable platform. d) more cost-effective than other hull types with the same capability. figure 3. multi hull catamaran based on the research of prof. jacob van renen van niekerk who already has experience and expertise in the shipping field, the fully asymmetric type c catamaran hull has the advantage that it is suitable for the design of the tank boat catamaran. some of the advantages of a fully asymmetric type c hull are described as follows [14]: (a) the wave interference in the bridge section is smaller than that of a symmetrical catamaran (b) can sail well even in waters with high waves and can slide sideways safely when the ship changes direction drastically. (c) very good stability (will reverse only if there is a very large increase in load. c. material two types of material are obtained as the preferred candidates for tank boats, namely the type of material system that has advantages and disadvantages, as follows: 1) carbon fiber composite this type of material has the characteristics of lightweight material, can be stronger than good strength, more flexible to form, and free of corrosion. 2) aluminum the type of material that will be used for the tank boat is aluminum. several things are considered in the selection of aluminum, namely it has been used for naval ships around the world, the material is lighter than steel, increases camouflage ability, and corrosion is 100x slower. from these considerations, the type of material to be used is carbon composite. the selection of this type of material is based on the design criteria of the tank boat to be made, where the ship must have greater strength than other ship materials. in addition, the selection of carbon composites is because this type of material has been tested and has a low density, thereby reducing the ship's load. for the tank boat design that is more supportive of field operations, it was chosen to use the catamaran design with a lighter carbon composite material so that operations can be carried out in shallow waters. after the previous stages have met the operational requirements, the next step in the ship design process is the process of determining the method of designing the ship. in general, the methods in ship design are as follows: a. parent design approach a parent design approach is one method of designing ships by comparing existing ships with designs to be made, namely by taking the main size of a ship that has been previously designed with the provision that the ship must have the same characteristics as the ship to be designed, in this case, the designer already has a reference to the same ship as the ship to be designed. the advantage of the parent design approach is that it can design ships faster because there is already a reference for the ship, it only remains to repair and improve the performance of the ship, and the parent ship's performance is proven (stability, motion, resistance) model a asymmetrical model b symmetrical model c asymmetrical type-a model d asymmetrical type-a dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.121-129 128 b. trend curve approach method the trend curve approach method which is often referred to as the statistical method is a method/method of designing ships by using regression from several comparison ships to determine their main size. in this method, the sizes of several comparison vessels are compared where the variables are connected and then a trend line is drawn that applies to the ship to be designed. c. iterative design approach the iterative design approach is a ship design method based on a cyclical process of prototyping, testing, and analyzing. changes and improvements will be made based on the results of testing the latest iteration of a design. this process has the aim of improving the quality and functionality of an existing design. the ship design process has an iterative nature which is most commonly described by a design spiral that reflects the design methodology and strategy. d. parametric design approach the parametric design approach is a method used in designing ships with main dimension parameters which are the results of regression from several comparison ships, then calculating the resistance (rt), designing the propellers, calculating the estimated main engine power, calculating the number of crew members, calculating the center of gravity, trims, and others. e. optimization design approach the optimization method is used to determine the optimum main size of the ship and the required motor power at the basic design stage. in this case, the optimum design is sought by finding the design that will minimize the economic cost. the parameters of this optimization are the laws of physics, cargo capacity, stability, freeboard, trim, and ship price. 4. conclusions the potential utilization of the tank boat weapon system in strengthening indonesia's defense as a maritime country is using the quality function deployment (qfd) method, determining customer requirements is the most important and fundamental part of explaining the needs desired by users in this case, namely the indonesian army. these needs include the operational requirements that must be possessed by a tank boat to carry out its mission as a combatant as well as the weapons system requirements used. in this case, there are several main points for the desired user needs in the operational requirements and weapon systems for the tank boat object, including: a) tank boat has a lightweight. b) the weapons used have high precision. c) weapons must be free from itar (international traffic regulations). d) the flexibility of weapons to be integrated with the vehicle. e) the main target is a vital target or vvip. f) security. from the results of the analysis using the quality function deployment (qfd) method, it was obtained the level of user needs for ships and weapon systems on tank boats based on domestic weapons technology produced by the private and national defense industries, namely pt lundin, pt len, pt hariff, and pt. pindad by determining the benchmark performance (bp) values for the highest to lowest design characteristics shows the results of the benchmark performance and priority scale values that have been sorted and arranged, namely design characteristics that have priority scales in order. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.121-129 129 references [1] roza, e. "maritime indonesia, extraordinary luxury", https://kkp.go.id/artikel/2233-maritim-indonesiakemewahan-yang-luar-biasa, 2017 (acessed on 27 march 2022). [2] national defense policy, https://ppid.kemhan.go.id/assets/attachments/20210721_57jakhanneg-2021-oke, (accessed on 23 january 2022). [3] soedewo a., "enforcement of provisions for foreign-flagged ships to pass in indonesian archipelagic sea lanes (alki) ii viewed from the perspective of indonesian state law and united nations convention on the law of the sea (unclos) 1982", student journal of the faculty of law, university of brawijaya, 2015. [4] bpkp b. p, "presidential regulation (perpres) number 42 of 2010". jakarta: sekretariat kabinet republik indonesia, 2010. [5] prasetyo t. a, "kkip performance evaluation in republic of indonesia-south korea cooperation in submarine development to support resilience", journal of national resilience, vol 23, no 21, pp 88-89, 2017. [6] yarger h. r., strategic theory for the 21st century: the little book on. usa, blackswell publisher, 2006. [7] cohen l, quality fuction deployment: how to make qfd work for you, addisonwesley publishing co, massachusetts, 1995. [8] daetz d. b, customer integration: the quality function deployment (qfd) laders guide for decision making, john wiley & sons inc, new york, 1995 [9] moleong l. j, qualitative research methodology, pt rosdakarya, bandung, 2018. [10] sadraey m. h, aircraft design a system engineering, john wiley & sons, usa, 2013. [11] watson d. g, practical ship design, elsevier, vol 1, 1998. [12]naval architects australia, retrieved from web link navalarchitectsaustralia.blogspot.com: https://navalarchitectsaustralia.blogspot.com/. [13] zubaer h., u. b, "twin step hull variation analysis on a 15-meter alu pilot boat using the cfd method", jurnal teknik perkapalan, 2018. [14] niekerk j, "comparison of catamaran hull type", issue of power multihull magazine, 2000. microsoft word badawi_final2 issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 4, 2023, pp.75-83 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v4.id242 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 75 the new role of the japan self-defense forces (jsdf) under proactive contribution to peace strategy habib al-badawi* 1 department of history, lebanese university, lebanon *corresponding author e-mail: habib.badawi@ul.edu.lb received jul. 17, 2023 revised aug. 15, 2023 accepted aug. 17, 2023 abstract as per the japanese ministry of foreign affairs, no nation can maintain security and peace on its own. therefore, tokyo, through the japanese ministry of defense, contributes to the united nations' efforts to maintain and restore international peace and security. article 9 of the pacifist constitution, in force since 1947, binds japan's defense policy. but global dangers, especially the russian invasion of ukraine, the chinese threats to taiwan, and the madness of the north korean dictator, forced japan to develop the proficiency of the selfdefense forces under the title of “proactive contribution to peace.” in this study, we will review the development of this concept through the process of building japanese military capabilities. this will enable us to respond to societal changes from the korean war to the present. as part of japan's efforts to contribute to international peace and security operations have developed its military capabilities. this includes the enactment of the united nations peacekeeping operations (pko) law, the establishment of the national security strategy, and the purchase of advanced weapons and equipment. the nation’s commitment to international peace and security is also evident in its participation in united nations peacekeeping operations and other regional activities. © the author 2023. published by arda. keywords: japanese constitution; pacifism; proactive peace; security studies; the cold war; legal studies introduction chapter ii: renunciation of war, article 9. aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes. in order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. the right of belligerency of the state will not be recognized [1]. regarding the japanese text above, the english translation does not make it obvious whether “war as a way of dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.75-83 76 settling international conflicts” is related to “war as a sovereign prerogative of the nation”. the nihongo text asserts that “war as a means of resolving international conflicts” is unmistakably linked to both “the threat or use of force” and “war as a sovereign prerogative of the nation”. war is often associated with conquering other nations to resolve international conflicts. without differentiating between offensive and defensive actions, paragraph one denounces all wars. therefore, all military operations, including self-defense wars, can be exploited to settle international conflicts, which makes it difficult to differentiate between an invasion and a self-defense war. the introductory paragraph rejects “violence as a means of solving global disputes”. accordingly, paragraph two does not explicitly prohibit the right to use force for self-defense, so the pacifist constitution does not forbid war as defined by the charter of the united nations. 1. a historical overview with the unconditional surrender of the empire of japan at the end of world war ii [2], japan became under foreign occupation for the first time in its long history. one of the outcomes of their defeat was the pacifist constitution, nihon-koku kenpo. this was imposed, not promulgated, under heavy pressure and mandatory directives from the “supreme command of the allied forces (scap)” led by general douglas macarthur. the american occupation caused a peaceful revolution, restoring civil rights, universal suffrage, and a parliamentary government. this resulted in reforming education, encouraging labor unions, and emancipating women. macarthur was initially directed to exercise authority through the japanese government structure, including the emperor himself. however, he became the de facto commander, organizing and structuring an independent japan under american auspices. the japanese authorities, facing the inevitability of defeat and fearing the annihilation of the japanese nation, applied the aikido strategy that forced the nation to study and practice kata. this was a set of prearranged movements that enabled it to deal with an aggressive adversary successfully. this centuries-old art taught practitioners to use the force of an opponent against themselves, a strategy that gives the nation a definite advantage if attacked. its tactical significance is to accommodate the opponent until victory is achieved. 2. establishment of the japan self-defense forces demobilizing and disarming the imperial japanese army dai-nippon teikoku rikugun was one of scap’s conditions. by abolishing japan's armed forces, dismantling its military organization, and eliminating the expression of patriotism from its schools and public life, japan's security depended completely on the united states forces japan's (usfj) zainichi beigun protection. amid the outbreak of the global cold war between the eastern and western blocs, the international community forced dual polarization. at this stage of the occupation, japan's economic rehabilitation took center stage. scap became concerned that a weak japan would boost the influence of the japanese communist party, nihon kysan-t, which was outlawed during the imperial era [3]. as a communist victory in china's civil war became increasingly uncertain, east asia's future appeared uncertain. japan's debilitating effects were addressed through occupation policies ranging from tax reforms to inflation control measures. the fiery battles in the far east were the korean war (1950-1953) and the vietnamese war (1955-1975), which caused japan to become the principal supply depot for american and un forces, led by general macarthur himself. the conflict placed japan firmly within the confines of the u.s. defense perimeter in asia. after these devastating circumstances, japan gradually returned to being a fully sovereign state with local armed forces that should be allied with the united states army and nato. japan's contribution to western war efforts at the military level was limited to the “logistical” role [4]. in 1954, japan strengthened its defense capabilities during the cold war. the proposed self-defense forces law stated that the primary purpose of the newly formed armed brigades was to defend japan against direct or indirect invasion. the bill was passed by the diet, and the security agency was reorganized as the self dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.75-83 77 defense agency beich. the police and coastal guard units were also reorganized as japan self-defense forces (jsdf) jieitai. the defense agency, a part of the office of the prime minister, was required by article 66 of the constitution to be completely subordinate to civilian authority. the director-general had the rank of minister of state. the highest figure in the command structure was the “civilian” prime minister, who was solely responsible for the diet. thus, in a national emergency, the prime minister was authorized to order the jsdf into action, subject to the regime's consent. however, in times of extreme emergencies, approval might be obtained later. 3. the post-cold war era by the end of the twentieth century, the soviet union had collapsed, and the us had become a unipolar force on the globe. aside from japan, china was the most visible opponent of american unilateralism. in 1992, the law concerning cooperation in united nations peacekeeping operations (pko law), which enabled the dispatch of the jsdf overseas, was passed. nevertheless, a major setback occurred in 1994, when socialist prime minister tomiichi murayama announced before the diet a party policy change stating that a minimum level of military capacity for self-defense was constitutional. the public accepted, as it was constitutionalized, a modest jsdf whose main purpose was disaster relief rather than defense. nonetheless, it opposed the jsdf's substantial growth in military and overseas fighting. to head off any public fears and legislative battles that the government would expand the jsdf’s activities, the bill had a built-in expiration date; it would only last for two years, then the diet would have to vote again on whether to continue or not. the government has thus established five principles to guide the jsdf’s participation in peacekeeping operations: 1. during armed conflicts, all operations must be completely impartial and not favor any party. 2. japan should obtain the consent of both the host countries and the parties to armed conflicts prior to participating in un peacekeeping operations. 3. japanese self-defense force (sdf) units may be withdrawn if any of the above principles cease to be met. 4. the use of weapons should be limited to the minimum necessary to protect the lives of personnel. 5. there must be an agreement between the parties to the armed conflict regarding a cease-fire [5]. the invasion of iraq in 2003 marked the most extreme case of japan’s tilt towards the us in the middle east. japan immediately announced its full support for us military action in the iraqi crisis. this was at a time when most other countries were hesitant and critical of a war breaking out [6]. another jsdf legislative expansion was enacted. the special measures law concerning humanitarian relief support activities and security maintenance support activities in iraq enabled japan to send jsdf troops to an occupied country where small-scale fighting continued. japan's timid start was through the participation of the medical brigade in the self-defense forces in iraq reconstruction and being stationed in samawah with up to six hundred personnel [7]. after the gulf war, japan gradually relied less on military means in its security strategy, marking a turning point for japan. in response to the situation of armed attack law of 2003, the government enacted laws and regulations to implement a contingency plan. this was to protect the nation from attack. under that law, the following seven bills regarding military emergencies were submitted by the cabinet and passed by the diet in 2004 [8]: 1. the act to amend the jsdf law. 2. the law concerning dealing with prisoners of war while under armed attack. 3. the law concerning measures taken by japan during united states military actions while japan is under armed attack (law concerning measures relating to us military actions) dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.75-83 78 4. the law concerning measures to protect nationals in situations of armed attack (the national protection law) 5. the law concerning the punishment of grave violations of international humanitarian law. 6. the law concerning the use of designated public facilities, etc., under armed attack. 7. the law on the restriction of maritime transportation of foreign military supplies, etc., in situations of armed attack (maritime transportation restriction law). meanwhile, the japanese “liberal democratic party” emerged, with its pioneering leadership since independence and its historical symbols, represented by prime minister shinzo abe (the grandson of prime minister nobuskei kishi), who proposed a gradual strategic change in strengthening the japanese army during his second term [9]. when mr. abe became prime minister for the second time in december 2012, the hawkish era began in the japanese government. in july of the same year, mr. abe called, as the leader of the parliamentary majority, to reinterpret article 9. accordingly, the possibility of “collective self-defense” to protect world peace was born [10]. as part of the sixty-eighth general assembly of the united nations on thursday, september 26, 2013, prime minister abe declared that “japan will begin to bear the flag of “proactive contribution to peace,” anchored on the undeniable records and solid appraisal of our country, which has endeavored to bring peace and prosperity to the world, emphasizing cooperation with the international community” [11]. consequently, the japanese armed forces found themselves confronting enormous challenges outside their domestic scope in addition to maintaining internal security. japan was, in other words, seeking to become a global peacekeeping power. in 2014, the ministry of defense (bei-sh) adopted the ittaika theory [12], which entailed integration in the use of force with other militaries, which was deemed unconstitutional by government legal specialists and had no clear premise neither in existing law nor in judicial rulings. they based their judgment on the fact that logistical assistance to foreign combatants should be viewed as a matter of principle and a choice in the national interest, not as a constitutionally debatable issue [13]. the following year, japanese prime minister shinzo abe promoted a bill, which was passed on september 19, 2015, allowing the japanese military to participate in anti-terrorism operations, overturning its previous policy of fighting only to defend the homeland [14]. this legislation came into effect on march 29, 2016. despite the japanese constitution's prohibition on the military acting except in self-defense, the enactment allowed japan's military to operate overseas for “collective self-defense” to defend and protect its allies. under these three conditions, the jsdf could mobilize overseas under government security legislation: 1. japan's people have no other appropriate means available to repel the attack and ensure japan's survival. 2. the use of force is restricted to a necessary minimum. 3. when japan is attacked or when a close ally is attacked, resulting in a threat to japan's survival and posing a clear danger to the japanese people. the involvement of the japan self-defense forces (jsdf) in military actions is explicitly articulated in the framework of “japan's legislation for peace and security.” this legislation establishes “three new conditions” under which the “use of force” is permitted. these conditions serve as guiding principles for the jsdf's military activities, emphasizing the necessity of such actions in particular situations. the first condition stipulates that force is justified when no other appropriate means of evading an attack are available. japan's survival and protection are necessary. this condition underscores the jsdf's primary responsibility to safeguard the nation and its citizens from potential threats. moreover, the legislation allows japan to take on an additional role in un peacekeeping operations and participate in other international peace cooperation activities. by doing so, japan demonstrated its commitment to global peace and security. it dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.75-83 79 contributes to the international community's efforts to resolve conflicts and maintain stability in various regions. the jsdf is also permitted to engage in necessary support activities in situations that significantly impact japan's peace and security. this may threaten international peace and security. this provision emphasizes japan's readiness to take proactive measures when its vital interests and international obligations are at stake. however, it is essential to note that the jsdf uses force strictly to the minimum extent necessary. this aspect highlights japan's commitment to employing military means judiciously, proportionally, and as a last resort. it prioritizes diplomatic solutions whenever possible. the legislation explicitly outlines the circumstances under which the jsdf may employ military force. one such scenario is when japan is attacked, or a foreign country is intricately linked to japan. this poses a clear and imminent danger to japan's survival and fundamentally threatens the people's fundamental rights to life, liberty, and happiness. in such cases, the jsdf is authorized to respond appropriately to safeguard its nation and citizens' well-being. “japan's legislation for peace and security” presents a comprehensive and thoughtful approach to the jsdf's involvement in military actions. it acknowledges japan's responsibility to protect its sovereignty and citizens. it recognizes the nation's role in promoting international peace and security through peacekeeping and cooperative efforts. by adhering to the principle of using force only when necessary and in a limited manner, japan underscores its commitment to resolving conflicts through peaceful means whenever feasible. this legislation serves as a solid and eloquent academic framework that strikes a delicate balance between japan's military responsibilities and its commitment to global peace and security [15]. after the cabinet decision on the “legislation for peace and security,” prime minister shinzo abe announced that “our activities will not be limited to dangerous situations that have a vital impact on japan's peace and security.” under the banner of “proactive contribution to peace,” japan is committed to contributing to global peace and stability even more actively.” 4. domestic and internal burdens the japanese government was trying to address pressing weaknesses in japanese defense, with arms procurement and training being the biggest challenges, and the solution for both was to get the budget to support the development of self-defense forces. for many years, japan's defense budget has been constrained by two main considerations: japan's encouragement by washington to buy the most advanced and expensive u.s. weapons systems and the pressure from the japanese people to limit defense spending to less than 1% of its gdp [16]. as a result, although japan had developed its military arsenal, it suffered from severe shortages of personnel and ammunition. japan's ministry of defense was focused on correcting this imbalance and ensuring its ability to continue fighting in the event of war. this would enable it to survive in the event of a protracted conflict. there has been a lot of internal debate in japan over the proposal to increase defense spending from less than 1% of gdp to 2% [17]. however, this debate overestimates the magnitude of the increase required in the short term. japan already spends about 1.3% of its gdp on matters like veterans' pensions, coast guard costs, and intelligence. correcting the disputed imbalance would thus eliminate the need for rapid accumulation and help strengthen japan's military power. the youth shortage was a fundamental problem, as the number of young people in japan had been rapidly declining. this posed a demographic threat to the survival of the japanese nation. temporarily, the japanese leadership was trying a three-pronged approach: 1. creating a military environment and defense systems that empower women the concept of “tough defensive posture” has been adhered to in japanese defense policy and reports for many years. an aggressive defense stance was strategically indefensible: in the event of an external invasion, the enemy must withdraw from occupied territories, including remote islands. dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.75-83 80 2. investing in artificial intelligence in military operations, the most notable example being autonomous drones. 3. raise the wages and salaries of officers and enlistees in the japanese forces. successive governments have rejected this objection for years, citing the us-japan security agreement as the shield and the us as the spear. in the event of an imminent missile attack from mainland asia, japan must be able not only to stand idly by and “wait for death” but also to preemptively hit enemy missile bases. china and north korea (also south korea) had numerous missile bases, some of which were hidden underground, making such a preemptive strike impossible using current military technology. by contrast, retaliatory strikes, which most countries consider a legitimate and essential aspect of self-defense, can be directed against any aspect of the hostile weapon system, not just the missile bases that threaten japan's security. under the slogan of “proactive pacifism”, the japanese leadership lifted the military restrictions imposed by tokyo in earlier years by operating on three levels: 4. reinterpretation of article 9 of the constitution: this reassessment allowed the ministry of defense to conduct military operations under the right of collective self-defense and was no longer limited to the right to defend japanese territory only. instead, it would come into effect in the event of an armed attack against a country with strong ties to japan. this would be done with japanese forces fighting in defense of the ally. 5. revision of arms export laws [18]: on april 1, 2014, the japanese government eased restrictions on arms exports. under the review, arms exports would be allowed if they contributed to japan's security and complied with the principles of “positive peace”. 6. new development cooperation agreement [19]: on february 10, 2015, japan ratified the comprehensive development cooperation charter. this agreement replaced the system that had been in place since 2002. japan may thus provide aid to foreign armies for non-military purposes such as disaster relief. 5. international trade wars and regional tensions today’s world is experiencing a fierce confrontation represented by the us-china trade war, even though chinese investments dominate the us economy and domestic markets. until recently, financial indicators clearly showed a beijing advantage in direct competition with washington. huawei has faced numerous criticisms for various aspects of its operations, especially cybersecurity, intellectual property, and human rights violations. on november 26, 2019, the us department of commerce issued a highly anticipated proposed rule with proposed regulations (“proposed regulations”) to implement executive order 13873, “securing the information and communications technology and services supply by huawei technologies [20]. the pentagon engaged in economic confrontation. this was while the media was america's most effective weapon against china, even though huawei tried to counter-attack [21]. furthermore, the overall media coverage of the pandemic reached the point of “racism” towards the chinese population and did not exclude other asian communities, despite the entire world being faced with the covid-19 pandemic. as for japan being the neighbor of the chinese superpower, an ambitious dragon, in addition to contemporary rivalry and the dispute over border islands between the two countries [22], these marine rocks are rich in natural resources and buried wealth [23]. hence, the opponent to japanese sovereignty over the senkaku islands/diaoyutai qundao is the “chinese people's liberation army”, which has two and a half million soldiers with massive nuclear capabilities. however, despite wise leadership and a massive armed force, president kim jong-un's temperament, and the ways he controls nukes, pose a real and dangerous threat to dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.75-83 81 japan and the world as well as contributing to world peace. he also faces competition on the other side of the korean peninsula. although south korea revolves around the capitalist orbit and enjoys the protection of us military bases, it has publicly declared hostility towards japan. the historical quarrels between south korea and japan over the islands' sovereignty eventually escalated. furthermore, seoul calls for changing the name of the “sea of japan.” the japanese government supports the exclusive use of the name “sea of japan” while a dispute exists over the international name for the body of water that is bordered by japan, korea (north and south), and russia [24]. in recent years, the world has been amid a japan-south korea trade war after tokyo removed korean companies from the “whitelist” for preferential trading in july 2019. this dispute casts a shadow over the economies of the two countries. another dangerous neighbor is the russian federation, the heir to the soviet union. this country occupied the kuril islands in northern japan and has since turned them into a military reserve stronghold following the inhumane expulsion of its japanese residents. 6. the three pillars of japan's security policy despite japan's economic problems and domestic and international opposition, the government has worked to achieve its three goals: a. japan's possession of defense capabilities [25]: the self-defense forces describe themselves as the “only guarantee” to protect national security from any threat. hence the importance of strengthening these forces so that they can intervene quickly in conflict zones, especially with powerful neighbors. japan is wary of provocative missile tests from north korea, and china represents a massive danger, especially with its ambitions to annex taiwan, albeit by force. to counter the chinese threat, japanese land, sea, and air forces must be able to join hands to counter any sudden chinese escalation. hence, the japanese army is trained in a flexible, fast, dynamic, and integrated manner. b. alliance with the united states [26]: the u.s.-japan relationship is a cornerstone of japan's foreign policy, and these relationships are based on strategic interests and shared values. according to security treaties and tacit consensus, the united states is the guarantee of japan's security. in return, japan allows tokyo to maintain military bases on okinawa and the honshu peninsula. the japan defense forces ensure flexible cooperation to ensure the smooth and effective deployment of u.s. forces. this cooperation continues across joint military programs and land, sea, and air exercises. c. international cooperation: in this context, two forms of cooperation initiated by japan can be distinguished: ● bilateral cooperation: there are several bilateral cooperation agreements between japan and several countries, including australia, india, south korea, the philippines, vietnam, and indonesia. ● multilateral cooperation: this is where tokyo's relationship with major regional organizations in asia, such as the association of southeast asian nations (arf) [27] and the east asian summit (eas) [28], comes into an effective alliance. japan has begun to pursue projects aimed at strengthening its integration with asean. this is because japan wants its member states to have a unified attitude toward china. the japanese government has allocated a large amount of money to this end through development projects and infrastructure support in friendly and allied countries. 7. conclusions amidst this gloomy atmosphere of the regional situation and the immediate danger threatening japan, is it logical to call for the necessity of reducing the exaggerated “peacefulness” while history since the beginning of creation testifies to “survival of the fittest” along with the factors of “intelligence and adaptation”? dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.75-83 82 accordingly, this is the origin of the term “proactive pacifism,” which is based on a historical accumulation that built the japanese armed forces professionally on land, sea, and air to become the fourth army in the world, which recently began building and equipping “space defense forces,” in striking resemblance to the american and russian superpowers' ambitions. japan's proactive peaceful strategy was based on the following pillars: 1. building a rational defense force step by step within the necessary scope of self-defense per national circumstances. 2. security agreements with the united states govern the response to external aggression. this is so that the united nations can act effectively in the future to deter this aggression. to be sure, it is the fourth axis that shaped japan's defense policy for much of the period after the end of direct u.s. occupation. 3. stabilize people's lives, strengthen patriotism, and build a foundation for national security. 4. support the united nations, promote international cooperation, and contribute to world peace. studying the promulgation and birth of “proactive pacifism” clearly indicates that the preparation for harvesting the fruits at the national level consists of sowing suitable seeds and taking care of their growth and intensification while waiting for the appropriate moment to rely on them. hence, the serious construction of the japanese army over the decades following the defeat comes from here. with a sober structure and a solid hierarchy, 2012 was the appropriate decisive moment to increase the budget of the japanese self-defense forces and expand their regional and international role to contribute to building world peace self-defense forces and expand their regional and international role to contribute to achieving world peace. therefore, the constitutional amendments were the inevitable outcome of a continuous historical process. this was built for a stage on which japan would assume a pivotal role regionally and internationally. at the same time, the aim was for a peaceful japan to have an iron hand to protect its land, waters, and airspace and to preserve the “right to claim” the disputed or occupied islands. japan's foreign and security policy on the ground has always followed the principle of “proactive contribution to peace.” the current changes did not come suddenly, but japanese security policy has gradually changed since the end of the cold war, and with slow but steady steps, japan is moving to strengthen its military capabilities to counter any threat that comes from the asian mainland. finally, the reformulated defensive strategy does not enforce the “reinterpretation” of article 9 for the sake of a “proactive contribution to peace”. its explicit defensive strategy strengthens its defense capabilities, improves its defense infrastructure, and increases the presence of its self-defense forces overseas to provide a more comprehensive and effective defense. the goal of the revised defense strategy is to ensure that japan can better defend itself, not to reinterpret article 9 or make a “proactive contribution to peace”. will japan's reformulated defensive strategy enforce the “reinterpretation” of article 9 for the sake of a “proactive contribution to peace”? declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] n. diet, “the constitution of japan”, prime minister of japan, 1947. [2] r. peattie, “the japanese colonial empire”, 1895-1945. nj: princeton university press, 1987. dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.75-83 83 [3] f. jacob, “the continuities and discontinuities of anti-communist state violence in modern japan. in c. s. gerlach (ed.), the palgrave handbook of anti-communist persecutions”, london: palgrave macmillan, 2020. [4] r. dingman, “the dagger and the gift: the impact of the korean war on japan”, the journal of american-east asian relations, pp. 29-55, 1993. [5] mod, “history of japanese pko”, japan ministry of defence, 2019. [6] y. miyagi, “japan’s middle east security policy: rethinking roles and norm”, ortadoğu etütleri, p. 23, 2011. [7] mod, “grassroots human security grant aid to samawah, iraq”, ministry of defence, 2005. [8] n. yoshida, “diet enacts legislation for war contingencies”, the japan times, 2003. [9] t. burrett, “abe road: comparing japanese prime minister shinzo abe’s leadership of his first and second governments”, parliamentary affairs, pp. 400-429, 2017. [10] m. kurosaki, “japan’s evolving position on the use of force in collective self-defense”, the lawfare institute, 2018. [11] t. cabinet, “address by prime minister shinzo abe, at the sixty-eighth session of the general assembly of the united nations”, prime minister’s office, 2013. [12] mofa, “cabinet decision on development of seamless security legislation to ensure japan's survival and protect its people”, ministry of foreign affairs of japan, 2014. [13] n. diet, “report of the advisory panel on reconstruction of the legal basis for security,” the liberal party of japan, 2014. [14] i. takahashi, “japan passes bills to allow troops to fight in overseas wars”, bloomberg, 2015. [15] t. cabinet, “press conference by prime minister shinzo abe following the cabinet decision on the “legislation for peace and security”, cabinet public affairs office, 2015. [16] j. wright,” japan’s self-imposed one percent, does it really matter? journal of indo-pacific affairs (jipa)”, journal of indo-pacific affairs (jipa), 2022. [17] p. o'hanlon, “japan should spend 2 percent of gdp on defense”, csis japan chair, 2019. [18] a. malow, “japan’s new arms export policies: strategic aspirations and domestic constraints”, australian journal of international affairs, pp. 649-669, 2020. [19] mofa, “official development assistance (oda)”, ministry of foreign affairs of japan, 2015. [20] white-house, “executive order 13873: securing the information and communications technology and services supply chain”, presidential documents: securing the information and communications technology and services supply chain, 2019. [21] j. bhojwani, “huawei broadens its campaign to win over american public and media”, npr, 2019. [22] p. smith, “the senkaku/diaoyu island controversy: a crisis postponed”, naval war college review, pp. 27-44, 2013. [23] k. sato, “the senkaku islands dispute: four reasons of the chinese offensive a japanese view”, journal of contemporary east asia studies, pp. 50-82, 2019. [24] mofa, “the issue of the name of the sea of japan”, ministry of foreign affairs of japan, 2017. [25] k. tan, “search of a new security strategy for japan”, east asia forum quarterly, 2022. [26] l. cheng, “the u.s.-japan security alliance”, council on foreign relations, 2019. [27] mofa, “east asia summit”, ministry of foreign affairs of japan, 2022. [28] mofa, “asean regional forum”, ministry of foreign affairs of japan, 2022. microsoft word 44-52_149.docx defense and vol. 1, decem https://doi.org this work is lice to share and ada authorship and in quality short re benjamin r 1 mechanical e *correspond © the auth 2020. published by arda. 1. introdu quality man dominance i technology i managemen implications perspectives 1) qual 2) indu 3) tech 4) qual 5) beha we have to industrial re industry 4.0 term indust those machi process and industry 4.0 system (cps (iiot) etc. d security s mber 2020, pp g/10.37868/ds nsed under a cre apt the material nitial publication manage view rudalija1 engineering, int ding author: be hor y uction nagement is t in our lives, is helpful, bu nt in the ind s in terms s etc. some k lity managem ustry 4.0. hnology. lity culture. avioral aspe know what evolution. in . example ca try 4.0 or ''fo ines is a lot making deci is using diff s), the intern studies p.44-52 ss.v1.id149 eative commons a for any 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and 90s, concept of quality management became famous. from different studies we can see that the suggest quality environment can be created in such way that everybody are inspired to have feeling that they are responsible for it. it is very important to have good quality cost. poor quality cost can be cut through leadership emphasis, message credibility, peer involvement and employee empowerment. poor quality incurs companies 5% to 30% of their annual sales but companies with strong structured quality system spend 350 million dollars less than poorly structured quality systems. one of the objectives is to ascertain control limits of quality to address problems like inflexibility, customization, longer supply chains. one of the solutions is to include statistical quality control techniques, but better choice is to look for innovative techniques. 2. short history of industry as the name is telling us, industry 4.0 is fourth type of industry in human history. but we can't talk about this industry if we don't know what happened before. also, people can learn a lot of things based on industries before such as 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0. all those historical discoveries changed human kind forever, but time is going on. so is the industry. pathways in industry 4.0 can be based on (some of them) the previous industries. industry 1.0 importance of this industry was huge. at the end of the 18th century, steam engine is discovered. that discovery changed industry from the ground. with making steam engine, people started to use heavy machinery. industry 2.0 the second industry revolution is based on using the electricity. with this discovery it was possible to use a conveyor belt and assembly line. industry 3.0 in this industry, most important pathway was introduction of automatization of production processes using electrical energy and using information and communication technologies. industry 4.0 finally, the evolution of cyber technologies and their integration into digital ecosystems along all values chains contributed to the emergence of the fourth industrial revolution called “industry 4.0”. the first concept of industry 4.0 was presented at the industrial technology fair in hanover in 2011. since then, many different companies started to developed solutions in line with the concept of industry 4.0. many governments also support the development of such solutions, especially european governments (with an emphasis on the german government), usa and japanese government, confirming that this new industry is viewed as a strategy by major industries in the world. in general, the main purpose of industry 4.0 is the emergence of digital manufacturing, also referred to as “smart factory”, which means smart networking, mobility, flexibility of industrial operations and their interoperability, integration with customers and suppliers, and the adoption of innovative business models. 3. stages of formation of industry 4.0 and the key indicators of its development in this following text i’m going to provide the study of the main stages of formation related to industry 4.0. also, main goal is to determine the key indicators of development. important things are to analyze the process of formation of industry 4.0 which is going to be described below. after reading the text you will be able to distinguish the main stages which are: formation of industry 4.0 as a sphere of industry. transition to industry 4.0. preparation of the socio-economic system. as in every system, industry 4.0 has some potential barriers on the path of formation at each of the stages and there must be offered recommendations for overcoming them. people developed and present the system of dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.44-52 46 indicators which are related to monitor the formation of industry 4.0 which basically includes target values of indicators for moving to the next stage of industry. we can conclude also that economic system of today’s world modern economic system is in different stages of the process related to the formation of industry 4.0. today in the world we can see that some developed countries developed the transition of the second stage while other countries who are in transition time have just started the first stage of the process. so, talking about large scale of global economy system, industry 4.0 should be conducted in long term scale. every day our global economy is developing and in certain moment we have different trends. the same situation is with industry 4.0. people think that actual trend in the world is developing industry 4.0 from aspect of the global economy, but that is not a case. this development is related to the future. as it is, that development can stimulate people to achieve strategic goals from which are based in core of the industry. landmark in modern global economy system is development of knowledge of economy. that landmark is provided from tool called industry 4.0. knowledge economy is recognized as the most important and optimal type in today’s economic system. firstly, knowledge economy is very long and complex process. even though people want to improve the system and other things, there is a lot of obstacles on that path. many of them are low effectiveness of the existing tools (some of them are growth vectors). this problem is real and it comes from experience. so, in other to reduce risk component of the process and process information of the knowledge economy and in the same time to increase the effectiveness due to acceleration of the economy rate and economic development, industry 4.0 allows that. industry will diversify these tools in other to help in development. second, industry 4.0 can be viewed from the different angle. it can be viewed as a self-goal. in that manner, it will push the achievements of sustainable socio-economic development. what industry 4.0 provide is reduction of labor. even the intellectual load on modern human will reduce. the things which have exponential growth is production and innovational development of economic system. so, this is one of the research pathways in the industry 4.0. different and better economic system. to achieve this, economic system must be increased by efficiency, also with reduction of resource intensity. the level of real income of population should also be increased. due to this reasons, concept of industry 4.0 is large in term for high scientific and practical significance. so, this can help us to explain studying of some potential problems that may occur, possibilities and perspectives of implementation in the economic practice of today's modern socio-economic systems. the main goal of this research paper is to determine and discuss the main stages in the industry 4.0 and also to show us main key indicators of its development at each of them. industry 4.0 (i4.0), even if very young in revolution, has several main pillars or categories which are very important in the future development of the revolution. also, these main pillars will explain the research pathways inside this revolution. it should be mentioned that i4.0 is still in development; every day practically, so, some things we have but some things we don't have. so, we can say that we are still in revolution. 4. the main pillars in industry 4.0 in the following text i'm going to describe some of the concepts of the i4.0. those concepts are main bases of this industry and some of them are still in progress. those are: 1) big data and analytics. 2) autonomous robots. 3) simulation. 4) horizontal and vertical system integration. 5) the industrial internet of things (iot). 6) the cloud. 7) additive manufacturing. 8) augmented reality (ar). 9) cyber security. 4.1. big data and analytics concept of big data sets is affecting the decision making inside the company using large, diverse and very complex datasets. this can affect the strategy of the company. for example, if company invest in this field, big data means big things. in other words, increasing in level of data will improve the company’s features like competition among other companies, it will increase productivity and most important innovation. big data are giving big projects to company because more opportunities are there. a lot of decision makers are giving big data projects to solve challenges in organizational levels. dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.44-52 47 the big data can be described in several ways: data as a tool, data as an industry, data as a strategy. using framework of the big data as a tool is described as solving traditional values or chain of values problems using existing capabilities. using framework of big data as an industry is actually act of using new developed software for handling big data in the future. last, using framework of big data as a strategy is actually making new data resources by development of new models in business which are innovative. regarding the process of big data analytics is actually to analyze large number of datasets. those datasets will give information about customers; mostly that information will be the trends and preferences. datasets will also contain algorithms in case of some correlations. in sets of algorithms, those can be used also for prediction of reducing error probability [1] or big data analytics can be consisted of algorithms which are predictive they can reduce harm before damage is done [2]. if big data can be manageable, and they can, then people will have advantages out of it. mostly that is going to be competitive advantage to the firms which means they will have benefit in their own operations, customer experience, marketing also and etc. generally, i4.0 is the era of technology. with more technological changes and shifts, more companies will manage mainstream business practices. they will start to increase infrastructure development. we can conclude that big data is pushing companies in more complex aspect of their business. in the today’s world, we can see increase in data that is processed and generated by machines. big data concept takes the very big and important role in i4.0 [3]. 4.2. autonomous robots another important aspect of the industry 4.0 is autonomous production. this type of production is powered by concept called “internet of things” (iot). the idea of this concepts is to have communication between different objects, computers, devices and machines by harnessing with each other. regarding this concept, autonomous robots are the best example. even if in the beginning using robots in industry looked very easy, it was not a case. today, connecting robots to a central server, programmable logic controller or big database can be coordinated and more automated than ever before. robots can complete tasks intelligently with minimal human input which is very important. autonomous mobile robots (amrs) can transport things inside the factory with avoiding obstacles, or coordinate with fleet mates, they can identify where pickups or drop-offs are needed in real time etc. we know that almost in all aspect of the industries robots are used and they will be used in all sorts of every industry and we can’t predict the moment of that change. today we have the system “machine-to-machine” but industry 4.0 is going beyond that scope. some of the components of the facility which are not considered as “machines” can be connected together as well and they can be treated as “machines” like robots. environment in which they are used is called digital ecosystem. with acceleration of industry 4.0, the usage of the robots is also accelerating because industry requires more production, logistics, distribution and all of that can be controlled by human remotely. that remotely control is communication between human and robot. also, during the evolution of the i4.0, some of the new robotics technologies are developed such as kuka lbr iiwa which is doing sensitive tasks and collaborate with people too. robot with this system is able to learn from humans and also to check, optimize and document different tasks by help of different cloud systems [4]. 4.3. simulation simulation is very important in i4.0. it is playing an important role in production in such way that is promoting sustainable manufacturing environment in the company. digital tools are heavily used in order to achieve certain design in the system of production. they have ability of self-configuration which means it can establish effective shop-floor management. inside the competitive business, simulation can offer different adjustments to complex systems in such way that operations are planned. also, simulation offers knowledge and information together with accurate estimations about certain system, which is achieved by using the engineering capacity [5]. even the strategic plan can be done using the simulation models which can help to make dynamic plan for different production systems. in those plans, simulation will do processes in real-time which means simulation is acquired. any system that is using simulation as a help tool can create real time optimization in every operation [6]. dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.44-52 48 4.4. horizontal and vertical system integration there are two different systems inside the factory, horizontal integration and vertical integration. vertical integration is flexible system which is inside the factory. horizontal integration is related to integration of partners which is connected with the scs. network inside the industry is collecting big data with mission to optimize the system and system performance and also to send those data to the cloud. this connection is actually creating the framework of the smart factory. with this system, we are helping the manufacturing system to make self-organization structure and every physical object is connected with other by smart networks. in the other hand, cloud system can integrate multiple vertical partners into each other using the shared platforms which are created. all of the production and processes are tracked by members of sc [7]. 4.5. the industrial internet of things (iiot) internet of things (iot) is actually the next technical revolution in the i4.0. iot is able to give solution for different computations or analytics. those calculations are related to data which are stored in cloud systems. main purpose of the iot is connect the internet by collecting all of the data from physical objects inside the factory. with data collecting, computers or other devices are able to make decision about certain operations [8]. with iot, operations in the business are more agile and also, they are integrated in the same way as achieving competition on the basis of sc is. so, we can conclude that using the iot will be crucial in the future. it will mostly help with agility and very effective decision making in the production and other processes [9]. 4.6. the cloud cloud computing or cc is bringing the different advantages in the ict paradigm. some of them are helping scs to the automatization and integration but also there are advantages related to management and administration. that is the way of virtualizing the resource and it helps to combine the system based on clientserver. cc is including pools of many it resources that offers storage in virtual system. also, it offers processing capabilities in variety of virtual system by serving more than one user. cloud computing has three different models; saas which stands for software as a service. in this computing system access depends on the purchase of the customer. next computing is paas which stands for platform of the service in which customers are allowed to have access to their application on the cloud (software developers mostly). last subgroup is iaas which stands for infrastructure as a service. in this computing system, customers are offered some basic activities. one of them is storing capability. one of the best examples of cloud system today is actually google drive provided by google. other examples are windows azur provided by microsoft or bluecloud created by ibm company [10]. 4.7. additive manufacturing this field of i4.0 called additive manufacturing is also defined as 3d modelling or printing. 3d printing is used for producing goods with different requirements provided by customers. 3d printing is very popular today because it can save a lot of time by producing limited batches or limited edition of products which means that other machines will have less stock on their process of production. many companies today are using 3d printing to reduce the weight of the airplanes. other materials used in this industry are titanium and other metals. one of the leading companies who are investing in 3d printing technology are apple, google and motorola. main reason of that investment is to continuous smart phone production. in 3d printing, some processes as machining and milling are completed in stages; layer by layer. that means 3d printing is making a lot of products using less resources [11]. 4.8. augmented reality (ar) augmented reality (ar) is actually technology which is used for interaction that helps to establish harmony between virtual world and users. in the same time, that virtual world is used as part of the real surroundings. one of the examples of this technology are google glass reality glasses. other example is magic leap created in 2011. magic leap has ability to adjust to the human eye by converting light field angle and depth [12]. technology like this is increasing the communication between human and the machine. things like remoting control and visual inspection of the humans are provided virtually too using ar. if computer generated graphics and physical object are combined, it can be used in many different applications. ar is using sensors mostly in order to give users motion control on the certain tasks. dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.44-52 49 4.9. cyber security one of the issues in the i4.0 is cyber security. with development of technology and together with implementation in our lives, cyber security can have very bad and destructive impact on the business, business environment, for example terrorist attacks. so, with development of the i4.0, people have to have some solutions or defense systems which are necessary. in this industry people can use some previous terrorist attacks and use that bad experience in order to protect people from future attacks. even if costs of preventing the cyber war will cost the companies a lot of money, in the end, total cost is not to high if we take into account potential negative effects of the cyber war or attacks [13]. table 1 is representation of the summary of the concepts that explain the vision of the future in industry 4.0. table 1. future of industry 4.0. 5. six countries leading in the fourth industrial revolution industry 4.0 is slowly taking place in the world. even if 21st century is era of technology, not all countries all capable to take i4.0 as a new friend. only strongly developed country can take leader place in this industry. today in the world we have 8 of them, those are:  canada  japan  germany  australia  austria  switzerland  usa  china i will shortly explain all of these examples. these 6 countries are taken from the research in 2019. dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.44-52 50 1) canada today, canada is 1st country in innovation in technology. that innovative technology includes anything starting from blockchain to ai all the way to the complete digitalization. government of canada even trying to blockchain their own communication system. even though canada is taking very high place in implementation of industry 4.0, they don’t stop to “research” this field. they have a lot of opportunities for investment and another innovation in the industry 4.0 and new business. in the list of wef’s drivers of production, canada ranks a reasonable 33rd place with the current structure of production in the country. also, canada is taking 7th place as a driver of production in the list. some people predict that canada can pioneer the state of production in world if they take that journey slowly with a lot of time and preparation. 2) japan another leading country on the wef's list is japan. japan has very strong structure of production today which is interesting even if japan doesn't have so much natural resources. among developed countries, japan is very strong player, especially in manufacturing and production (cars, robots, dig. equipment). as we know, everything in the nature has balance. same situation with japan. even if they are very good player for i4.0, they have another problem related to social challenge increasing in ageing of population. but new industry can provide good solution to japan. solution is called “society 5.0” which is actually trying to help and solve some problems created with implementation of industry 4.0 technology. society 5.0 is like older brother to industry 4.0. japan is building ideas which are based on idea of “monozuri”. that idea is related to work ethic in japan and also skills in the manufacturing process. 3) germany japan has its own list of leading countries in implementation of i4.0. on that list, first place is taken by germany. germany even has its own plan and strategy for industry 4.0. some of those strategies are (in first place) workers, promoting of digitalization, smes, businesses and globality. germany has variety of products like ai, blockchain, automation and iiot and they are trying to bring aspect of i4.0 to those fields. they created “platform indsutrie 4.0”, which is moderator of societal and technological exchange. 4) australia australia is not well positioned as one of the leading countries regarding the implementation of i4.0 (current rank is 61st place) but australia has great potential. on the list “driver of production “, australia is taking 12th place. australia’s gdp related to manufacturing sector is very low. it is less than 7% which is very low. even if australia has great potential, right now, manufacturing is on very low level. but some countries recognize that australia can be very good, so they signed an agreement with germany. that agreement is based on collaboration between those two countries in aspect of implementing the 4.0 technologies. 5) austria austria is another country in the europe that is very strong in production. they have very similar plan of production and implementation as germany, with platform industry 4.0 established in 2014. one of the main reasons why austria is so good is that they are “forcing” interplay between different industries. that strategy showed promising because results is joining the strategies together with scalability and transferability. austria is setting mostly on sustainable resources and human capital and country if taking benefits from current state of production and i4.0, also from very good production future and implementation of i4.0. 6) switzerland switzerland is the third country in the europe with good implementation of industry 4.0. this country has good position with current and especially future state of production. on the wef’s list, position is 4th for structure and 3rd as a driver. switzerland also hosts the headquarters of the forum called world economic forum which is held in geneva. together with the germany, switzerland was very good in resisting economic downturn owe the last years, which is not the situation with some other countries. this country is also pioneer in industry 2025 which is planning to unite the companies together in i4.0. 7) usa in year 2014, industrial internet consortium (iic) was founded. on that consortium, more than 100 companies participated. one of them are ibm, intel, general electric, at&t, cisco… the purpose of the dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.44-52 51 meeting was to discuss and work on the technology of production in the future. again, germany took place here with participation of two companies siemens and bosch. if you check the list, you will see that a lot of it companies are included so the main focus there was talking about iot together with the interconnection of future factories. the industrial internet consortium (iic) is almost the same as policy of industry 4.0. the goal is to have more efficient production, some important processes should be optimized. also, idea is to have higher availability for the machines. the last important topic was to have high level of individualized production in the production system. 8) china according to china and their government, they are planning to build the new system of production. that system is based on the omnipresent information and communication system. they made plan called “advanced manufacturing technology roadmap”. that roadmap has each step written down until 2050. also, plan includes milestones for 2020 and 2030. main goal of china’s industry is to get less dependent on the products which are imported. also, they plan to help different technologies which are related for the production. one of those production systems is automotive sector. “advances manufacturing equipment” is another plan with the highest priority and it has strategy of five-year 6. conclusions with new century we have new revolution which is industry 4.0. that industry is helping companies to create smarter products together with services in such way that companies will reduce costs and they will increase efficiency. in that operation, human factor is crucial for the application. one of the benefits of the industry 4.0 is the smart factory that makes a solution. that is leading to the automated procedures. also, it is leading to the uncomplicated setup including simple installation and sometimes very high rate of scalability. all of this feature will help companies in the manufacturing process and further optimization their own processes. in the end, it will boost up their efficiency from the aspect of manufacturing. with digitalization of major industries, almost 5 million workplaces can be lost by 2020. in the same time, it will stop really fast the market demand for product which are produced using outdated technologies. because of that, such production would be shut down because of higher costs and inefficiency in the first place. at the end of the paper, i present an interesting quote: “the factory of the future will have two employees: a human and a dog. the task of the human will be to feed the dog. the dog will have the task to dissuade the human to touch the automated systems.” (warren g. bennis) references [1] w. ji, l. wang, “big data analytics-based fault prediction for shop floor scheduling. journal of manufacturing systems”, vol. 43, pp. 187–194, 2017. [2] p. seele, “predictive sustainability control: a review assessing the potential to transfer big data driven “predictive policing” to corporate sustainability management”, journal of cleaner production, vol. 153, pp. 673–686, 2017. [3] s. yin, o. kaynak, “big data for modern industry: challenges and trends [point of view]”. proceedings of the ieee, vol. 103(2), pp. 143–146, 2015. [4] m. aiman et al., “industry 4.0: a review on industrial automation and robotic”, jurnal teknologi (sciences & engineering), vol. 78, pp. 137-143, 2016. [5] s. weyer et al., “future modeling and simulation of cps-based factories: an example from the automotive industry”, ifac-papersonline, vol. 49(31), pp. 97–102, 2016. [6] t. h. uhlemann et al., “the digital twin: realizing the cyber-physical production system for industry 4.0”. procedia cirp, vol. 61, pp. 335–340, 2017. [7] s. wang et al., “towards smart factory for industry 4.0: a self-organized multi-agent system with big data based feedback and coordination”, computer networks, vol. 101, pp. 158–168, 2016. [8] h. rahman, r. rahmani, “enabling distributed intelligence assisted future internet of things controller (fitc)”, applied computing and informatics, vol. 14, issue 1, pp. 73-87, 2018. [9] p. akhtar et al., “the internet of things, dynamic data and information processing capabilities, and operational agility”, technological forecasting and social change, vol. 136, pp. 307-316, 2017. [10] k. candel haug et al., “cloud adaptiveness within industry sectors – measurement and observations”, telecommunications policy, vol. 40(4), pp.291–306, 2016. dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.44-52 52 [11] w. e. frazier, “metal additive manufacturing: a review”, journal of materials engineering and performance, vol. 23(6), pp. 1917–1928, 2014. [12] z. he et al., “research on human-computer interaction technology of wearable devices such as augmented reality supporting grid work”, procedia computer science, vol. 107, pp. 170–175, 2017. [13] h. s. cho, t. h. woo, “cyber security in nuclear industry – analytic study from the terror incident in nuclear power plants (npps)”, annals of nuclear energy, vol. 99, pp. 47–53, 2017. microsoft word 86-95_173.docx defense and vol. 2, may 2 https://doi.org this work is lice to share and ada authorship and in review kerim krnj 1mechanical en *correspond © the auth 2021. published by arda. 1. introdu there are m when devel reduced sens high-energy fuels and ex exploitation energetic pr increased pe the other i application i the formulat d security s 2021, pp.86-95 g/10.37868/ds ensed under a cre apt the material nitial publication of mode jić1 ngineering facu ding author: kr hor y uction any factors t loping these sitivity, whil materials du xplosives for n of structur roperties from erformance, r important pr in propellant tion, less tox studies 5 ss.v 2.id173 eative commons for any purpose in this journal. ern milit ulty, university rnjickerim15 abstract in the last several fac 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with mal stability terial for it ngredients in are compared 1 e s. d g s, s. e h y. s n d dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.86-95 87 with the properties of known benchmark energetic materials which are currently in use in propellant or explosive formulations. high energy materials research area received less attention from the energetic materials scientists in the past. this may be attributed to the risks and hazards associated with the research investigations. there has been progress in the synthesis and development of new energetic compounds in recent years. the other category of nitro compounds emerging as key ingredients for propellant and explosive formulations are tetrazoles, triazines, tetrazines, compounds of metallic salts of hydrazines, carbohydrazines and polymeric binders containing azo, nitro-, nitroxygroups in the backbones. new requirements such as reduction of the vulnerability of combat platforms, stealth characteristics, and increased demand to achieve higher energetics in terms of specific impulse and performance coupled with environmental issues have forced the researchers to produce novel energetic materials. to develop a new energetic material, it is essential to consider the factors such as indigenous availability of starting materials, ease of its preparation, purity of energetic material and its cost effectiveness. one of the approaches used to synthesize insensitive explosives is basically in the maximum possible percentage of nitrogen in energy materials[1]. a brief overview of certain low-sensitivity energy substances is given. a small number of the presented compounds are already in commercial application, and most are in the research phase. some of the most interesting new energetic materials are: tatb, fox-7, fox-12, tex, nto, rs-rdx, anta, daaf. 1.1. tatb tatb is a secondary high explosive, slightly weaker than rdx but stronger than tnt. it is extremely insensitive to shock, vibration, fire or shock. the possibility of accidental detonation is very small, even under severe conditions, so this explosive can be used for applications that require extreme safety, such as explosives in nuclear weapons where accidental detonation would pose an extreme danger. all british nuclear warheads use tatb-based explosives in their primary phase. some explosive formulations based on hmx, tatb and kel-f were characterized for density, vod (velocity of detonation), initiation sensitivity, ignition temperature and other explosive properties. at a density of 1.80 g/cm3, the tatb has a detonation velocity of 7350 m/s. it decomposes without melting at 350 °c, and is stable at temperatures up to 250 °c even over a long period of time. pure tatb has a light yellow color and is insoluble in most solvents [2]. 1.2. fox-7 fox-7 or dadne is a candidate for use as an insensitive explosive. this molecule has attracted attention due to its insensitivity to external impulses and its performance comparable to rdx and hmx, while its sensitivity to shock and friction is much lower than that of rdx and other nitramines. there are three different pathways of fox-7 synthesis beeing developed, all involving nitration of the heterocyclic compound followed by hydrolysis to give fox-7. nitration is performed with mixed acid (sulfuric or nitric acid) at low temperature (<30 °c), and hydrolysis can be performed by isolating the intermediate and hydrolyzing with aqueous ammonia or by adding an acidic mixture of the nitrated intermediate with water[2]. some properties of fox-7 compared to the properties of rdx are given further in table 1. table 1.shows that the fox-7 is much less sensitive to shock and shock than the rdx, and is very insensitive to friction. the detonation properties are comparable to rdx. because of all of the above, the fox-7 can be considered an attractive alternative to the rdx. table 1. properties of fox-7 (calculations with cheetah 1.40) and comparison with rdx[2] property fox-7 rdx bam impact sensitivity (nm) >15 7.4 petri friction sensitivity (n) >200 120 deflagration temperature (oc) >240 230 density (g/cm3) 1.885 1.816 formation energy (calculated)(kj/mol) -118.9 92.6 detonation velocity (calculated)(m/s) 9040 8930 detonation pressure (gpa) 36.04 35.64 dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.86-95 88 1.3. fox-12 (gudn) energy dinitramides are high-energy materials that can be used for the purposes of synthesizing lowsensitivity ammunition. n-guanylurea dinitramide (gudn or fox-12) is a stable salt of dinitramidic acid that has good thermal stability and low solubility in water, has good resistance to mechanical shocks and as such is used in the application of insensitive energy materials [3]. its thermal stability is comparable to rdx and superior to ammonium dinitramide (adn). fox 12 can be used for casting as with lova (low vulnerable ammunition) fuels. in addition to the advantages of low sensitivity fox-12 burns at low temperatures, important in automatic rifles due to the erosion of barrels. the effect of fox-12 was assessed by thermochemical calculations. these calculations were based on density (ρ = 1.7545 g /cm3) and heat of formation (δhf = -355.64 kj/mol) . the results are shown in table 2. the density, detonation velocity, and detonation pressure for fox 12 are between the density values of tnt and rdx. replacing rdx with fox 12 in the rdx / tnt 60/40 composition causes a decrease in density and a consequent decrease in detonation velocity and pressure[3]. table 2. calculated characteristics [4] explosive density (g/cm3) detonation velocity (m/s) detonation pressure (gpa) fox-12 1.75 8210 25.7 tnt 1.65 6900 19.6 rdx 1.81 8940 34.7 fox-12/tnt (60/40) 1.61 7650 23.3 rdx/tnt (60/40) 1.74 8050 28.1 1.4. tex tex is a derivative of the powerful and very sensitive cl-20 explosive. unlike the cl-20, the tex is insensitive to friction, has low impact sensitivity and has a low impact sensitivity and a large critical diameter, which makes it an interesting explosive charge for insensitive ammunition. tex has a crystal density of 1.99 g/cm3, the highest density of all nitramine explosives. the high density is due to its isovurtzitan structure, which has a tightly packed crystal lattice, and nitro groups occupy the free space between the cages. tex is a very energetic material (due to the tense structure of the cage) that has a good combination of high detonation velocity with low sensitivity to mechanical stimuli and good thermal stability. the insensitive nature of tex suggests that it could be a suitable alternative to tatb, nto and rdx high performance explosives [5]. 1.5. nto nto is an insensitive highly explosive material, a potential substitute for rdx in explosive formulations. although its performance is slightly lower than that of rdx, nto is more thermally stable and less sensitive to external influences. nto has performance levels close to rdx levels and its insensitivity is comparable to tatb. its thermal stability is also high and it decomposes exothermically to about 272 °c. the pressure in nto and cast explosives show superior mechanical and thermal properties and are insensitive[6]. 1.6. rss-rdx rdx is sensitive to mechanical stimuli such as shock and friction. in recent years, it has been dedicated to the development of rdx in another form, with reduced shock sensitivity rdx (rss-rdx) or insensitive rdx (insensitive rdx or i-rdx). when this explosive is incorporated into a molded polymer explosive pbx-109, it can reduce impact sensitivity [7]. it is important to note that i-rdx and conventional rdx do not differ in chemical, physical, and safety characteristics, and even raw impact sensitivity tests. i-rdx and conventional rdx can be produced in the same particle size distribution ranges. differences between i-rdx and dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.86-95 89 conventional rdx are visible in the impact sensitivity characteristics of cast pbx compositions. it was also observed that the use of i-rdx does not change any properties of pbx (such as aging, reaction to thermal stimuli, etc.), but only the properties of sensitivity to shock [8]. 1.7. anta and daaf anta is an amino-nitro-heterocyclic compound used in the use of im due to the high heat of formation. it can also be said that the insensitive energy material with a density of 1.81 g/cm3, 228 °c melting point, 225.2 kj/mol heat of formation and performance is slightly lower than tatb [6]. daaf is also an insensitive explosive that has good resistance to mechanical stimuli and characteristics similar to those of tatb. with its characteristics such as density 1.747 g/cm3, heat of formation 443.5 kj/mol, impact sensitivity h50%>320 makes it suitable for use in boosters [9]. 2. technical requirements for im (insensitive munitions) in fact, the potential to develop energetic materials with im properties is not limited to new materials. the sensitivity of well-established energetic materials can be reduced through various material improvements, such as better crystal quality, reducing crystal or molecular defects, eliminating voids, chemical impurities or the existence of multiple phases. properties that are advantageous for im systems include the following [10]: high decomposition temperature; low impact and friction sensitivity; no phase transitions when the substance is subjected to rapid volume expansion or contraction; no autocatalytic decomposition; spherical crystal morphology; good adhesion of the binder matrix; no voids brought about by solvent or gas bubbles; phase purity. performance characteristics and im properties of various materials are given in table 3. table 3. performance characteristics of explosive components and example formulations [11] properties rs-rdx fox-7 gudn nto tex daaf tatb decomposition temperature (oc) 238,8 260 217 272 >250 249 >350 melting point (oc) 206 254 no 270 299 255 330 oxygen balance (%) -21.6 -21.6 -19.1 -24.6 -42.7 -22.64 -55.8 detonation pressure (gpa) 34.1 33.7 25.7 349 365 306 300 velocity of detonation (m/s) 8750 9090 8210 8500 8560 7930 8100 impact senisivity (cm) 39 126 >49 87 170 >320 170 friction sensivity (n) 160 360 >335 360 490 >360 >360 ∆hf-heat of formation (kj/mol) 16 -133.9 -355 -129.4 -445.6 +443.35 -140 density (g/cm3) 1.82 1.87 1.75 1.93 1.99 1.74 1.93 3. tests and standards for insensitive ammunition the primary purpose of im testing is to determine the response of ammunition to unplanned stimuli when tested under certain conditions. this information is then used to determine compliance with national im policies. system security testing conducted 50 years ago in the united states has become the foundation of today’s im testing standards. in 1964, the us navy established a safety directive for the wr-50 system for registering warhead vulnerabilities and certain security features [12]. this included a fast and slow cook-off test and a reaction to a projectile impact. following the establishment of the im program in the united states, requirements for im tests were also introduced. requests for testing also followed in the international community through the nato program. nato established im principles and technical requirements in 1995, and in 2003 the usa incorporated nato technical requirements into mil-std-2105c [13]. the test requirements are defined via individual stanags. the number of tests and testing practices varies from country to country, but most im testing programs are based on nato stanag 4439 edition 2 (policy for introduction and assessment of insensitive ammunition (im)) and aop-39 (guidance on the assessment and development of insensitive munitions (im)) edition 2 [14]. for each of the six tests defined in aop-39, there dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.86-95 90 is a standard test designed to classify ammunition based on the type of response. those six tests and their performance are [15] : 1. slow cook-off – this requirement specifies a slow warming test that may result from a fire in an adjacent magazine, premises, or vehicle. these types of incidents require exposure to a gradually increasing thermal environment at a rate of 3.3 °c/h. 2. fast cook-off – the requirement to investigate the danger of rapid warming comes from a liquid fuel fire, such as burning aviation fuel on a flight deck or burning diesel fuel from a truck as a result of a car accident. therefore, these types of incidents require the test sample to be exposed to heat fluxes in a burning flame of a burning fuel. 3. sympathetic detonation − the purpose of this test is to subject one or more packages of ammunition to the effects of the worst case scenario, is to detonate an identical package of ammunition under conditions that are most likely to result in a sympathetic reaction. the purpose is to determine the sympathetic response of ammunition sensitivity and ultimately to provide information on the effectiveness of the safety barriers used to separate a single, packaged, or multiple ammunition package. 4. multiple bullet impact − this requirement describes the examination of the danger of ammunition strikes from small arms during terrorist or combat events. the aim of this test is to provide a standard test procedure for assessing the reaction of ammunition to the impact of a triple burst of m2 machine gun, caliber 12.7 mm, ap ammunition (armor-piercing). 5. multiple fragment impact – the request for testing comes from combat or terrorist events that use artillery missiles or improvised explosive devices for attacks. to predict the response of ammunition to these types of events, the test sample is subjected to the impact of a calibrated high-speed fragment representing fragments of a bomb or fragments formed from artillery grenades. 6. shaped charge jet impact testing − this test is performed due to possible damage or unwanted reaction of ammunition when using missiles, guided weapons or air bombs. the test is performed by subjecting the ammunition to a direct impact of a cumulative shaped charge jet and monitoring their reaction. it is also preferred that the diameter of the detonation be larger than the diameter of the jet so that the test can be performed. 4. chemical and thermal stability of im 4.1. chemical stability an energetic material may undergo chemical reaction in response to shock, thermal, or chemical insults. in this review, we concentrate on stability to shock excitation. it is often the case, however, that a material’s stability to various forms of loading is highly correlated with one another. energetic materials exist in a higher energy state than their lowest energy decomposition products. thus energetic molecules are often termed metastable. recently, several metastable nitrogen and oxygen compounds have been proposed that contain novel bonding. this has led to recent theoretical studies of hypothetical systems as high-energy density materials (hedm), such as oxygen ring–strained systems (o4 and o8), tetrahedral n4, and cubic n8. the dissociation energy of the weakest bond of an explosive molecule plays an important role in initiation events. however, the correlation between bond strength and impact sensitivity is not general, but is limited within a particular class of molecules. given the complexity of the chemistry of detonation of explosives, it is not surprising that the energy of dissociation of bonds alone is not sufficient to explain the sensitivity of explosives [16]. it can be seen from table 3. that there is some correlation between the dissociation energy of the de bond and the sensitivity of the explosives. nitrobenzene compounds with the highest de values are the least sensitive. the correlation between de and ed could be an important quantity in determining the impact sensitivity of molecules[16]. dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.86-95 91 table 3. bond strength (de) of the weakest bond, energy content (ed, kj/cc), impact sensitivity h50 (cm) [16] material weakest bond de (kj/mol) ed (kj) h50 (cm) tatb c-no2 323 8.6 >320 datb c-no2 312 8.6 >320 tna c-no2 300 8.1 177 tnt c-no2 261 7.7 148 hmx n-no2 179 11.1 32 rdx n-no2 174 10.4 28 tnaz c-no2 167 11.229 29 nto c-no2 284 7.7 >280 tetryl c-no2 120 8.8 37 tnb c-no2 283 8.6 100 edna n-no2 207 9.2 35 hnb c-no2 183 14.3 8,5 dingu n-no2 180 8.5 24 petn o-no2 167 10.5 14 n n-no2 157 10.0 20 from an analysis of the structures of thermally stable explosives, it appears that there are four general approaches to impart thermal stability to explosive molecules [17]:  introduction of amino groups;  condensation with a triazole ring;  salt formation;  introduction of conjugation. 5. detonation performance analyses for recent energetic molecules in order to assess the potential of new high-energy materials, their energy characteristics must be compared with those of modern materials. one of the programs used to predict im performance is jaguar's computer program, which provides accurate estimates for the detonation and performance of an explosive if precise data on its density and heat of formation are known. this post-assessment data is used to compare performance against already known energy materials such as tnt, rdx, hmx and cl-20. the detonation properties of the known compounds obtained by the jaguar model have deviations of about 2-3% compared to the experimental results. the predicted values of the c-j velocities, temperatures, and pressures, gurney velocities at 3 and 7 area expansions, and limiting energies are presented in table 4.[18]. table 4. jaguar predicted detonation properties[18] explosive density (g/cm3) ∆hf (kj/mol) det. velocity (km/s) c-j pressure (gpa) c-j temp. (k) gurney velocity (km/s) boundary energy e0 (kj/cm3) oxygen balance (%) cl-20 2.044 376.6 9.79 45.6 4035 2.88 -13.07 -11 tnaz 1.832 11.8 8.73 35.1 4224 2.77 -11.49 16.7 hmx 1.905 75 9.09 38.7 3514 2.76 -11.38 -21.6 rdx 1.816 70 8.76 34.8 3708 2.73 -10.88 -21.6 tnt 1.654 -63 6.89 19.8 3092 2.20 -7.11 -74 tatb 1.937 -140 8.778 31.8 2393 2.12 -7.78 -55.6 fox-7 1.885 -133.9 8.80 35 2917 2.554 -9.35 -21.6 tex 1.99 -445.6 8.51 32.7 2631 2.26 -8.83 -40.4 daaf 1.747 443.35 8.16 28.2 3155 2.44 -8.23 -52.8 nto 1.93 -129.4 8.64 32.7 2389 2.25 -7.34 -24.6 5.1. c-j and the results comparison model and t daaf value for the initia the analytica of which is g figu figure 2 sho the cylinder density of 1. the analyse low-sensitiv results for m d gurney ve obtained by of the exper the analytica es and their f nto daaf daaf daaf al density of al model of t given in figu ure 1. gurney ows a very sm from the exp .725 g/cm3 [1 s provide in vity explosive most high-ene elocity comp y the jaguar rimental deto al model of formulation w tab explosive f f/rdx/vito f/nto/vito f the fox-7/ the cylinder ure 1. [18]. y velocity ch mall deviatio perimental v 18]. sight into th es. jaguar h ergy material parisions for model from onation and t the cylinder with hmx, r ble 5. nto a wt (% 100 100 on 80/15 on 60/35 /viton (95/5) show a very hange for fo on of the calc alues for the e detonation as proven to ls. 92 r energetic c m table 4. re the gurney v r. table 5 sh rdx, viton and daaf fo %) densit 0 0 1 5/5 5/5 ) mixture, th small deviat ox-7 / viton culated gure e mixture of d n behavior an o be a metho compounds equire some velocity with hows a sligh were taken f formulations[ ty (g/cm3) 1.87 1.86 1.83 1.80 1.685 1.66 1.67 he obtained g tion from the explosive at eny speed wi dnmt/hmx nd performan od that is co dss v accuracy ch h the values ht deviation for experime [18] dexp (km/s) d ( 8.22 8.20 8.09 8.02 7.93 7.76 7.91 gurney veloc e experiment a density of ith jaguar an x formulatio nce of the ne onsistent with vol. 2, may 2 hecking in th obtained fro in the resul ental velociti djaguar (km/s) 8.38 8.31 8.18 8.07 7.93 7.70 7.83 cities with th tal values, th f 1.945 g/cm3 nd the analyti on (49.5/50.5 ew available h experimen 2021, pp.86-95 he form of a m the jagua lts. nto and es [18]. he jaguar and he illustration 3 [18] ical model o 5) at an initia e high-energy ntally derived 5 a ar d d n f al y d figu 5.2. predict predicting th materials. th velocities of namely the t crystal densi  the form  seco form ure 2. gurney ting detonat he density an he results of f several exp thermochem ity [20]: first set of mation and de ond set of da mation and de f y velocity ch tion velocity nd heat of fo f a study of o plosives are mical code an data, the c ensity. ata, the calcu ensity. figure 3. de hange for dn y using chee ormation can one such pred presented us d using the b calculated de ulated detona tonation velo 93 nmt/hmx e etah 1.40 provide insi diction are sh sing two dif bkwc libra etonation ve ation velocity ocities predic explosives at ight into the hown in figu fferent ways ary (backer-k elocity was y was based cted by chee dss v a density of possible per ure 3. [19]. t of using the kistiakowsk based on th on the theor etah 1.40 [20 vol. 2, may 2 f 1.725 g/cm3 rformance of the calculate e cheetah 1 ki) wilson/ch he experime retically pred 0] 2021, pp.86-95 3 [18] f high-energy ed detonation .40 program heetah at ful ental heat o dicted heat o 5 y n m, ll f f dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.86-95 94 6. conclusion no explosive molecule has all the desired properties from a high efficiency and low sensitivity perspective. in a constant effort to optimize desirable properties such as insensitivity to stimuli and shocks (shock, spark and friction), as well as high thermal stability and small critical diameter, various energy materials and material mixtures are constantly researched and developed. the main disadvantages of current conventional explosives such as those based on rdx and hmx are the relatively high impact sensitivity and moderately high handling sensitivity. however, their advantage is small critical diameter and high performance. with materials that are the basis of low-sensitivity ammunition, there is a compromise for lower performance and higher critical diameter, but impact sensitivity is reduced and sensitivity in handling is almost eliminated. insensitive ammunition (im) is defined as ammunition that reliably meets its performance, readiness and operational requirements when needed, but minimizes violent reactions and subsequent collateral damage when exposed to unplanned stimuli. testing is a vital component of any national im program. hazards and threats to high-energy materials are either thermal events or caused by shock and shock. the international community has established requirements for testing and testing the insensitivity of materials, developing six unique tests representing these events. there are two basic documents that provide guidelines for im testing. stanag 4439 (nonsensitive ammunition introduction and assessment policy), lists all stanag tests that provide requirements and provide guidance for individual im tests. additional information can be found in aop-39 (guidelines for the assessment and development of non-sensitive ammunition). this document includes test requirements, test protocols, a list of response descriptions, and an assessment methodology for im coding. thermochemical calculation methods have been developed to predict the properties of new materials. the detonation properties of the known compounds can be calculated with deviations of about 2-3% from the experimental results. in the future, it is expected that a wider range of energy materials will be able to be adapted to specific purposes. many new low-sensitivity energy materials are still in the experimental phase. their production costs are very high, which is currently a limiting factor for their use. therefore, it is necessary to make an effort to make their production profitable. references [1] r. meyer, j. kohler, explosives, 4th revised and extended ed., vch publishers, weinheim, new york, 1993. [2] dilip m. badgujar, mahadev b. talawar, pramod p. mahulikar, high energy materials research laboratory, pune-411021, india 2 school of chemical sciences, north maharashtra university, jalgaon-425001, india. [3] h.östmark, u.bemm, h.bergman,a.langlet, “n-guanylurea-dinitramide: a new energetic material with low sensitivity for propellants and explosives applications”, termochimica acta, 384, 253-259, 2002. [4] h.oestmark, a.helte, t. carlsson, “n-guanylurea-dinitramide (fox-12): a new extremely insensitive energetic material for explosive application”. proceedings of the 13th international detonation symposium, 121-127, 2007. [5] e. koch, “tex-4,10-dinitro-2,6,8,12-tetraoxa-4,10-diazatetracyclo dodecane review of a promising high density insensitive energetic material”. propellants, explosives, pyrotechnics, 40 (3): 374–387, 2015. [6] j. p. agrawalt, physics and chemistry of solids, cavendish laboratory, university of cambridge, cambridge. u.k. dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.86-95 95 [7] p.f. pagoria, a.r. mitchell, r.d. schmidt, r.l. simpson, f. garcia, j. forbes, j. cutting, r. lee, r. swansiger, d.m. hoffman, presented at the insensitive munitions and energetic materials technology symposium, san diego, ca, 1998. [8] a.freche, j.aviles, l. donnio, c.spyckerelle, insensitive rdx (irdx), insensitive munitions and energetic materials symposium technology implementation in the 21st century, san antonio, texas, 2000. [9] t.han, p.pagoria, a.gash, a.maiti, c.orme, a.mitchell, l. fried, “the solubility and recrystallization of 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene in a 3-ethyl-1-methylimidazolium acetate-dmso co-solvent system”. new j. chem., 33, 50, 2009. [10] h.r.bircher, p. mäder, j. mathieu, “properties of cl-20 based high explosives”, in: proc. 29th int. annual conference of ict, karlsruhe, 94, 1994. [11] a.pillai, m.joshi, a.barve, s.velapure, j.karir, “cellulose acetate binderbased lova gun propellant for tank guns”. def. sci. j., 49(2): 141-149., 1995. [12] r. beauregard, ”history of the us navy’s im program”, january 2005. [13] mil-std-2105c: hazard assessment tests for non-nuclear munitions, july 2003. [14] stanag 4439, edition x, “policy for introduction and assessment of insensitive munitions”, november 2018. aop-39, edition 3, “guidance on the assessment and development of insensitive munitions”,march 2010. [15] afanosev, c.; bobolev, u. “initiation of solid explosives by impact”. israel program of scientific translations, jerusalem 1971. [16] l. e. fried, m. r. manaa, p. f. pagoria, r. l. simpson energetic materials center, chemistry and materials science directorate, lawrence livermore national laboratory, p. o. box 808, livermore, california 94551. [17] j. p. agrawalt, physics and chemistry of solids, cavendish laboratory, university of cambridge, cambridge. u.k. [18] https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5044989 [19] l. e.fried, m. r.manaa, p. f.pagora, r. l.simpson, “design and synthesis of energetic materials”. annu rev mater res., 31, 291-321, 2001 [20] l. e. fried, p. c. souers, “bkwc: an empirical bkw parametrization based on cylinder test data”, propellants, explosives, pyrotechnics, 21,215–23, 1996. microsoft word balci ver 3 issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 4, 2023, pp.65-74 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v4.id241 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 65 yesterday, today, tomorrow; environmental refugees ibrahim yenigun 1, vildan balci 2*, abdullah yenigun 3, sinan uyanik 4 1 department of architecture, harran university, turkey 2*,3 environmental engineering department, harran university, turkey 4 department of environmental engineering, bursa technical university, turkey *corresponding author e-mail: vildanbalci90@gmail.com received jul. 15, 2023 revised aug. 5, 2023 accepted aug. 8, 2023 abstract migrations, which are as old as the history of mankind, have taken place for many reasons and have increased with the addition of new ones. although wars and economic concerns are among the main causes, environmental problems have been one of the reasons that should be accepted in today's world. environmental problems that threaten the lives of all living beings, especially human beings, pose numerous risks. moreover, these risks have reached unlimited and global dimensions. one of these risks is the forced migration of people due to various environmental problems, especially climate change. those who have experienced this migration are defined as "environmental refugees", and they occupy an important place in recent literature. while many of the problems associated with the millions of migrants are still unresolved today, the fact that environmental refugees are being added with increasing momentum clearly demonstrates the importance of including this issue in research agendas. it is also a fact that migration poses serious problems not only for the migrants who are its subjects, but also for the countries of emigration. the importance of the subject from both sides and the fact that it is pregnant with many problems, which can be seen with the domino effect, made it necessary to study the subject in detail. based on these considerations, in the study; the history of environmental refugees, its causes, problems, environmental refugees mobility in recent years, possible future scenarios, socio-social-economic dimensions are discussed, evaluation and solutions are given. © the author 2023. published by arda. keywords: environment; refugee; migration; risk 1. introduction migration is a phenomenon that has caused almost every society to leave the regions in which they live, either voluntarily or compulsorily, for various reasons, since the existence of mankind. although wars, internal conflicts and economic concerns are among the most important possible causes of migration today, "environmental problems", which have increased in recent years, have taken their place among the most important triggering factors that influence the course of migration and make life difficult [1,2]. the negative dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.65-74 66 consequences of climate change, which is one of the most important environmental problems that transcends borders and whose main determinant is "human", has increased the migratory events of recent centuries by influencing the emergence of many new problems. societies that are particularly affected by this problem are underdeveloped or developing countries, where economic concerns are growing and risks such as drought, unproductive agricultural land and natural disasters are common. in this context, possible risks in disadvantaged countries, where environmental problems are rapidly accelerating, have forced people to migrate in search of a safer life [3]. in this context, societies that are forced to relocate due to environmental problems of global proportions are referred to in recent literature as "environmental refugees". unfortunately, there is no international legal agreement that recognizes the rights of these people whose natural livelihoods are threatened with extinction and whose only option is to migrate. for the future of the countries on the same ship, it is becoming increasingly important to evaluate and resolve the issue of environmental refugees, which is the focus of conceptual discussions, in all its economic, social and human aspects. because the risks of immigration, which is seen as a last resort, not only cause problems for the immigrants, but also bring problems in many areas such as economic, social, political, educational, health and security to the countries of immigration. in this context, in the study; the history of environmental refugee, its causes, the problems it brings, the mobility experienced in environmental refugees in recent years, possible scenarios that may arise from environmental refugees in the future are discussed, and it aims to draw attention to the importance of the issue by referring to evaluation and solution proposals. 1.1. environmental refugee history environmental problems, which have been increasing in recent years and have gradually turned into a global crisis, have deeply affected the way of life of societies, causing irreparable consequences and bringing the concept of "environmental refugees" on the agenda. although it is included in the literature as a term that has recently gained popularity, it is actually a phenomenon that has been expressed since the beginning of the 1980s [4,5]. this concept, first expressed by lester brown in 1976, was later put on the international agenda by el hinnawi in the 1985 report of the united nations environment program (unep) [6]. the predictions and results expressed in various reports prepared in different national and international platforms over time have been effective in increasing the interest in the concept of environmental refugees. however, despite the increase in the quality and quantity of studies carried out, the point reached is not considered sufficient to solve a series of problems caused by environmental refugees and expected to reach global dimensions. the fact that there is not yet a common agreement on this concept, which is expressed in particular as environmental refugees, has played an active role in increasing the problems. the basis of the reasons leading to this situation is the definition of a refugee in the geneva convention signed in 1951. the conceptual debates on the inclusiveness of the terms used in the convention's definition of refugees lead to environmental refugees being ignored in terms of legal status. according to the definition in question, "a person who, owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his or her nationality and is unable or unwilling to avail himself or herself of the protection of that country, or has no nationality, and, as a result of such events, is outside the country of his or her former residence and is unable or unwilling to return to it owing to such fear. " [7]. as can be seen from the definition, there is no concept that can describe people who are stateless due to difficult ecological conditions such as "environment, climate, nature". this situation results in "environmental refugees" not being able to benefit from their refugee rights, but also causes conceptual crises in international courts [8]. environmental risks caused by climate change, whose slow but dramatic effects are still being debated, continue to force societies to migrate over time. it is expected that climate change, which is considered one of the most important crisis issues of the last century and is on the main agenda of the debates being conducted in all fields with populist discourses, will further aggravate the problems in many economic, social and environmental dimensions. in this context, the fact that the damage to the environment caused by the human factor is becoming more and more visible every day, compared to the past, makes the situation very difficult. the fact that the fear and worrying consequences that have taken place at the dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.65-74 67 ecological level have accelerated since the first day of environmental degradation clearly reveals the importance of the issue [5]. in this context, disadvantaged societies such as africa, which have been the focus of mass migration from the past to the present due to environmental problems and difficult living conditions, are just one example of this situation [9]. the existence of environmental refugees in the past, and the fact that it is one of the main reasons for human mobility, makes it necessary to revisit the issue. ignorance of this situation by national and international authorities hinders efforts to raise awareness of future mass migrations. 1.2. reasons for environmental refugee it is predicted that "environmental refugees", which are one of the consequences of rapidly accelerating environmental problems and are expected to reach global dimensions, may become a large-scale problem that will concern the whole world in the near future. as it will bring a series of problems, it is becoming increasingly important to identify the causes of environmental refugees and take possible measures. however, although it is not easy to draw a clear framework for the causes in the place of humanity, which varies in this direction, basically two reasons can be mentioned, which are important triggering factors. the first is temporary or permanent migration due to natural disasters such as landslides, earthquakes, tsunamis, avalanches, and volcanic eruptions. the second is migration due to slow but long-lasting destruction caused by the "human factor" and the inability to meet even the minimum basic needs that can sustain living conditions due to ecological degradation [6]. macroand micro-level risks related to climate change, which have a global impact and are mostly due to anthropogenic causes, are among the most important reasons for increasing the number of environmental refugees [9]. in today's world, where the consequences of this situation are strongly felt, insecurity in the areas of water, food, health and shelter, which are among the basic needs of life, triggers the phenomenon of migration and drags humanity into existential depression [10]. in this context, as expressed in figure 1.2.1 below, it is inevitable for humanity, which is struggling to survive by nature, to leave its place as a way out. for example, famines caused by drought in societies living in africa, south america and the pacific; agricultural land rendered unproductive by the threat of extinction of island nations due to rising sea levels; floods caused by heavy rains; conflicts arising from fear of resource depletion; insecurity; etc. due to their exposure to risks in different dynamics, forced migrations are experienced. in this context, ecological injustice, which particularly affects disadvantaged countries, forces millions of people to migrate every year due to environmental factors [4,11]. figure 1.2.1. effects and consequences of environmental events [12] dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.65-74 68 assessing the phenomenon of environmental migration together with the push factors that support various migrations, such as economic insufficiencies, social problems, restrictions on access to basic needs, will allow inferences to be made about the causes of environmental refugees with more robust data. for example, the melting of glaciers due to global warming, which is one of the results of climate change, causes sea levels to rise. this situation can lead to many vital problems, especially in island countries, by causing loss of habitable land, increasing the salinity of the soil and making it unproductive, and causing lack of access to healthy drinking water. this problem, which causes a lack of resources, increases social, social and economic conflicts in island countries and paves the way for an increase in migration rates. as can be seen from the effects mentioned here, it is very difficult to determine the first reason that supports migration. however, it can be seen that the most important factor based on all the problems is environmental degradation, and all the causes support each other. in this context, if we look at the regions where migration due to environmental reasons is experienced, it is predicted that it will affect the poor, underdeveloped or developing countries more than the developed countries [13]. because in recent years there have been persecutions, internal conflicts, economic problems of access to food, unproductive agricultural lands, violence, and so on. if we look at the societies that have had to leave their countries because of these events, it is clear that there are justified predictions. according to the 2021 data of the global trends report published by the united nations high commissioner for refugees (unhcr), the countries that give the most refugees are syria, venezuela, afghanistan, south sudan and myanmar. 6.8 million people were displaced from syria, 4.6 million from venezuela, 2.7 million from afghanistan, 2.4 million from south sudan and 1.2 million from myanmar. given the location of these countries, it is possible to evaluate them as the countries where the consequences of environmental degradation are experienced the most. in this context, social and economic problems such as famine, poverty, internal conflicts, violence and persecution in the country become an effective driving factor in the forced displacement of people. for the majority of migrants in the region, the only option is to migrate to neighboring countries where they can meet their basic needs for work, education, health and food. according to the aforementioned report, the countries hosting these refugees are turkey (3.8 million), uganda (1.5 million), pakistan (1.5 million) and germany (1.3 million) [14]. it is seen that most of these countries that receive refugees are underdeveloped or developing countries that experience a lack of resources. the flow of immigrants to these regions increases the displacement within the country by causing various problems such as infrastructure, health, education, food and job opportunities. although it is difficult to enumerate the reasons for the new problems that arise with the snowball effect, the decrease or disappearance of natural resources, which make it difficult to access daily needs, are among the main reasons for environmental refugees. if the developed countries, which continue to implement their competitive ideologies for the sake of modernization at the expense of the destruction of natural resources, continue their actions, it is expected that massive migrations will occur as never before. in this context, it is very important that ethical principles replace the purely consumption-oriented understanding of the developed countries, which play a major role in the causes of environmental refugees. before possible environmental problems reach more terrible dimensions, it is essential to ensure the sustainability of radical decisions at the international level and to implement them. 1.3. problems brought by environmental refugee the degradation of the environment, which is worrying the world day by day and is reaching dimensions that threaten the livelihoods of societies, creates a driving force and causes migration. with these new migrations, it is inevitable that the demographic imbalances in the distribution of the world's population will cause many problems. the possible consequences of climate change, such as the loss of agricultural land in recent years, the rise in sea levels due to melting glaciers, floods, earthquakes and droughts that affect daily life, expose the world to the flow of refugees. environmental refugees, whose numbers are increasing every year and are expected to reach global proportions, cause various social, economic and security problems. if we mention the main problems of the social dimension, it can be said that the cultural ties between the peoples of the region dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.65-74 69 who had to migrate and their own countries are weakened or even broken [13]. this situation, on the other hand, triggers the problem of adaptation experienced as a result of the coming together of societies with different cultures, histories and habits, and may lead to various humanitarian risks, either directly or indirectly, both for the immigrant refugees and for the countries exposed to immigration. these social vulnerabilities, in turn, create political, security and economic problems [15,16]. this situation can lead to more problems, especially in resource-poor island countries. for example, lake chad, which is located between the countries of cameroon, nigeria and chad, has a very important place for the countries of the region. this situation, with its environmental and economic aspects, poses several challenges. one of these difficulties is the immigration from different places to the countries of the region due to the drought problem that causes humanitarian crises. it is inevitable that various risks and problems will rapidly worsen due to the increasing migrations in addition to the current resource scarcity in the region [17]. as mentioned in the example, the migration of countries that are disadvantaged in the distribution of resources can cause economic problems due to food shortages, internal conflicts, socio-cultural reasons, and hinder development goals in the long run [13]. today, with the rapid impacts of climate change, these and similar examples can be multiplied. the migration problem experienced as a result of ecological injustice can also cause people living in migratory areas to turn to cities. unplanned population growth in cities will cause many problems such as food, health, lack of housing, pollution, infrastructure, education, lack of public services, security problems. the impact of this situation will be particularly felt in densely populated coastal cities that are likely to be flooded due to sea level rise. in fact, one of the most important reasons for the avalanche of these problems, as mentioned above, is that the crises experienced by people who have had to leave their historical and cultural habitats because of environmental problems have not had a legal basis. in this context, in the event of a sudden possible wave of migration, the lack of an international legal agreement makes it difficult for underdeveloped or developing countries to protect the values of the current status quo and creates various problems. because refugees, who are not under legal protection, cause an increase in events such as terrorism, crime, theft in the sheltered states, causing development, tourism, economy, employment, etc. it will cause negativities that will hinder the growth of countries in these areas. as can be seen, the problems caused by environmental refugees who have no legal status in different areas are very closely related to the sustainable development goals of countries. in this framework, the steps to be taken and the measures to be taken depending on the international consensus are very important for the correct intervention [15,16]. especially in recent years, many problems have not been fully resolved against the flow of refugees whose effects have been seen concretely due to reasons such as wars and internal conflicts, while the increase in the number of refugees in the environment causes the problems to grow even more. in this context, it is very important to solve the current or future crises instead of covering them up in order to use the limited resources in the world properly [18]. 1.4. environmental refugee mobility in recent years environmental refugee mobility, which is one of the controversial issues of international law, has always maintained its existence as a dynamic process depending on the change and transformation of nature throughout history. the term "environmental refugee mobility" can be used as a concept to study the negative consequences of environmental impacts with its human dimension [13]. especially in today's world, it is predicted that mass environmental refugee mobility will increase due to increasing climate change as a result of anthropogenic environmental degradation. [4]. in this regard, it is inevitable for people who are struggling to survive and seeking a more comfortable life by nature to carry out migration within and outside the country [2]. in particular, the increase in the number of natural disasters is closely related to the environmental refugee movement with short and long-term migrations. it has been observed that the number of natural disasters, which are the cyclical consequences of environmental events on a global scale, has approximately doubled in the last 20 years. due to the negative consequences of nature exposed to human domination and exploitation, which is responsible for this ecologically bad course, it was stated in the records that there were 21.8 million dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.65-74 70 human mobility between 2008 and 2016, according to the estimates due to extreme weather events in the united nations report. in 2017, it was stated that 3.2 million people experienced internal migration in the first nine months of the year due to drought and natural disasters [19]. in south africa, one of the regions most affected by climate change, extreme drought due to insufficient rainfall is forcing people in the region to starve or migrate. in early 2021, the united nations high commissioner for refugees (unhcr) reported that 1 million somalis were displaced due to the region's worsening drought, and more than 7 million people were at risk of starvation due to the drought [20]. another example of human mobility due to the impacts of climate change is that more than 870,000 refugees fleeing persecution in myanmar and seeking refuge in bangladesh have been exposed to natural disasters such as cyclones and floods, which have increased in recent years. the statement also noted that the majority of countries exposed to the risks of climate change host large numbers of refugees [21]. as can be seen from the above-mentioned reports, the consequences of environmental problems, which are among the most important agenda items of the 21st century, are most evident in underdeveloped or developing countries [22]. these risks increase the fragility of these societies, which can provide minimal access to their livelihoods and drag people into an existential crisis. in this context, it has been observed that disadvantaged societies, which are highly vulnerable and have difficulties in adapting to ecological problems, are more likely to act [13]. the yearly increase of the said environmental refugee movement paves the way for unplanned and uncontrolled migrations and greater risks on a global scale. 1.5. possible future scenarios as a result of the anthropogenic effects of modernization and globalization at the expense of the destruction of the planet, environmental degradation, which has accelerated in recent years, is leading the earth to an irreversible end. it is predicted that the countries of the world that will feel its effects more intensely in the future will face mass migrations of millions of people as a result of environmental insecurity, especially from the regions where ecological injustice is experienced. as shown in the graph in figure 1.5.1 below, according to the united nations high commissioner for refugees (unhcr) global trends report, the number of people forcibly displaced due to persecution, conflict, violence, human rights violations or public order disturbances is increasing every year [23]. examining the reports, it was announced that the number of people forcibly displaced in 2021 reached 90 million, despite the kovid-19 epidemic that began in 2020. in 2022, as a result of the wars, the number of refugees is expected to reach 100 million. figure 1.5.1 numbers of forcibly displaced persons indicated in global trends reports by year (prepared using (unhcr) global trends report data.) dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.65-74 71 according to the figures given, it is predicted that these numbers will increase in the coming years due to environmental problems. it is inevitable that the number of environmental refugees will reach millions, especially in the regions where ecological injustice is felt the most. it is undoubtedly the most human right of people struggling to survive in countries where natural events such as droughts, rising sea levels due to melting glaciers, floods and tsunamis, which are among the effects of global warming, are the most human rights. for this reason, the reduction of emissions has a very important place in minimizing these effects of global warming in today's world, where the importance of environmental sustainability against possible mass migration is increasing day by day. if it continues at this rate of increase, it is predicted that the possible future scenario will reach up to +5 0c on a global scale. although this situation includes the possibility of a further rise in sea level of 178 cm, the greenhouse effect is expected to exceed 2 m by 2100 if the melting of glaciers is also taken into account. the increases experienced in this context show that each 1m rise means a sea level rise 100m further from the coast. if these frightening dimensions affect the world in the future, it is expected that countries close to the pacific and indian oceans, which are highly threatened, will be more affected by the situation. thus, one of the inevitable effects will be that there will be a serious movement of human population from these regions, causing the population of the country to be completely relocated [24]. there are various estimates and studies on this topic. for example, figure 1.5.2 presents the possible scenarios for 2050 for the regions of sub-saharan africa, south asia and latin america in terms of people displaced by climate change, which is one of the consequences of environmental degradation. figure 1.5.2. possible environmental migration scenarios in 2050 [19] dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.65-74 72 under the worst-case scenarios, an average of 143 million people from these three regions are expected to become environmental refugees. among these countries, it is estimated that most migration will take place in sub-saharan africa, where the effects of drought will reach tragic proportions in the possible scenario [22]. the international organization for migration supports these scenarios, stating that the number of environmental refugees will reach at least 200 million by 2050 [9]. it is inevitable that the countries causing the increase in these numbers will be underdeveloped countries with high levels of poverty. in this framework, demographic changes bring many risks in infrastructure, food, economic, social and social are among the possible effects [25]. the future scenarios presented in another report, on the other hand, state that in the next 40 years, as a result of environmental degradation, an unprecedented migratory mobility will take place, affecting about 1 billion people. these estimates support the above scenarios. this expected overpopulation once again highlights the importance of environmental sustainability [22]. in this context, one of the most important steps to be taken is to define, on an international basis, the status of environmental refugee mobility, which is seen as the only option, especially in societies that are most affected by the consequences of ecological degradation and do not have sufficient advantages. if this step is taken, it will be possible to minimize the possible problems and risks associated with the mobility of environmental refugees, which is a focus of global concern, by developing the necessary plans and strategies at the international level. the creation of living spaces for people living in island countries where the sea level is rising will not only prevent possible mass migrations, but also prevent the crisis caused by the problems that may arise [9]. 2. results it is obvious that the migrations against various natural events throughout history have gained momentum in recent years. in particular, human intervention in nature has not even allowed the ecological cycle to renew itself, causing the process to be dragged into a global chaos. the developed countries, which play a major role in the deterioration of the atmospheric equilibrium, are almost preparing the end of human history on the planet by accepting that the problems are only regional. however, as the researches carried out in the course of time have shown, the environmental problems are felt on a global scale, but they also bring with them various problems that make human life difficult. in this context, climate change, which is the most noticeable consequence of environmental degradation today, is expected to affect the whole world in the coming decades. the most important indicator of this situation is the number of "environmental refugees", whose numbers are rapidly reaching millions, who are forced to leave their homes as a result of the increase in environmental events such as drought, desertification, flooding, rising sea levels, and the threat of extinction of drinking water resources. due to environmental degradation, people living in existential crisis in their countries are forced to migrate in search of a healthier and more prosperous life. the fact that there is still no consensus on the legal concept of environmental refugees makes the struggle for survival of refugees who have to leave their homes even more difficult. while the problems are growing like an avalanche, the future habitable planet is being pushed to an irreversible threshold. because the lack of legal regulation and the lack of solutions and planning for the future of the planet also affect the emergence of various socio-economic risks for people who are forced to migrate as the only way out as a result of environmental destruction. both the lack of legal regulation and the fact that it contradicts the interests of states at the expense of nature, climate and the destruction of the planet make the solution of the problems even more difficult. in today's world, where ecological injustice is on the rise, the fact that the number of environmental refugees has reached millions in the past and present, and that it will reach the numbers indicated in possible scenarios of future demographic changes, shows that the problem has acquired a global rather than a national character. a proactive approach to solving these problems, the cost of which will be felt especially in poor countries, before they get worse, is a point that should be considered for the existence of a livable world in the future. in this context, it is essential to raise more awareness in order to minimize the environmental degradation caused by anthropogenic effects, which are the basis of the problems and cause ecological injustice, on an dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.65-74 73 international scale. especially for the underdeveloped or developing countries that are exposed to the flow of refugees due to the current wars, it is important to take a separate measure against possible mass migrations that may occur due to environmental reasons. because in a possible new wave of migration, it will be difficult to meet the needs of these countries in areas such as infrastructure, food, water, shelter, education and health, and it will be inevitable that other problems will come to the fore. in particular, the fact that environmental refugees are permanently migrating to more livable countries due to the lack of possibility of losing their homeland and future life increases the importance of the issue. another aspect of the problem is that this situation will lead to factors that will increase interstate tensions due to lack of resources as well as socioeconomic problems in the future. in this context, the support of the developed countries to the countries that receive the environmental refugees will contribute to the prevention of the tensions between the countries. it is very important that they take a more active approach to solving the problem, since the main responsibility for the environmental problems that are currently occurring is the responsibility of the developed countries, which are focused on consumption and growth. however, if we look at the methods used in practice in many developed countries today, we see that most of the expenditures that need to be made to solve the problems are spent on arming the borders or building high walls. this situation is worrying for the future world and is a clear indication that there is not enough awareness of the problem. 3. conclusions it is clear that the mobility of environmental refugees, which has short and long term effects and is a result of ecological degradation mostly due to anthropogenic causes, brings with it a series of problems closely related to immigrants and countries exposed to immigration. in this context, according to the international research reports included in the study, it is estimated that the number of people living in disadvantaged regions, where ecological injustice is experienced, will exceed the limits in the coming decades, according to possible future scenarios, in order to achieve a more reliable life. in this context, the fact that environmental refugees do not have a legally protected status and that the debates on this issue have not been concluded for a long time, it is expected that in the future we will be faced with greater humanitarian crises and the creation of multifaceted dangerous dynamics, and it is necessary to take urgent measures to solve the problem. references [1] a. mutlu, i̇. i̇rdem & b. üre , "ecological refugee", country politics management, vol 10, no 23, pp. 79118, 2015. [online]. available: https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/2952361 [2] o. ziya, "climate refugees in refugee-migrant uncertainty", tbb journal, no 99, pp. 229-239, 2012. [online]. available: http://tbbdergisi.barobirlik.org.tr/m2012-99-1156 [3] s. topgül & o. beytaş, "climate refugees and social work: crisis or opportunity?", community and social work, vol 33, pp. 687-705, 2022. [4] m. s. ilık bilben, " migration debates in the context of anthropogenic climate change", journal of social policy conferences, no 75, pp. 237-268, 2018. [online]. available: https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/610713 [5] m. mutluer, i̇. südaş, an invisible global problem: environmental refugees, ege university publications, i̇zmir, 2013, access date: 19.09.2022, [online]. available: file://arsiviye/upmstore2$/10381168176/downloads/gorunmez_bir_kuresel_sorun_cevre _multec.pdf [6] f. h. yılmaz & m. navruz, "global climate change, climate refugees and security", assam international refereed journal 13th international public administration symposium proceedings special issue, pp. 255-270, september 2019. [online]. available: https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/assam/issue/48907/578164 dss vol. 4, 2023, pp.65-74 74 [7] un general assembly, "convention relating to the status of refugees", access date: 19.09.2022, [online]. available:https://treaties.un.org/doc/treaties/1954/04/19540422%2000-23%20am/ch_v_2p.pdf [8] m. k. akbay, "climate refugees” after the teitiota decision of the united nations human rights committee", dokuz eylül university journal of social sciences, vol 23, no 1, pp. 223-248, 2021, [online]. available: http://dx.doi.org/10.16953/deusosbil.778002 [9] n. tok & r. korkut, "climate refugees in the context of the changing nature of globalization and displacement due to environmental insecurities", academic perspective journal, no 32, pp. 1-16, 2012. [10] i̇.b. kanlı & d. başköy, "migration in the context of globalization and environmental issues: climate refugees", journal of politics, economics and management studies, vol 6, no 3, 2018. [11] ö. öztürk, "climatic migration: its reflections on the world and turkey", master thesis, migration management, turkey and middle east public administration institute, 2018. [12] g. yücel, "legal status of climate refugees in turkey", middle east journal of refugee studies, vol 5, no 2, pp. 43-62, 2020. [online]. available: https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/mejrs/issue/66137/1034887 [13] i̇. akbaş, "climate change and climate refugees: an overview", international social sciences studies journal, vol 4, no 24, pp. 5159-5172, 2018. [14]unhcr, the un refugee agency, access date: 27.09.2022, [online]. available: https://www.unhcr.org/62a9d1494/global-trends-report-2021 [15] k. demirci, "the concept of climate refugee in the framework of international and national legislation and its possible problems in turkey", turkish journal of political science, vol 2, no 2, pp. 93-114, 2019. [16] ö. n. öztürk, "legal view of the concept of climate refugee: evaluation of existing protection tools and solution", tesev evaluation notes, vol 6, 2021, [online]. available: https://www.tesev.org.tr/tr/research/iklim-multeciligi-kavraminin-hukuki-gorunumu-mevcut-korumaaraclarinin-degerlendirilmesi-ve-cozum-onerileri/ [17] f. özerdem & b. barlas, "the new problem of world politics in 2020 and beyond: climate change and climate migrants in the framework of the copenhagen school", journal of the social sciences institute of süleyman demirel university, vol 3,no 41, pp. 273-302, 2021. [18] a. reyhan satır & h. reyhan, "new evaluations on the causes, results and solutions of global warming", memleket political management journal, vol 11, no 26, pp.1-26, 2016. [19]international migration report, united nations, new york, 2017, [online]. available: http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/migrationreport/docs/migratio nreport2017_highlights.pdf [20] m. hujale, "somalis abandon their homes in search of food, water and aid as drought deepens", unhcr the un refugee agency, september 2022. [online]. available: https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/2022/9/633419134/somalis-abandon-homessearch food-water-aid-drought-deepens.html [21] unhcr staff, "data reveals impacts of climate emergency on displacement", april 2021. access date: 27.09.2022, [online]. available: https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/2021/4/60806d124/data-revealsimpacts-climate-emergency-displacement.html [22]m. akalın, "climate refugees", iksad publishing house, 2019, [online]. available: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&authtype=ip,sso&db=nlebk&an=2625521&lang=t r&site=ehost-live [23]unhcr, the un refugee agency, access date: 27.09.2022, [online]. available: https://www.unhcr.org/search?query=global%20trends%20report [24] a. n. balcılar, "borders and climate migration in the context of climate justice", international equality policy journal, vol 2, no 1, 2022. [25] m. demirbilek, "environment, environmental refugees and environmental social work", international journal of social sciences and education research, vol 2, no 3, 2016, [online]. available: http://dergipark.gov.tr/ijsser microsoft word 1-15_63.docx defense and vol. 1, no. 1, https://doi.org this work is lic others to share a authorship and in axial fo ammar tra 1 defense tech *ammar.trak © the auth 2020. published by arda. 1. introdu ammunition projectile bo ammunition the penetrato around the w of an alloy o the compo schematicall 1. pene 2. sabo 3. com 4. prop 5. prim 6. case d security s , december 20 g/10.37868/ds censed under a c and adapt the mat nitial publication rce coeff akić1 hnologies depar kic@hotmail.co hor y uction n based on th ody or sub-p depends on or. a represe world, is ap of tungsten o onents of m lyy in figure etration with ot, mbustible case pellant, mer assembly e base. studies 020, pp.1-15 ss.v1i1.63 creative commo terial for any pur in this journal. fficient o rtment, mechan om abstract armor-pier targets (tan structures, ammunitio stabilized his kinetic the tank an then it is ne the decrea aerodynam trajectory o is possible calculation effective ra will be pr apfsds p 4655 ed.1. convention coefficient model (eng keywords: prodas he use of kin projectile (p the impact v entative of m fsds ammu r depleted ur modern arm e 1: h fin stabilize e, y, and ns attribution l rpose (even comm f apfsd nical engineerin rcing ammun nks), but tar etc. it has on in the w discarding s energy acts nd his crew. ecessary for ase in the vel mic forces. t of the projec e to predict t n, in function ange from th esented for projectile afte . this model nal projectil of an apfs g. computed apfsds, ax etic energy ( enetrator), w velocity of th modern kinet unition (arm ranium [1]. or piercing er, license (https://cr mercially), in any 1 ds proje ng faculty, univ unition is prim rgets can be been show world is the sabot). the on the target since the pr the projectil locity of a pr the most d ctile. by know the impact v n of the dista he aspect of predicting a er discarding l is used to pr les. the se sds projectil d fluid dynam axial force co (ke) penetra which is mad he projectile tic energy am mor piercing fin stabili reativecommons. y medium with an ectile versity of saraj marily used e light armo wn that the apfsds a apfsds pr t, that is, pen ojectile destr le to have the rojectile, dur dominant is wing the axi velocity of t ance of the t f terminal ba axial force ( g sabot. the redict the ax cond model le, which is mics). oefficient, st ates through de of high-d e at the targe mmunition, w fin stabiliz ized discard org/licenses/by/4 n acknowledgem evo; bosnia an to combat a ored vehicles most effect ammunition rojectile flies netrates throu roys target w e high impac ring flight, is the axial f al force (axi the projectile target, and to allistics. in t (the axial fo first model i ial force coe l for predic presented in tanag 4655 targets prima density meta t, the length which is mos ed discardin ding sabot issn origi 4.0/ ) that allows ment of the work's nd herzegovina against heav s, aircraft, w tive type of (armor pie s to the targe ugh armor an with his kinet ct velocity. s mainly infl force due to ial force coef e, by externa o define the this paper tw orce coeffici is defined in efficient for a cting the a n the paper, i 5 ed.1, cfd arily with th al. the effic h, diameter an stly used tod ng sabot), w ammunition n 2744-1741 inal research s s y armored warehouse, f anti-tank ercing fin et and with nd disables tic energy, luenced by o the laid fficient), it al ballistic maximum wo models ent) of an stanag all types of xial force is the cfd d, e energy of a iency of thi nd density o day in armie which is made are shown 1 a s f s e n dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.1-15 2 figure 1. main components of apfsds ammunition [2] during the movement of the apfsds projectile through the barrel of the weapon, the energy of the propellant charge acts on the bottom of the projectile (the penetrator is still connected to the sabot) and drives it. after the projectile comes out of the barrel, due to the difference in resistance and mass of the sabot and penetrator, the sabot separates and the penetrator continues to fly towards the target (figure 2). when moving through the barrel of the cannon, the projectile with the sabot reaches supersonic velocities (up to 5 mach). apfsds projectiles are statically stabilized projectiles. stabilization is provided using aerodynamic surfaceswings. when determining the axial force (axial force coefficient), the projectile body and the wings are observed separately. the sum of these two components of the axial forces on the apfsds projectile gives the total axial force (axial force coefficient) [4]. figure 2. process of discarding sabot from apfsds projectile [3] 2. models for prediction of coefficient of axial force there are many methods for predicting the axial force coefficient of apfsds projectiles, but all of them are based on the application of three general methods: 1. experimental (wind tunnel or polygon), 2. theoretical, and 3. numerical (cfd computational fluid dynamics). dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.1-15 3 experimental methods determine aerodynamic coefficients in an air (aero) tunnel or on the basis of measuring the movement of a projectile in flight (as a material point or a rigid body). this method gives the most realistic values for the axial force coefficient; however, the disadvantages of the tunnel experiment are [5]:  high price,  scaling problems if the model is not life-size,  interference from tunnel walls,  measurement difficulties. assumptions and simplifications are necessary in theoretical methods for the solving problems. this includes simplifying geometry and simplifying equations. equations known as navier-stokes equations, along with the energy equation and the continuity equation, describe the flow of fluid around a body. they are analytically unsolvable in closed form, but can be simplified for specific geometry or flight conditions [5]. numerical methods are new; they have been used since the advent of computers during world war ii. advanced cfd codes numerically solve navier-stokes equations and can show the complete flow field around an object for specific flight conditions. with these methods, problems arise in determining the boundary conditions, because the initial conditions must be defined with great accuracy [5]. in the continuation of this chapter, two models for predicting the axial force coefficient apfsds projectiles will be presented. the first model is presented in the stanag 4655 ed.1 standard. the second model for predicting the axial force coefficient of an apfsds projectile is the numerical model (cfd). the program to be used for the numerical simulation of projectile flow is ansys fluent. the presentation of the models as well as the results of the calculations will be shown below. 2.1. model defined in standard stanag 4655 (ed.1) the standard, stanag 4655, shows an engineering model for prediction of the aerodynamic coefficients of conventional projectiles. the details of the standard are given and are divided into three parts [6]: 1. body aerodynamics 2. fin aerodynamics 3. generalized yaw aerodynamics the axial force of a projectile can be divided into two parts: pressure axial force and viscous (friction) axial force. the complete axial force coefficient cx is finally obtained by summing up the relevant, separately calculated pressure axial force components and the viscous axial force obtained for entire wetted area. the total axial force coefficient of apfsds projectile (without sabot) is [6]: 𝐶 = 𝐶 + 𝐶 (1) where 𝐶 is axial force coefficient of projectile body and 𝐶 is axial force coefficient of fins. 2.1.1. axial force computation methods for projectile body the axial force of a projectile consists of the pressure axial force of the nose, base (including possible tail boom), protruding (driving band, grooves and steps), and of the viscous axial force as a sum of the following form [6]: 𝐶 = 𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 (2) where 𝐶 is axial force coefficient of the nose, 𝐶 is axial force coefficient of the base, 𝐶 is axial force coefficient of the protruding and 𝐶 is viscous axial force coefficient. the axial force coefficient of the nose at supersonic region for a cone is calculated according to the formula (3) giving the pressure coefficient on the nose surface [6]. the second term takes into account the nose shape on drag force (see fig. 3). 𝐶 = 𝐶 = 𝑘 sin 𝜀 + 𝑘 sin 𝜀 (cos 𝜀) ( , , )𝑀 + 𝑅𝑅(1 − 𝑅𝑅) , cos 𝜀 (𝑀 ≥ 1) (3) the coefficient k1 is an average pressure coefficient on a blunt projectile face behind a normal shock wave and the coefficient k2 takes into account the shape of the nose as a function of radius ratio parameter rr [6]. dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.1-15 4 figure 3. variable rr (radius ratio) [6] the coefficient k1 is computed from (4), and the coefficient k2 is computed according to (5). the radius ratio rr in the formulae is an inverse of the ratio of the true radius of curvature and the tangent-ogive radius r’ (formula 6). the nose contour line is to be extended to the projectile center line in case of blunted nose (see figure 3). the extended nose length is used in formula (6). the ratio rr is zero for cones [6]. 𝑘 = 53 − 23 𝑀√ (𝑀 ≥ 1) (4) 𝑘 = 0,9 − 0,9𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑅 (5) 𝑟, = 𝑙,𝑑 + 𝑑4 (6) the axial force coefficient of the base 𝑪𝒙𝒃 is computed from formula (7) [6]: 𝐶 = −𝐶 𝑑𝑑 (7) the pressure coefficient 𝐶 is computed as [6]: 𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑑 𝑥 = 2 when 𝑀𝑎 < 0.9, otherwise 1 (8) the pressure coefficient on the base of a long cylinder 𝐶 is computed at supersonic speeds (1.1 < ma) [6]: 𝐶 = −0,31𝑒 , (9) viscous axial force coefficient 𝑪𝒙𝒇 is calculated by formula [6]: 𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑆 𝑆 (10) where 𝐶 is average friction coefficient (11 or 12) for a smooth flat, 𝑆 is computed wetted surface area and s is reference area . the turbulent boundary-layer friction coefficient 𝐶 is computed by equation [6]: 𝐶 = 0,455(log 𝑅𝑒) , (1 + 0,21𝑀 ) , (11) where 𝑅𝑒 is reynolds number , 𝑙 is projectile/nose length and 𝑣 is kinematic viscosity. the laminar boundary-layer friction coefficient 𝐶 is computed by equation [6]: 𝐶 = 1,328√𝑅𝑒 (1 + 0,21𝑀 ) , (12) dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.1-15 5 the kinematic viscosity 𝑣 is computed from [6]: 𝑣 = 𝜇𝜌 (13) the air density ρ is computed according to icao standard atmosphere. the dynamic viscosity μ is obtained from the sutherland formula [6]: 𝜇 = 𝐶 𝑇 ,𝑇 + 𝐶 (14) where 𝐶 = 1,458𝑒 / , 𝐶 = 110,4 𝐾 and t is air temperature, obtained from icao atmosphere model. the axial force coefficient of protruding 𝑪𝒙𝒑𝒓 is computed by estimating the forward and backward facing surface pressure drag separately [6]: 𝐶 = 𝐶 + ∆𝐶 (15) the pressure coefficient sum (of the backward and forward facing parts) 𝐶 will change linearly between the sum and 0 when the ratio e/h (width/depth of groove) goes from 7 to 0 [6]. 𝐶 = 𝑒7ℎ 𝐶 𝑒ℎ < 7 (16) the formulae for the pressure coefficients at velocities above speed of sound are [6]: 𝐶 = (−0,067(𝑀 − 1) + 0,4) sin 𝜗 (17) 𝐶 = −0,65𝑀 , (18) where 𝜗 is angle of grove profile. certain types of finned projectiles have a relatively large groove pattern on the surface of the cylindrical part of body. these grooves are needed at the internal ballistic phase and after launch, the grooves cause an unfavorable flow retarding effect. the axial force coefficient of excessive amount of grooves (see figure 4) is computed in from formula [6]: ∆𝐶 = 1,6 𝑙𝑙 𝐶 (𝐶 − 1) (19) the coefficient 𝐶 is the viscous drag coefficient (equation 10) of body cylinder part and the coefficient 𝐶 is used to take into account the groove depth on drag. the coefficient is the surface area ratio of grooved cylinder length to that of same length cylinder without grooves; the incremental drag will be zero in case the surface coefficient 𝐶 is 1 [6]. figure 4. groove pattern area on the surface of the cylindrical part of body [6] a 2.1.2. axia the axial for reynolds nu the projectile the axial for (𝐶 ), ax as a sum of t the wave d according to where: k is area (see fig figu the formula ˄lefin , wher expression [ the drag coe figure 7. e axial force reference are al force com rce coefficie umber is intr e cylindrical rce coefficie xial force co the following𝐶 drag at supe o the formula shape correc g. 6), 𝑛 is ure 5. airfoi a (21) is app re ˄lefi is sw 6]: efficient valu exposed win coefficient o ea (s) and fin mputation m ent of fins (𝐶 roduced via s l part. ent of fins co efficient of t g form [6]: = 𝐶 ersonic spee a (21) [6]: 𝐶 ction factor ( number of fi l shape corre plied when m weep angle of ue is taken to ng geometry of leading ed n dimensions ethods for p ) is comp skin friction nsists of the trailing edge + 𝐶 eds for fins = 𝑛 (see fig. 5), fins. ection factor mle ≥ 1 (mac f fin leading 𝜇 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖 o be constant without bod dge is obtaine s (fig. 8) into 6 projectile fin puted in the . the referen wave drag ( e (𝐶 ) a + 𝐶 with sharp 𝐾𝑀 𝑡𝑐 𝑆𝑆 is average k [6] ch number n g edge (see f 𝑖𝑛 1𝑀 t down to fre dy [6] fig [6] ed by multip o account [6 dss ns function of m nce area is a (𝐶 ), a and viscous + 𝐶 leading/taili fin thicknes f normal to lea fig. 7). the m ee-stream ma . 8. schemat plying 𝐶 by ]: s vol. 1, no. mach numbe a circle area b axial force co force coeffic ing edges (s s ratio, s is r figure 6. pro ading edge). mach angle ach number 1 ic of fin blun the number 1, december er, but also so based on the oefficient of cient of fins see fig. 5) reference are ojected area o mle is supe μ is then co 1 if μ  ˄lefin nt leading ed of fins (𝑛 2020, pp.1-15 ome effect o e diameter o leading edge (𝐶 ) (20) is calculated (21) ea, 𝑆 is fin of fins [6] ersonic if μ ˃ mputed from (22) n [6]. dge geometry ), taking the 5 f f e ) d n ˃ m y e a the blunt lea parameter 𝐶 axial force reference are the average formula [6]: viscous forc case 𝑆 consider to b the turbulen where: 𝑅𝑒 ̅ i 2.2. cfd-m numerical s because they experimenta computation geometricall the main d physical / m in the genera  prob mod ading edge a 𝐶 is estimate coefficient o ea (s) and fin e pressure co ce coefficien is the wette be turbulent nt skin frictio is reynolds n model (comp simulation m y compleme al approach, nal approach ly complex) disadvantage mathematical al case, a num blem identif deling option 𝐶 average press ed by utilizin of trailing ed n dimensions𝐶 figure 9. s oefficient on nt of fins is c ed surface are [6]. 𝐶 on coefficien𝐶 = (lo number ,̅ puted fluid methods, usin ent experime most of the h, most of th and later ana of the com model [7]. merical comp fication invo ns, which ph = 𝐶 𝑡 sure coefficie𝐶 = cos ˄ ng formula [6𝐶 = dge is obtain s (fig. 9) into= 𝐶 𝑡 schematic of a fin blunt 𝐶 = −0,65 calculated by ea of fins, in 𝐶 = nt 𝐶 is comp0,455og 𝑅𝑒 ̅) , (1 , 𝑐̅ is mean a dynamics) ng computed ental and an e time is spe he time is s alyzing the re mputer appro putational si olves defini hysical mod 7 𝑡 𝑏𝑆 𝑛 ent 𝐶 is esti˄ 𝐶 6]: 𝑘1 ned by multi o account [6𝑡 𝑏𝑆 𝑛 f fin blunt tra trailing edge 5 𝑀 , y same formu nstead of the 𝐶 𝑆 𝑆 puted by form1 + 0,21𝑀 ) aerodynamic d fluid dynam nalytical mod ent designing spent on gen esults. oach is limit imulation con ing the obje dels will be dss imated by uti iplying it by ]: ailing edge ge e is compute ulae (10) as wetted surfa mula [6]: ) , c chord (see mics, are an dels, reducin g the experi nerating a g tation to pro nsists of seve ectives of n included in s vol. 1, no. ilizing formu the number eometry [6] ed at superso in projectile ace area of pr fig. 7), 𝜈 is important as ng total time iment and m geometric m oblems for w eral main ste numerical si n the analysi 1, december ula (24) [6]: of fins (𝑛 onic regions e skin friction rojectile bod kinematic v spect of mod e and labor making the m mesh (if the which there eps (fig. 10): imulation, w is (viscosity 2020, pp.1-15 (23) (24) (25) ), taking the (26) according to (27) n drag. in fin dy and flow i (28) (29) iscosity. dern research costs. in the model. in the flow area i is a reliable : what are the y, turbulence 5 e o n s h e e s e e e, com wha  prep solv  solv conv adju  in th extra field 2.2.1. mat each simula model. the m  air  air  the  air  mas continuity b momentum, arbitrarily se volume dω ( mpressibility) at accuracy is processing i ver used [8]. ver settings vergence mo ustment on a he post-proc act useful da d of pressure thematical m ation is base mathematica is a continuu is considered physical pro is a single-ph ss forces are behavior can and energy elected part (figure 11). , what simp s required an involves def include s onitoring (sta specific part cessing proce ata. visualiza s or velocitie figu model ed on a math al model incl um. d a homogen operties of ai hase fluid. neglected. n be describe y. the equati of the contin the surface plifications c nd how long i fining the g olver type ability analys t of the doma ess, the resul ation tools in es, to visualiz ure 20. proces hematical mo ludes the foll neous mixtur ir are the sam ed by transp ions derived nuum, the vo element ds i figure 1 8 can be used, it takes to ge geometry, me selection, sis), and accu ain) [8]. lts are exami n numerical p ze flow vect ss of numeri odel, which lowing assum re of gases. me in all dire port equation d from the g olume ω bo is defined by 1. control vo dss whether use et results [8]. esh (space discretizatio uracy check ined and ana programs ma tors, to predic cal simulatio denotes the mptions [7]: ctions the a ns based on t given laws a unded by a y the unit vec olume [7] s vol. 1, no. er-defined fu discretization on scheme, (mesh indep alyzed to und ake it possib ct the positio on [8] mathematic air is isotropi the basic law are presented closed area ctor of the no 1, december unctions sho n), physical solution i pendence che derstand the ble to gain in on of shock w cal notation o ic. ws of mass c d in integral the limit o ormal 𝑛 [7]. 2020, pp.1-15 ould be used model, and initialization eck and mesh solution and sight into the waves. [8]. of a physica conservation form for an of the contro 5 d, d n, h d e al n, n ol the characte each point in  law  law  law 𝜕𝜕𝑡 𝜌𝐸 where �⃗� is v 2.2.2. sim the followin  the  the chan temp  the  spat  the cont spee  the will  a un in order to r (figure 12). the outer bou and 6 length eristics of th n space and a w of mass con w of momentu𝜕𝜕𝑡 𝜌 w of energy c 𝐸𝑑ω + 𝜌 velocity of air mulation of a ng will be ad problem wil working flu nges in therm perature, wh flow around tial domain d numerical tinuity, amou ed flows. equations w be compute niform air flo reduce the n the calculat undary set a hs from the to fi he air flow (p at any time, b nservation: 𝜕𝜕𝑡 um conserva �⃗�𝑑ω + 𝜌 onservation: 𝜌𝐸(�⃗� ∙ 𝑛)𝑑𝑆 rflow, p is pr air flow arou dopted for all ll be observe uid is air, an mo-physical here cp and th d the projecti discretization density-base unt of mom will be lineari d using relat ow encounte number of fin tion domain at distances o op (cylinderigure 12. 3d pressure, tan by a system o 𝜌 𝑑ω + ation: 𝜌�⃗�(�⃗� ∙ 𝑛)𝑑𝑆 = 𝑘(∇𝑇 ressure, ρ is und projectil l simulations ed as 3d geom n ideal gas, characterist hermal condu ile is compre n will be with ed solver wi mentum and e ized in impli tions that inc ers a projectil nite elements is limited by of 3 projectil -shaped mesh model of ap 9 ngential stres of differentia 𝜌(�⃗� ∙ 𝑛)𝑑𝑆 = − 𝑝𝑛𝑑 ∙ 𝑛)𝑑ω − density, t is le s [9]: metry proble which is m tics with the uctivity are c essible and tu h a hybrid m ill be used, energy. this icit form, i.e. clude both ex le at a zero y s, only the p y the externa le lengths fro h) to avoid d pfsds proje dss ss, velocity, al equations 𝑆 = 0 𝑑𝑆 + (𝜏̿ 𝑝(�⃗� ∙ 𝑛)𝑑𝑆 temperature em (because modified in a e temperature onsidered co urbulent (k-ε mesh. which simu s method wa . for given va xisting and un yaw angle. projectile seg l boundary o om the shell, disturbances i ectile 120 mm s vol. 1, no. temperature [9]: ∙ 𝑛)𝑑𝑆 𝑆 + (𝜏̿ ∙ �⃗� e, e is total en of fins). accordance w e. density a onstant. model of tur ultaneously as developed ariables; unk nknown valu gment was ta of the project 7 projectile in free stream m m829a2 [ 1, december e, etc.) are de �⃗�)𝑛𝑑𝑆 nergy, 𝜏̿ is st with compre and viscosity rbulence was solves the d for compr known value ues from adja aken at an tile, symmetr e lengths from m [9]. [9] 2020, pp.1-15 etermined, a (30) (31) (32) tress tensor. essibility and y depends on s used). equations o essible high s in each cel acent cells. angle of 60 ry planes and m the bottom 5 at d n f hll 0 d m dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.1-15 10 the following types of boundary conditions were selected (figure13) [9]:  the "wall" boundary condition, which is used to separate the regions of fluid and solid matter, is placed on the outer boundary of the projectile. at the "wall" boundary condition, the "stationary wall" and "no-slip" options were chosen, because in the case under consideration, viscous effects cannot be ignored. the mass flux through the "wall" boundary is zero, and the pressure values at this boundary are obtained by extrapolation from inside the solution domain.  the "symmetry" boundary condition was used as a plane of axisymmetric geometry.  the "pressure far field" boundary condition, which is used to model the parameters of the compressible free stream at infinity, is set at the outer boundary of the calculation domain for given problem. figure 13. generated mesh around projectile 120 mm, m829a2, and boundary conditions applied [9] dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.1-15 11 3. results and discussion for prediction of the accuracy of the engineering model (from the nato related stanag 4655 standard) and cfd numerical model, a comparison was made in the research with the prodas model. for calculation of axial force coefficients, apfsds projectile, 120 mm, m829a2, was chosen. the reason for choosing this projectile model is because the aerodynamic coefficients are available from prodas program for this projectile model. the prodas software was developed to satisfy a need for rapid performance evaluation of ammunition characteristics. the development of an effective design/analysis tool for use by the design engineer in the development and evaluation of projectiles has been a multi-year project which began at general electric in 1972 and has continued at arrow tech associates, inc. since 1991. the developed tool is now called prodas which is an acronym for the projectile design/analysis system [10]. from the smallest match bullets, to gps guided artillery shells, prodas brings together:  modeling building a model from a drawing or even a picture.  aerodynamics comparing aerodynamic coefficients from multiple aero estimators.  launch dynamics interior ballistics, balloting and jump.  trajectories fly 4dof, 6dof and body fixed and guided trajectories.  terminal effects estimate penetration of ke projectiles and lethality of fragmenting or shaped charge warheads.  system effectiveness using focused analysis or general purpose macros, compare projectiles or even gn&c algorithms [10]. 3.1. stanag 4655 vs. prodas the axial force coefficients of the projectile body, predicted using the model from stanag 4655 and prodas models are shown in figure 14. the axial force coefficients of the projectile body predicted by the model from stanag (figure 14) shows a significant difference in the range of mach 3 to 5. it can be seen that this difference decreases with increasing mach number [9]. the axial force coefficients of the projectile fins, predicted using the model from stanag 4655 and prodas models are shown in figure 15. the downward trend in the value of the axial force coefficient of the fins in the stanag model is higher than in the prodas model. the differences between the values decrease slightly with increasing mach number (figure 15) [9]. figure 14. coefficients of axial force of the projectile body (120 mm, m829a2) [9] figure 15. coefficients of axial force of the projectile fins (120 mm, m829a2) the axial force coefficients of the projectile obtained by the model from the stanag 4655 standard, are smaller than the coefficients obtained by the prodas model (for projectile 120 mm, m829a2). the difference between the values of the coefficients obtained with model from stanag and prodas, decreases with increasing mach number (figure 16). the percentage difference of the coefficients obtained by the model from the stanag in relation to the coefficients obtained by applying the prodas model is given in figure 17. from figure 17 it can be noticed that the largest percentage difference between the predicted values of the model from the stanag and prodas is 16.3 % in the range of 3 to 5 mach [9]. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 c x _b od y mach prodas stanag 4655 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 cx _f in mach prodas stanag 4655 figure project 3.2. cfd vs the results o results of pr 3, where the %. the perc coefficients based on the the projectile it arises as a through the phenomena: figure 18. c (p the pressure the free stre oblique shoc behind the p during supe causes the s supersonic f circular mo characterized change disc large. in fron 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 3 c x 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 3 c x e 16. coeffic tile (projecti s. prodas of the numer rodas (fun e difference centage diff obtained by e obtained re e 120 mm, m a result of th e atmosphere fluid viscos coefficients o projectile 120 e and velocit eam pressure ck waves ap projectile. ersonic flow streams to b flow, the ben vement of d by pronou ontinuously nt of the sho 3.5 m 3.5 m ients of axia le 120 mm, m rical simulat nction cx = f is about 8.4 ference of th applying the esults of num m829a2 was he action of e. the sour ity, shock w of axial force 0 mm, m829 ty fields, sho e is not the s ppear at the , underpress bend toward nt extension air is creat unced shock (extremely) ock wave, the 4mach 4mach l force of the m829a2) [9 ion of air flo f (m)) are sho %. as the m he coefficien e prodas m merical simu s done. the r f a normal fo rce of fluid aves (at velo e of the proje 9a2) [9] wn in figure same for dif top of the p ure is create ds the projec of the boun ed. general k waves, ext in a very s ere is a zone 4.5 prodas stanag 465 4.5 prod cfd 12 e 9] ow around pr own in figur mach numbe nts obtained model is give ulations, the a resistance for orce and a ta d resistance ocities m ≥ 1 ectile figu es 20 and 21 fferent mach projectile, w ed behind th ctile axis. n ndary layer d lly speaking tremely narr short time in e of undisturb 5 55 5 das fig pr dss rojectile (12 re 18. the lar er increases, by the num en in figure 1 analysis of th rce of a fluid angential for to body m ), and turbul ure 19. relat projec , are comple h numbers. a while a chara he rear part near the axi draws air fro g, the supers row areas of nterval, with bed flow, wh gure 17. rela rodas) pro s vol. 1, no. 0 mm, m829 rgest deviatio the differenc merical simu 19 [9]. he pressure a d that oppose rce on the su motion are p lence flow be tive differenc ctile 120 mm x. from figu as expected acteristic und of the projec s, the stream m the rear o sonic flow f fluid in wh h pressure gr hile behind it tive differen ojectile 120 m 1, december 9a2), in para ons are reco ce decreases ulation in re and velocity es the motion urface of a b practically t ehind the bo ces (cfd vs m, m829a2 [ ure 20, it can for the supe derpressure z ctile. this u ms must be of the projec regime of which the flo radients bein t there is a z nces (stana mm, m829a 2020, pp.1-15 allel with the rded for m = s by almost 1 elation to the y field around n of a body in body moving three natura dy [9]. prodas) [9] n be seen tha ersonic flow zone appear underpressure nd again. in ctile so that a any body i ow propertie ng extremely one in which ag vs a2 [9] 5 e = 1 e d n g al at w, s e n a s s y h dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.1-15 13 there are differences in the values of pressure, speed, temperature and density. figure 21 shows the boundary layer that forms around the projectile in flight. it can also be seen that the angle of the oblique shock wave decreases with increasing velocity at which the flow is simulated [9]. figure 30. pressure field around the projectile for different mach numbers [9] dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.1-15 14 figure 21. field of velocities around the projectile 120 mm, m829a2 for different mach numbers [9] dss vol. 1, no. 1, december 2020, pp.1-15 15 4. conclusion based on theoretical considerations and analysis of available models (stanag 4655 and cfd) for predicting the aerodynamic coefficient of axial force for wing-stabilized projectiles, the prediction of the axial force coefficient for apfsds projectile 120 mm, m829a2 was performed. the data obtained using the engineering model (from the stanag 4655 standard), and the data obtained by numerical simulation of projectile flow with the available data from the prodas database were compared. the following was stated:  the total axial force coefficients of the apfsds projectile (provided with the model from the stanag 4655 standard) have a satisfactory agreement with the total coefficient from the prodas model. the largest difference between the values is about 16.3 %. as the mach number increases, the difference decreases.  the advantage of the stanag 4655 model is that it allows the calculation of coefficients based on the geometric characteristics of the projectile without the use of computers.  the cfd model gives very good results, the values of the axial force or the axial force coefficient. good agreement between the results of the cfd model and prodas indicates that the initial and boundary conditions are well set.  the accuracy of the cfd model depends on the mesh, initial and boundary conditions. the accuracy of the cfd model can be increased by modifying the mesh (i.e. by increasing the number of finite elements). references [1] a. ćatović: anti-tank projectiles, manual for students, university of sarajevo, mechanical engineering faculty, defense technologies department, sarajevo, 2019. [2] w. odermatt: http://longrods.ch/compo.php, october 2020 [3] z. huang, z. chen: numerical investigation of the tree-dimensional dynamic process of sabot discard, journal of mechanical science and technology, vol 28, no 7, 2637-2649, 2014. [4] b. zečević: anti-tank ammunition, lectures for students, university of sarajevo, mechanical engineering faculty, defense technologies department, sarajevo, 2018. [5] s. s. kadić: prediction of drag force at zero yaw angle for conventional artillery projectiles, master thesis, university of sarajevo, mechanical engineering faculty, defense technologies department, july 2007. [6] stanag 4655 ed.1: an engineering model to estimate aerodynamic coefficients, nato standardization agency, 18 january, 2010. [7] s. s. kadić: aaerodynamic, interior and exterior ballistic request, optimization in base bleed projectile design, phd thesis, university of sarajevo, mechanical engineering faculty, defense technologies department, jul 2014. [8] a. ćatović.: prediction of terminal-ballistic parameters for natural fragmenting high-explosive projectiles using experimental data and numerical methods, phd thesis, university of sarajevo, mechanical engineering faculty, defense technologies department, sarajevo, 2019. [9] blazek, j.: computational fluid dynamics: principles and applications, elsevier science ltd, oxford, united kingdom, 2001. [10] a. trakić: axial force coefficients of apfsds projectiles, master thesis, university of sarajevo, mechanical engineering faculty, defense technologies department, july 2020. [11] prodas v3, http://www.prodas.com/xq/asp/p.400/qx/webpagexml4.htm, arrow tech, 2020. microsoft word 36-45_235.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 4, january 2023, pp.36-45 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v4.id235 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 36 defensive walls: a neglected security strategy in northern nigeria abdullahi, muhammad maigari 1* 1 al-qalam university katsina, college of social and management sciences, department of sociology, nigeria *corresponding author e-mail: maigariabdullahi@auk.edu.ng received 3.2.2023. revised 22.2.2023. accepted 23.2.2023 abstract nigeria from 2016 to 2023 has been facing new security challenges, including kidnapping of people for ransom, sporadic shooting of inhabitants, and the rustling of livestock. there is a rich history of how cities in nigeria, erected defensive walls or fortifications to protect the inhabitants and their property against invaders, criminals, or rustlers centuries before the arrival of the european colonialists to africa. the incessant attacks on rural communities, highways and urban centres have compelled criminologists and security experts to rethink and revisit the security strategies adopted in the past and worked effectively in protecting the populace and their belongings. kingdoms and empires, as well as emirates in different parts of africa, had developed or erected defensive walls or fortifications which if replicated in the 21st century, will ease neighbhourhood watch and community surveillance and policing. this paper has helped to identify cities in nigeria with defensive walls and restrict entrances (gates) in places such as kano, katsina sokoto, zaria and benin city. these are some of the cities known for prehistoric warfare and their people were brave and famous in intercity and inter-community battles. the study found that towns and cities in nigeria and other parts of the world used defensive walls or fortified their jurisdiction against enemies or invaders. the strategy proved effective in protecting their people and property. building defensive walls or fortifications of towns and cities that are facing acute security challenges in nigeria can enable the government and community members to protect the residents. the use of defensive walls will make the use of different mass surveillance tactics much easier because the areas are cordoned-off hence patrol, searching and arrest of criminals. therefore, the researcher recommended that instead of spending huge amounts on the procurement of weapons by the federal government of nigeria, the government should erect or build fences that make criminal investigation more effective hence combat crime and criminals. © the author 2023. published by arda. keywords: armed banditry, kidnapping, fortification, defensive walls, security strategy, mass surveillance 1. introduction fortification walls, also known as defensive walls or battlements, are structures built to provide security and protection. they are typically constructed around a settlement or fortress to defend against external threats such as enemy attacks or invasions. they vary in size, design, and materials used, depending on their purpose and the resources available in the society concerned. they may be made of stone, brick, earth, or a combination of materials, and may include features such as towers, gates, and trenches. throughout history in different parts of the world, fortification walls have played an important role in the defense and security of cities, towns, and other settlements. they have been used to protect against various threats, including military dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.36-45 37 attacks, raids, and sieges. in modern times, fortification walls are still used in some parts of the world for security purposes, although they are often supplemented with other forms of defense such as soldiers, guards, and electronic surveillance. apart from security purposes, fortification walls can also be used for symbolic purposes, such as to mark the boundaries of a city or to serve as a symbol of power and prestige. however, they can also be a source of conflict and division, as they may be used to segregate or isolate certain groups or communities. at the turn of the 21st century, countries in the world are facing both internal and external security threats which demand different measures to protect their citizens and territorial integrity. despite advancements in science and technology as well as the manufacturing of sophisticated weapons by developed and developing countries, and huge spending on the military, some countries continue to build fortification walls for defense purposes. in 1945, after world war ii, there were only seven [7] nations-state in the world that built walls along their international boundaries. however, increasing demand for protection has increased the number of countries with fortified frontiers to 75 in the world. some of the popular historical walls in the world are the great wall of china, the great wall of zimbabwe and the taj mahal in india. among the fortified fences in the world, the benin wall in nigeria was adjudged as the longest, in the world with an estimated 16,000 kilometers. the wall encompassed 6,500 square kilometers of the vast land of the kingdom. the purpose of the walls of benin is to protect the kingdom against marauding invaders which was the reason why the walls were used as a demarcation of the entire kingdom's boundaries hence regulating the in and out of the people in the benin kingdom [11]. this paper aims to examine how defence walls were used in different parts of the world to provide security for the residents. similarly, another objective of the paper is to explain how communities in nigeria had abandoned the building of defense walls making them vulnerable to attacks from rampaging armed bandits, kidnappers and cattle rustlers. 2. context of the problem nigeria is facing a multitude of security challenges, ranging from ethnic violence, religious conflict and religious fundamentalism which has transformed into an insurgency in the northeast part of nigeria. political and ethnic violence has been replaced by another form of crime which is now prevalent in northern nigeria as of 2022. armed groups hiding in forest reserves and mountainous areas in turn, attack communities and kidnap commuters and residents for ransom. the activities of the islamic fundamentalist in the northeast and kidnappers in different parts of nigeria have forced the federal government of nigeria to deploy armed security personnel to virtually 34 out of the 36 states in the country. with the stoppage of the building of defense walls in nigeria, communities, cities and towns have become defenseless, and easily accessible to all forms of criminals. it is within this context, the paper attempt to sample some defense walls in the world to see how they were used as very effective means for protecting the residents and their property. 3. literature review 3.1. defense walls and protection of residents a researcher has assessed the impact of the defense wall called the fortification wall of the kolonna viii in sri lanka. the findings revealed that the fortification was part of the security measures to protect the city against external attacks or aggression. the walls were made of stones, irons, and bricks made from mud and timbers [4] like defensive walls built in some cities in northern nigeria. in russian federation, the castle (narin-kala), and fortress cities which are 40 kilometers of defensive fortifications make up derbent fortress as an architectural structure (mountain wall). the fortress walls preventing access to the sea have been preserved and remain as historical buildings. strategically, the fortress is situated in the caspian passage's most congested and exposed area. two parallel fortress walls that ended at the citadel obstructed the passage along the seashore. the citadel is located on the jangar mountain ridge's highest, seaward ridge. established in the fifth century. up to the nineteenth century, it was a defense structure. steep declensions protect the citadel's northern and western edges [12]. the derbent fortress was not only for decoration of the city but served as a protection against invaders or enemies of the government. impliedly, the derbent walls served two purposes, an aesthetic structure for the beautification and protection of the city. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.36-45 38 in his doctoral dissertation, succinctly examined the evolution of defensive walls in some cities in syria [6]. the study found that the conflict between ebla and mari, the invasion of the akkadian empire upper land’ the khabur and middle euphrates region and armanum and ebla were some of the reasons for the building of defensive walls in syria. ditches, fort and fortresses, gates, buttresses, towers and bastions, ramparts, fortification walls, glacis, revetment, retaining and casemate walls were found in syrian jazirah, euphrates region, northern levant. the work of jabbour showed the necessity to protect the cities as a result of intercity conflict compelled leaders at that time to design and erect defensive walls for the protection of their rule and dynasty as well as citizens. furthermore, a study has revealed that tell el-retaba wall which is located in a high (arabic: "ras") position on the eastern edge of an ancient lake/marsh, had served as a strategic location in antiquity for the defense of the eastern delta from the gisr and serapeum sills while also being able to control north-south movement through the middle of modern-day wadi tumilat [5]. the construction of the tell el-retaba wall revealed the defense system used in the ancient era in egypt. despite the existence of military and sophisticated weapons in the 19th and 20th centuries, the defensive wall tell el-retaba wall was used by the rulers and their soldiers as a defense strategy. a study on fortification in the arabian states found that as a direct result of emerging transnational concerns including terrorism, irregular migration, drug trafficking, and weapons smuggling, the post-cold war era has seen a dramatic growth in the fortification and militarization of territorial borders. there are around 65 border walls in use today; the majority were constructed in the past three years, primarily in the arab world and eastern europe. although the circumstances and purposes for the border fortifications of the arab states vary, their overall design and building methods are similar. similarly, the different content of the world has their peculiar reason for building defensive walls [8]. security objectives, particularly the prevention of the entry of armed organizations, are the main reasons for the fortification of arab borders. the prohibition of irregular immigration remains the major goal in other regions of the world, particularly in north america and eastern europe. the above findings have revealed that the fortification of states has dual reasons depending on the prevailing situation and need of the state [8]. for example, the moroccan-algerian border has been closed since 1994 as a result of an armed attack on a hotel in marrakech, which morocco blamed on algeria's security forces. the moroccan-algerian border is currently being fortified simultaneously on both sides and without coordination between the two close neighbors. the rivalry between morocco and algeria for regional sway and their numerous political divisions, particularly concerning the western sahara issue, hindered the two nations from cooperating and coming to a consensus on a common approach to securing and maintaining their borders. morocco started construction of a barrier in 2014 along 150 kilometers of its northeastern border with algeria. although morocco and algeria started fortifying their shared land borders at the same time, the priorities of their goals varied depending on the unique problems of each nation. the primary goal of algeria's policy to control its borders is to combat the security threat posed by cross-border armed groups, particularly with mali, libya, and tunisia. in contrast, it is only a secondary goal about its border with morocco, where the primary goal is to combat smuggling, particularly of gasoline. before the extensive fortification project that the two nations had pursued over the previous three years, almost everything was being smuggled through the morocco-algeria border [8]. apart from the orthodox building of defense walls, in the 21st century, some countries have started using barbed-wire fences. the algerian government has started constructing a wire barbed fence along its border with tunisia and libya as a result of security issues on this frontier. the 350-kilometer-long, 3-meter-high fence served the same defensive purposes as fortifications in the majority of other arab nations. the main reason algeria tightened control on its borders with libya and tunisia was because of the unrest in libya's security situation. numerous cross-border armed organizations that have conducted operations in neighboring countries continue to see libya be a favorable environment for their activities. regarding the short-term goals, the new algerian security plan aimed to stop armed group infiltration and prohibit the smuggling of weapons into algerian territory. it is important to note that during the past 20 years, algeria has seen several bombings of public and private facilities as well as kidnappings of foreign nationals by armed organizations across the country's extensive border, particularly in the south [8]. furthermore, fortification became necessary in tunisia due to the turbulence in libya's security. the tunisian government started constructing security fortifications on its border with libya in april 2015. it is a double border barrier that was constructed parallel to one another using water ditches and a sand wall. this dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.36-45 39 fortification, which stretches 220 kilometers along the roughly 500-kilometer border between tunisia and libya, was constructed within five kilometers of the boundary. the fortification cost roughly $75 million to construct and was supported financially and technically by several countries. in comparison to the costs of certain other border fences, such as the saudi fences along its borders with yemen and iraq, this expense is comparatively low. due to the escalating security disturbance in libya, tunisia adopted this security policy. the attack on the bardo national museum in tunis in march 2015, which was carried out by terrorists who entered tunisia across its border with libya, prompted the decision to secure the border. the main goal of the border barrier between tunisia and libya is to prevent armed group members from entering tunisia from libya. since then, these defenses have been strengthened and updated by spanish authorities employing cutting-edge technology, such as infrared cameras, video and audio sensors, observation towers, and radar systems. the eu's policy of hardening its external frontiers against irregular migration includes the construction of barriers at ceuta and melilla. over the past 20 years, thousands of sub-saharan african migrants have made these two enclaves, which serve as a de facto border of the eu in north africa, their final destination [8]. in israel, the "old city," which is central to jerusalem, is enclosed by massive walls constructed by sulayman the magnificent in the 16th century. jerusalem began to build suburbs in the 1860s, just like many other cities in the middle east and the west. the northeastern portion of the expanded city and the mount of olives are collectively referred to as "east jerusalem," which is home to a sizable palestinian population. it is separated from the west bank's palestinian villages by the israeli defense wall and from west jerusalem's predominately jewish neighborhood by north-south road 1[9]. similarly, the paper has identified defensive walls in yemen, syria, iran and other parts of the middle east and explained the walls served defense and decorative purposes in the ancient and present eras. the research was conducted on the architecture of defense, and fortified settlements of the levant during the middle bronze age. the study revealed how in those eras, leaders or rulers relied heavily on the construction of fortified as a protection against enemies and beautification of their territories. some of the walls identified by burke in his study were still existing in the arabian peninsula and near the east [2]. a study has found that thermisi castle was constructed on the precipitous ridge overlooking the nearby salt ponds and sea routes of ermionis in eastern peloponnese, greece. the acropolis and an exterior defensive wall make up the fortification, which guards the settlement and has residential ruins outside of the walling system. the main objective for building the thermisi castle has been explained in the work of simou, klotsa, and koutropoulos. the researchers stated that the fortification's location is unquestionably naturally protective and vital to the defense of the saltpans that extend to the south. the salinities were so significant that they were referred to in a 1451 text as "the most notable salinities in all of the levant, from which one can mine an ore, pozo." in sum, it was for a defensive purpose [10]. the building of walls or barriers has a historical origin from the ancient history of man on earth. the earliest civilization erected defensive walls to protect their territories against invaders. the traditions have defied changes that come with scientific and industrial revolutions and still in the 21st century, nation-states still construct frontier walls for both migration and security reasons. statistics have shown that after the attack on some strategic places in the united states of america on 11th september 2001, there were about thirty countries built defense walls for security reasons [11]. similarly, the researcher identified five reasons why countries build defensive walls. these are: protecting the country against smugglers of contraband goods, protecting the country against the importation of illegal weapons and pharmaceutical products, checking the flow of immigrants and unregistered labour force, prevent the influx of terrorists and diseases. empirical evidence has revealed that from 1989 when the wall of berlin was destroyed, there are about forty countries in the world that erected defense walls to protect their citizens against security threats. morocco has built a security fence of 2,700 kilometers which separated it from western sahara and it is one of the longest active defense fences in the wall. it took the moroccan government seven years to complete the construction of the defense wall, that is, from 1980 to 1987 [11]. similarly, the spanish government has erected a perimeter security fence that separated ceuta and malilla from morocco. the 20 kilometers wall was built in the year 2000 to prevent irregular migrants from entering spanish cities situated at the border with morocco. the spanish authorities had installed closed circuit camera in addition to barbed wires, and motion and noise sensors to detect any attempt to penetrate or destroy the fence by migrants and criminals [11]. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.36-45 40 in east africa, the fear of attacks from a terrorist group, al-shabab has led the kenyan government 2015 to embark on the construction of seven hundred kilometers of defensive fences. the fence aims to protect the two coastal cities of mandera and kiunga which serve as a route for the al-shabab terrorists to enter kenya from somalia [11]. however, apart from security purposes or reasons, some countries built security fences to prevent their countries from disease. that is, it is for the health of the citizens and some for the livestock. this is the reason for the electrified fence put in place by the government of botswana to prevent the influx of livestock disease from zimbabwe. the 480 kilometers and 2.50 meters high fence was erected to prevent animals from zimbabwe to spread foot and mouth disease to botswana. south africa has also erected an electrified fence base at its border with zimbabwe for the safety and migration of wildlife at kruger park. a 137 kilometers wall or fence was built between south africa and mozambique to prevent fighters of the african national congress (anc) who have an operational base in the mozambican territories to enter south africa. the fence also covered some parts of the border between south africa and swaziland, at jeppe reef mbuzine [11]. the spanish city of cadiz is known for its fortified or defensive wall. the city is covered with three defensive walls with an ocean on the fourth side. this made the city of cadiz the most protected city in the history of spain. an empirical study found that in 1578, king fellope ii of spain decided to fortify the city of cadiz as a result of threats of attacks from other empires in europe, africa and the arabian peninsula. in response to the king's decision, the construction of the fortified walls was handled by an italian engineer captain fratín. the city of cadiz remained the only spanish city that was not attacked at the time of the peninsular war with france [1]. another has examined the impact of the spanish defensive wall in manila, in present-day philippines. in 1571, spain approved the construction of defensive walls in their colonies in asia. as a result of king philip ii, manila was fortified for security reasons. historical evidence has shown that spain erected 14 defensive walls in their former colonies for protection and manila, is among them. this indicated the importance and use of a defensive wall to protect a city or the country against invaders [13]. similarly, it was found that defensive fences and walls are from an economic perspective. they stated that for millennia, humans on all continents have been erecting walls. the primary reason for their early construction was to protect city-states against armies of undesired nomadic neighbors. a massive physical barrier also served as a symbol of political authority, riches, and strength, a claim to territory, and a way to determine who belonged within and who was kept out. walls have ranged in size from small barriers between communities to gigantic fortresses between kingdoms throughout history [14]. as ancient towns spread over the world, so did their walls. in 3000 bc, a 9-kilometer wall surrounded the world's greatest metropolis, the sumerian city of uruk in modern iraq, which had a population of 80,000 people. around 2030 bc, the sumerians built a gigantic 160 km defensive barrier across their realm to keep the amorite nomadic tribes out. it was successful for a few years until invaders either smashed through the wall or just walked around it to destroy sumerian settlements. around 460 bc, the ancient greeks built a variety of fortifications, including the siege-proof long walls of athens. during a conflict with sparta, the fortifications extended from the city to the harbor, but the city surrendered after its navy was crushed at sea. the roman empire fortified its boundaries with a variety of wall-and-ditch fortifications built of turf and stone known as limes between 83 and 260 ad. limes were employed as customs checkpoints for the passage of goods and people, as well as to keep barbarian tribes out of the roman empire. among the most wellknown limes are scotland's 118 km hadrian's wall and 60 km antonine wall, a 750 km wall in north africa, and germany's 568 km limes germanicus. the roman empire significantly invested in its military, and its military conquests provided a stable supply of slave labor to service the walls for a time. expansion slowed over time, as pressure from neighboring barbarians grew. overspending on the military and walls caused a financial crisis and a slew of negative consequences, including harsh taxation and inflation, widespread tax evasion, and a widening gap between rich and poor, predicting the country's eventual demise. although roman limes provided a good defense against unorganized thieves from britain to the arab world, they did not defend the empire from the better-organized barbarian armies of vandals, alans, and goths. from as early as 2000 bc, almost all cities in northern china had defensive walls. larger cities with increased economic activity had longer walls, whereas frontier cities with a larger risk of attack had stronger walls. the defensive role of the walls may have contributed to a perceived sense of security, attracting more people and businesses to the walled cities, which still have a higher population and job densities today. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.36-45 41 around the year 1200, the little mayan city of tulum in mexico was enclosed on three sides by a 740-meterlong wall for defense against larger city-states. in 1281, japan constructed the genko borui stonewall against a mongol invasion, which is considered to have contributed to the invaders' downfall. between 1500 and 1800, the russian empire defended its southern frontiers with felled wood barricades with ditches and earth mounds, palisades, watch towers, and forts, gradually shifting the barriers south as the empire expanded. these fortifications were safeguarded against tatars and other nomads who were active participants in the slave trade, capturing and selling thousands of eurasians into slavery to the ottoman empire. they also stopped domestic runaway serfs from fleeing and established additional peasant farming land. furthermore, with the increased need to protect citizens against terrorists in the 21st century, different countries facing threats from terrorists started erecting a defensive wall. this is evident when the isis insurgency began to threaten regional stability in the middle east, fifteen new security walls and fences were built to the map around the region between 2002 and 2010. israel erected security walls between itself and the west bank and egypt. egypt constructed an over-and-underground wall with gaza. saudi arabia constructed an 885-kilometer security wall with iraq, as well as barriers with the uae, oman, qatar, jordan, and yemen. the united arab emirates built barriers along its borders with saudi arabia and oman (migration, smuggling, security). jordan constructed fences with syria and iraq. iran has surrounded iraq, afghanistan, and pakistan (security, smuggling). according to israel defense forces, the israeli-egyptian fence was effective in curbing the influx of illegal migrants from africa [14]. outside the middle east, eight new walls were built: between brunei and malaysia (smuggling and migration), myanmar and bangladesh (security), lithuania and belarus (smuggling), kazakhstan and uzbekistan (smuggling), and kazakhstan and kyrgyzstan (smuggling) (smuggling). russia erected a barbed wire fence along its border with georgia (conflict). in africa, botswana erected a border fence with zimbabwe in response to a rush of refugee migrants accused of stealing employment, committing crimes, and spreading hiv. for security purposes, some european countries decided to fortify their international borders. this was done to prevent irregular migrants from having access to their countries. for example, there were seven migration fences were built in europe in response to the massive migration of middle eastern and north african refugees to the eu between 2011 and 2018. macedonia erected a border fence with greece. on their borders with turkey, greece and bulgaria have erected barbed wire fences. hungary built a 175-kilometer fence along its border with serbia and a 350-kilometer fence along its border with croatia. slovakia built a border fence with croatia, and austria built one with slovenia. the united kingdom funded a 13-foot-high barrier in the french port city of calais to keep refugees and migrants out of the country [14]. additionally, oman/yemen, turkmenistan/afghanistan, and pakistan/afghanistan are among the nine new security fences built in the middle east and north africa. turkey and syria, turkey and iran, israel and jordan, israel and syria, israel and lebanon, tunisia and libya, and algeria and morocco. seven additional fences were built in eastern europe and asia as a result of regional conflicts and land disputes: azerbaijan/armenia, ukraine/russia, estonia, latvia, and lithuania built barriers with the russian territory of kaliningrad, kyrgyzstan/kazakhstan, kyrgyzstan/uzbekistan, and china/north korea [14]. estonia/russia, latvia/belarus, poland/belarus, poland/ukraine, hungary/romania, turkey/iraq, india/bhutan, malaysia/brunei, malaysia/indonesia, russia (crimea)/ukraine, and algeria/libya have all announced future fence construction. smuggling, territorial claims, and animal disease control appear to be the primary motivators. except for those erected by the us between guantanamo and cuba, latin america is devoid of border barriers [14]. 3.2. defensive walls in nigeria: a neglected security strategy from around the year 800, several fortifications were built in nigeria spanning several centuries. benin-city was possibly the world's greatest urban planning project at the time, a web of 16,000 km of walls that encircled an entire kingdom made up of hundreds of interconnected cities and villages. europeans demolished benin's walls in 1897. sungbo eredo, the other great wall in the area, was a 160 km wall and ditch earthworks financed by a wealthy queen about the year 1000, meant for defense, unification, and as a shrine for spirit worship. the benin earthwork, which can reach heights of up to 18 meters, depicts an intricate design comprised of a series of inner and outer interconnected circles, as well as an impressive architectural combination of ramparts and moats. the outer walls were made of earthen embankments, which were supplemented by ditches that dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.36-45 42 served a dual purpose: in addition to being an integral part of the walls, they also served as a quarry, storing material used to expand the walls. the exterior barricade was essentially made of earth excavated from ditches dug to create inner moats. there are notable cities in nigeria apart from the benin kingdom discussed above that were fortified before the coming of european colonialists arrived in nigeria. these cities include kano, zaria, sokoto, katsina, lafia and gombe as well as bauchi. there are also smaller towns in northern nigeria that were fortified such as bichi and tsanyawa in kano state, and keffi in nasarawa state. there were walls erected during the period of islamic revival by usmanu danfodiyo and some, were built by kings and rulers for the protection of their throne and subjects against enemies. at different times, rulers of these cities fortified their areas of jurisdiction with fences constructed with mud mixed with stones. the fortified cities and towns in nigeria were relatively safe for the inhabitants because the existence of the defensive walls ensured that the movement of people in and out of the cities or towns was under the watch of the guards stationed at all city or town gates. this is the reason why to date (2023), in cities such as zaria, sokoto, kano, katsina, bichi, rano, hadejia, bauchi, and lafia, there exist gates of doors named after people or historic events. in most cases, the residential areas around the city gates bear the name of the gates. the building of defensive walls of fortification of cities or towns before colonialism in nigeria, particularly in northern nigeria is a testimony of how traditional rulers in pre-colonial nigeria developed an effective strategy to protect their throne, wealth and people against threats from other rulers and kingdoms. with the arrival of european colonialists to protectorates named in 1914 as nigeria, britain destroyed the existing system of governance in northern, southern and eastern protectorates. the colonial government took the administrative and security aspects from the traditional rulers. this marked the end of the construction or building of defensive walls in different parts of nigeria. communities resorted to formal security operatives for protection instead of the traditional fighters and police under the leadership of the emir or king, depending on the area. when cities and towns were fortified, the guards at the gates have techniques of identifying their members and outsiders with the use of language, physique and unique facial and body marks. apart from the guards checking the commuters, there was well-armed personnel stationed at each gate, battleready to repel any attempt by invading enemies or criminals. 4. research methodology the researcher utilized secondary data from documented materials, both academic and organizational in this research. the idea is to use documented historical works on fortification or defense walls in different parts of the world to have an in-depth understanding of how they were used in the past and how such defense walls can useful in nigeria, particularly in areas that are besieged by terrorists and different arm groups. in this regard, the historical research design is the appropriate design for this research. this is because historical research design describes and explain past events (in this case, historical use of defense walls) to understand the present (to examine the positive impact of defense wall in securing the life and property of the citizens) and anticipate the future effects (to examine how the building of defense walls will assist security personnel in fighting terrorists and criminals). 5. results and discussion the defense history of defensive walls or fortification of cities is replete with positive success. the defensive walls mapped out in this study using social mapping have buttressed the effectiveness of fortification of towns and cities against enemies or criminals. states or local government areas in katsina, zamfara, sokoto, kaduna and niger are vulnerable to attacks because different armed groups and non-state actors living in forests on the outskirts of those areas easily enter and attack the residents at will because of the non-existence of any walls or fence that will compel them to enter the town or city through gates. the findings of this study from the documented evidence revealed that kidnapping and ransacking a fortified city or town is difficult because each gate has guards and standing armies. the resistance that kidnappers or bandits will face at the gate will enable those at the city centre to take emergency measures or send reinforcement of fighters. additionally, the chances of armed criminals entering the city and community to steal livestock and kidnap people and escape will be minimal because the residents and armies will block gates that invaders will follow to go out of the community. the findings of [3] have validated the findings in nigeria where kingdoms and emirates adopted the fortification of their towns and cities as an effective security measure. an effort was made to improve fortresses' defensive qualities during the linid and fimid periods. this came about as a dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.36-45 43 result of various conflicts, particularly those in which the fimids were involved. these conflicts included those with the byzantines, who launched several campaigns to retake former christian lands, with independent rulers who had settled particularly in syria, and with the seljuks, who in the eleventh century conquered iraq, a sizable portion of syria, and palestine. however, the latter's coastal regions were dominated by the fimids, who put a lot of effort into building defenses there. from ascalon in the south to jabla in the north, along with certain inland towns like jerusalem and tiberias, they all had their defenses updated [3]. the use of defensive walls in nigeria before colonialism in the 18th century had served as a veritable security measure that shielded different communities against different forms of criminals within and outside. this correlated with the findings which explained how in cyprus, the city of nicosia was fortified and such fortification gave the city maximum protection against domestic and external enemies [7]. it was concluded that the lower portion of the walls, which were solely buttressed by stone, was constructed of mud-brick. the walls at nicosia were restored by the ottomans, who also covered the upper portion with stones. the famagusta walls were renowned across europe, the middle east, and north africa for having been built over many centuries as the city expanded, underwent political upheaval, and adopted new military equipment. they provide a vital record of military design and adaptation to evolving rulers and technology. 5.1 impact of defensive walls on nigeria’s security it could be deduced from the above findings that the use of defensive walls or fortification of communities that are facing incessant attacks from armed groups in nigeria would provide a modicum of protection. this is because when the communities are fortified, the armed groups would not have access to the residential areas at will, without following restricted gates or routes which have stationed guards and armed security personnel. however, building defensive walls has its disadvantages, ranging from the cost of building, maintenance and sustainability of the policy as a security strategy in nigeria where most of the new government introduces new policy and discard the existing ones. despite the huge cost of installing sound sensors, cameras and electrification of the bricks fence or in the case of barbed wire fence. the fortification of communities will enable the security operatives to carry out mass surveillance and reconnaissance surveillance with efficiency. the use of old methods of stop and search by the nigeria police force (npf) would be effective when the areas are cordoned-off with fences. similarly, another aspect that the benefit of a defensive wall outweighed the cost is in conducting mass surveillance. the security operatives such as undercover cops known in nigeria department of state security services (dsss), npf and the military will track and monitor the movement of people both innocents and suspects within an area surrounded by a fence or wall. this measure was adopted by the israeli government to prevent the infiltration of the jihadists from palestinian territories to israel. the barriers had kept in check the movement of people in and out of the west bank and gaza as well as jerusalem. the barriers have contributed to the success of the israeli defence forces (idf) in preventing and intercepting suicide bombers from entering israeli territories. with the barriers, the israeli government under ariel sharon, ehud barak and benjamin netanyahu used the barriers to achieve both security and political objectives. in this sense, with the return of defensive walls to nigeria, the government will achieve both security and political goals, protecting the citizens against kidnappers, cattle rustlers and armed bandits will increase the legitimacy of the government and the popularity of the leaders who implemented the policy. 6. conclusions fortification of cities or towns from the ancient to the modern era has proved to be an effective security strategy adopted by different countries in the world. nigeria, some countries which erected defensive walls had practiced the fortification of cities and towns before the arrival of the european colonialists in the 18th century. with the change of administration during colonialism from the traditional style of leadership to the colonial style, the british colonial administration in nigeria abandoned the idea of building defensive walls to protect the inhabitants. the current security challenges in nigeria which are manifested in the form of hostage-taking for ransom, and rustling of livestock have exposed how unprotected towns or cities are in nigeria. the population of security operatives in nigeria is insufficient to be present in all villages, towns, or cities and this gives the criminals a free hand to operate and launch successful attacks and kidnappings of people. the extant literature examined in this paper has shown how effective defensive walls are, in protecting the target population. the defensive walls or fortifications often simplify internal security management wherever they are erected. therefore, the revival of and construction of new defensive walls in nigeria will dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.36-45 44 enable the citizens and security personnel to effectively monitor the designated entrance and exit to towns and cities hence achieving the goals of mass surveillance in the time of heightened security challenges in 2023. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. acknowledgments dr. ibrahim sani kankara, department of history, bayero university kano, nigeria. dr. nuhu alamuna, department of nigerian langauges, kaduna state university, nigeria. references [1] c. r. bellido, p.g. pérez. r. l. pantión, "the future of fortifications in the city of cádiz: opportunities and strategies for an urban regeneration", wit transactions on the built environment, vol. 123, pp. 135147, 2012. [2] a. a. burke, the architecture of defense: fortified settlements of the levant during the middle bronze age, dissertation submitted to the faculty of the division of the humanities, department of near eastern languages and civilizations, the university of chicago, 2004. [3] k. d'hulster, k., j. van steenbergen, u. vermeulen, "egypt and syria in the fatimid, ayyubid and mamluk eras", viii. proceedings of the 19th, 20th, 21st and 22nd international colloquium organized at ghent university in may 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013., orientalia lovaniensia analecta, 2016. [4] w. gauß, kolonna on aigina: the development of a fortified late middle and early late bronze age settlement, austrian archaeological institute, austrian academy of sciences, 2021. [5] j. hudec, m. černý, e. fulajtár, k. fareed, m. nour el-din, "discoveries on fortifications at tell elretaba", asian & african studies, vol. 27, no 1, 2018. [6] a. jabbour, the evolution of defensive elements in the syrian cities and kingdoms during the bronze age: syrian jazirah, euphrates region, northern levant, between the early and middle bronze age, phd dissertation, department of ancient sciences near eastern archaeology, sapienza university of rome, 2020. [7] z. öngül, "historical development of nicosia fortifications and its texture along with the fortification walls", defensive architecture of the mediterranean xv to xviii centuries, 2016. [8] s. saddiki, "the fortification of the arab states' borders in the sub-regional contexts", paix et sécurité internationales journal of international law and international relations, no 6, 2018. [9] a. m. salama, "doha: between making an instant city and skirmishing globalization", mei-viewpoints of the middle east institute, pp. 42-45, 2008. [10] x. simou, v. klotsa, g. koutropoulos, "observations on the architecture of thermisi fortification in argolid from 15th to 18th century", proceedings of the international conference on modern age fortifications of the mediterranean coast, editorial publicacions universitat d’alacant, 2017. [11] j. a. m. tebas, african frontiers: walls to face threats, document analysis, instituto español de estudios estratégicos, jan. 2016. [12] unesco citadel, ancient city and fortress buildings of derbent, commission of the russian federation for city of derbent administration russian committee of icomos, 2001. dss vol. 4, january 2023, pp.36-45 45 [13] j. j. verdejo, j. m. cabeza-lainez, j. a. pulido-arcas, c. rubio-bellido, "spanish fortifications in asia: a case study of intramuros district in manila current situation and future prospects", wit transactions on the built environment, no 143, pp. 387-398, 2014. [14] v. vernon, k. f. zimmermann, walls and fences: a journey through history and economics, in the economic geography of cross-border migration. springer, cham, 2021. microsoft word 34-43_148.docx defense and vol. 1, decem https://doi.org this work is lice to share and ada authorship and in industry amel becic1 1 international u *correspond © the auth 2020. published by arda. 1. introdu in this resea the art litera industry 4.0 difference b rather than e to the brillia this underp and on-the-g to a great ex innovation o supporting w instrument to this paper advancemen changes to o advancemen created in 20 assembling i other chapte 4.0 helped to cities will al it will try to smart cities, be answered table 1 pres d security s mber 2020, pp g/10.37868/ds nsed under a cre apt the material nitial publication y 4.0 and 1 university of s ding author: be hor(s) y uction arch applicati ature is analy 0 with smart between this exploring bot ant city alon lays the sign ground ventu xtent mechan 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[16],[18] smart city architecture describes smart city development 2017 [24], [25], [31], [32],[41] smart city 2.0 describes future of smart cities 2019 [40], [42], [43],[45],[50], [52] industry 4.0 in smart city describes integration of industry 4.0 in smart city 2018 [24],[27],[28],[30],[26] smart city development describes the smart city 2018 [3],[5],[9],[10] industry 4.0 industry 4.0 introduction 2018 [17],[19],[20],[23],[33],[35],[36] smart city 2.0 describes new features of smart city 2.0 2019 [53],[54],[56],[59],[37] industry 4.0 features describes new features of industry 4.0 2019 [61], [62], [64] architecture of smart city 2.0 describes newest architecture of smart city 2.0 2020 [46], [47], [48], [49] 2. industry 4.0 and smart cities the standard purpose behind the ascent of the smart cities initiative is making an acceptable model for urban networks and shield individual fulfillment of their inhabitants. the subject of the smart cities is not considered uniquely to be a specialized control, however extraordinary monetary, helpful or lawful viewpoints must be included [11]. in the possibility of industry 4.0, the internet of things (iot) can be used for the improvement of assumed splendid things. sub-fragments of these things are outfitted with their own insight. included knowledge is used both during the amassing of a thing, up to diligent checking of the things lifecycle (keen systems) [12]. interconnection of these structures can be depended upon transport structures. associating information from process-based industry 4.0 with smart vehicle systems of the city could make useful improvement of society [13]. germany is first to introduce industry 4.0. after germany, the term was spreaded all around the world. the name industry 4.0 alludes to the forward mechanical insurgency, with the initial three coming to fruition through automation, power, and it [14]. the forward mechanical insurgency, and henceforth the 4.0, will come about by means of the web of things and the internet of administrations getting incorporated with the fabrication. be that as it may, all the advantages of past upsets in industry came to fruition sometime later, though with the forward insurgency we get an opportunity to proactively control the manner in which it changes our reality [15]. figure 1. percent of people in usa living in urban area [67] dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.34-43 36 the vision of industry 4.0 is that later on, modern organizations will construct worldwide networks to associate their hardware, plants, and warehousing offices as digital physical frameworks, which will interface and control one another by sharing data that triggers activities [16]. these digital physical frameworks will cover the state of processing plants, savvy machines, brilliant offices, and flexible chains. this will achieve upgrades in the modern procedures inside assembling in general, through building, material utilization, flexible chains, and item lifecycle [17]. at the focal point of this vision will be the processing plant, which will adjust the way creation is performed [18]. it won't be simply digital physical systems such as keen hardware that will be smart; the items being gathered will likewise have insight of the goal that can be recognized all through the assembling procedure [19]. the vision held is that the installed frameworks are coordinated with the vertical business forms, (deals, coordination, and funds, among others) and related it frameworks. they will empower savvy manufacturing plants to control the start to finish the board of the whole assembling process from flexible affixes through to administrations and lifecycles. notwithstanding, in the industry 4.0 framework, these elements will go about as one. keen production lines don't relate just to tremendous organizations, undoubtedly, they are perfect for little and medium-sized endeavors as a result of the adaptability that they give [22]. for instance, authority over the level assembling process and brilliant items empowers better dynamic and dynamic procedure control, as in the ability and adaptability to take into account plan changes or to change creation to address a client's inclination in the items plan. moreover, this dynamic procedure control empowers little parcel sizes, which are still beneficial and oblige singular custom requests. these dynamic businesses and designing procedures empower better approaches for making inventive plans of action [23]. table 2. industry 4.0 technologies and e-learning capacities industry 4.0 technologies e-learning yes no production and scheduling software 41% 28% digital visualization 30% 8% production for safe human-machine interaction 12% 6% product exchange 25% 20% programming devices 12% 4% product managment system 14% 5% 3. integration of industry 4.0 in smart cities today the greater part of total population lives in urban territories (fig. 1). worldwide urbanization shows expanding advancement. in spite of the way that world's surface is involved by just 2% of urban territories, urban settlements amass over half of population and expend up to 75% of regular assets [24]. subsequently, the issue of "brilliant" urban turn of events, recovering arrangements of population development and relocation issues, environmental change, instruction and wellbeing, reasonable lodging and urban life change affected by data and correspondence advancements (icts, computerized advances) with regards to fourth mechanical upset have pulled in expanding consideration in the last decade and the issues of "smart" urban advancement are talked about in various configurations [25]. present day investigations of future (or "shrewd") urban areas have a few multidisciplinary contents. among them issues with respect to practical social, natural and financial improvement of urban areas and issues with respect to complex city biological systems the board in order to access fundamental assets like lodging, clean air, clean water for whole occupants. the maintainable cities index incorporates these parts of the "smart city" idea. for instance, the 5top of worldwide urban areas are zurich, singapore, stockholm, vienna and london [26]. moscow positions 57. in general. enthusiasm of the scientists concentrated on the "computerized city" during the 1990s, as the significance of "advanced" had been expanded when the eu government upheld the program "european digital city" in 19961999. during this period, enthusiasm of scientists, government officials and financial specialists was centered around advancement of various data administrations for residents giving collaboration of urban occupants furthermore, region by utilizing new innovations. motivation behind this program was to choose 15 urban areas and help them in figuring it out the potential being developed and advanced strategy execution which would change lives of occupants, organizations, laborers and business people. in 2008, ibm ceo samuel j. palmisano, noticed that "our planet is getting more astute" on the grounds that the world has been progressively outfitted with "computerized" instruments (sensors are being brought into all biological systems). the world is turning out to be increasingly interconnected and progressively smart (developing new dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.34-43 37 processing forces, models and supercomputers) [27]. dynamic improvement of the "brilliant" culture started toward the finish of the principal decade of 2000's when "shrewd" prefix started showing up in varieties word articulations like "shrewd turn of events", "keen development", "brilliant guideline", "shrewd city", "keen plant", "smart home" [28]. 4. smart city development based on industry 4.0 in the idea of "smart city" adequate significance was recently given to giving residents open administrations. rising new ict age is causing all components of city and its foundation (economy, transport, instruction, clinical consideration, open request, and the board) to become "smarter" [8]. from one perspective, advancement of internet of things, coordinated frameworks and their worldwide systems administration (for instance, keen vehicle arrange that is utilized to manage blockage), of digital physical frameworks to make new open doors for building "keen city" and progress to "smart economy" in view of industry 4.0 [29]. improvement of industry 4.0 will take care of certain issues of assets and vitality proficiency, urban creation, segment changes in megacities. industry 4.0 makes creation innocuous to urban condition. creation gets scholarly, advanced and coordinated not just at the level of a straightforward processing plant. advanced innovations make conditions for level coordination which is going past the "keen industrial facility" and advance computerized chains of significant worth creation at nearby, provincial, national and worldwide levels [9]. then again, the advancement of "smart urban areas" as an objective of urban, modern, monetary, social, natural arrangement advances new industrialization and digitization of current economy. "shrewd urban communities" are making progressively alluring conditions for living, work, training, human capital, pulling in money related assets for business improvement [30]. the expression "smart urban communities" is applied not exclusively to urban communities; it deals with today more generally. "smart urban communities" can be viewed as agglomerations or "uber centers" of the present advanced economy [31]. it is fundamental to think about turn of events of industry 4.0 as formation of "savvy urban communities" and agglomerations just as different items like "brilliant processing plant", "keen home", "brilliant road", "shrewd grounds" and others which are mutually molding computerized economy at the degree of the city, locale, nation. new computerized innovations are not just changing straightforward creation into esteem chains dependent on the internet of things and digital physical frameworks and making new types of cooperation underway frameworks yet in addition making new connections between makers, providers and clients [33]. industry 4.0 is making mechanical and innovative reason for rising "shrewd urban communities" whose advancement and incorporation turns into an indispensable component of economy digitalization. a shrewd city additionally needs a huge measure of information stockpiling, which can be accomplished through state, an electrically tunable metasurface [34]. this innovation could influence a scope of fields, (for example, imaging, correspondence, encryption, and information storage). the reaction of guaranteed shrewd city to unsure information is noteworthy, prompting the topic of how to measure the heartiness of a shrewd city. an evaluation structure must mull over different attributes, including shrewd city methodology and the interests all things considered, (for example, evaluators, ict foundations, legitimate and administrative strategies, administrations, plans of action, and supportability). the goals of such a system are to look at the qualities of various keen urban areas to distinguish new difficulties, evaluate benefits, and assess execution. in shrewd urban communities, effective security support is a significant necessity of vanets. one thought is the manner by which to make sure about them by structuring arrangements that lessen the probability of system assaults or even how to lessen the impact a fruitful assault could have on them. a keen city needs lightweight, adaptable confirmation systems that secure drivers from interior and outside assailants. the ieee 1609.2 v2 standard determines a lot of security administrations (for example, testament expert) for supporting vehicular interchanges. open key infrastructure-based (pki-based) answers for check vehicle security probably won't lead to an adaptable arrangement. cross-affirmation ought to be characterized when nations or urban areas have numerous root declaration specialists. the power answerable for trouble making identification ought to be joined into the pki framework. structuring and sending keen urban areas needs specialists from different fields, counting financial aspects, humanism, building, ict, and arrangement and guideline [37]. different systems depicting the engineering of brilliant urban communities have been proposed by both industry and scholarly sources. one of the most generally adjusted and embraced models is the reference model proposed by the u.s. national institute of standards and technology. keen urban areas are perplexing frameworks, frequently called "frameworks of frameworks", including individuals, foundation, and procedure segments. generally shrewd urban community models comprise of six segments: government, economy, portability, conditions, living, and individuals [38]. different methodologies and techniques have dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.34-43 38 been proposed to assess keen urban communities from numerous points of view, including a urban internet of things (iot) framework for brilliant urban areas, manageability, worldwide city execution, future urban situations, urban seriousness, and strength. figure 2. adoption of industry 4.0 by sector [68] 5. future of smart city advancement of "smart city" basics was joined by development this idea content [40]. prior, the smart city idea concentrated more on advancement of smart considered as a complex environment whose administration required arrangement of consistent access to essential assets without harm to nature [41]. in this manner, with the developing effect of new "advanced" innovations applied on the procedure of urbanization, specialists concentrated on "digitalization" and improvement of different data administrations [42]. at long last, advancement of industry 4.0 innovations (web of things, distributed computing, digital physical frameworks, large information and others) has made it conceivable to make entire urbanization process more brilliant: urban arranging and development ("keen home"), creation and business ("smart processing plant" and "keen economy"), the board ("brilliant guideline") what's more, to make conditions for improvement and aggregation of social and human capital ("shrewd population") [10]. in this way, industry 4.0 advances are creating today an in a general sense new foundation of the "smart city", making new open doors for settling specific issues with respect to assets and vitality effectiveness, urban creation association, segment changes in present day megacities. thus, "smart city" improvement turns into a type of new industrialization of the advanced economy [43]. the solid enthusiasm by metropolitan governments worldwide in smart city communities originates from their capacity to improve their residents' nature of life. here, we depicted a portion of the fundamental ideas of savvy urban communities, distinguishing difficulties and future research chances to empower enormous scope arrangement of savvy urban areas [44]. engineers, modelers, and originators ought to presently center around parts of iot the board, information to the executives, savvy city appraisal, vanet security, and inexhaustible innovations, (for example, sun-oriented power) [45]. we trust to see shrewd city engineers, planners, and creators give adaptable, financially savvy answers for address them later on [46]. figure 3. smart city infrastructure investment by industry (2014-2023) [69] dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.34-43 39 6. research on the world of smart cities there is plenty of new research activities around the world. it begun with the ibm smarter planet initiative1, rapidly followed by the mit city science program. what's more, trinity's smart and sustainable cities initiative3 , all tending to fundamental parts of this dynamic field. in any case, the majority of these activities center around a shut arrangement of subjects, which prompts a somewhat restricted, nearness driven view on the space [47]. so as to empower a really comprehensive interdisciplinary and future evidence approach, it is imperative to address the space of brilliant urban areas on a more elevated level of reflection [48]. i.e. to empower the recently presented ideal smart city [49]. we have to make the logical underpinnings for future web of cities infrastructures (ioci). to guarantee this, a far-reaching set of systems, models, and instruments for plan, improvement, the executives, and advancement of next generation shrewd city applications is required. such work requirements is to follow a standards as a way to tackle the great difficulties of future shrewd urban areas through close reconciliation of analysts and partners from various spaces to make an open, comprehensive, and interdisciplinary research stage [50]. 6.1. metodology the subsequent significant focal point of the ioci will be on formulating an exhaustive procedure to help partners in structuring, creating, and advancing reusable and viable keen city applications. we will put together our exploration with respect to madcat [5], an iterative programming designing approach for cloud applications with an express spotlight on curiosity detectability, reuse, and improved partner correspondence. expanding on endeavors of intently coordinating partners from various areas into the way toward making shrewd city applications, we will make an all-encompassing approach for building shrewd city applications that unequivocally empowers the plan and improvement of reusable and freely viable application parts in close participation with master partners [51]. the philosophy will permit for a capacity arranged methodology for catching and bundling required usefulness in particular, reusable units that can be shared and coordinated in numerous applications [52]. such units characterize their normal condition by means of plainly determined interfaces, taking into account the consistent mix of demonstrating furthermore, recreation situations, just as genuine foundation, giving an unmistakable deliberation between the framework being worked on and its execution surroundings, for example, testing, organizing, and creation, each with varying degrees of reproduced condition resources [53]. to dependably work and oversee future brilliant city applications, the third mainstay of the ioci is a farreaching toolset that will permit administrators to consistently convey and execute complex applications in an autonomic, repeatable, and perceptible way. so as to do as such, we will separate these devices in three unique layers that expand upon one another. on the most minimal layer (framework layer), building the establishment, one needs to oversee and screen the accessible shrewd city foundation, comprising of independent servers, cloud situations, edge foundations [54]. in the framework layer we need an exhaustive toolset that permits administrators to uncover, oversee, and screen the basic framework in a uniform and extensible way. in light of the framework layer, one needs to give a runtime layer to shrewd city applications that permits and supports the accompanying key perspectives. to begin with, the runtime layer needs to help versatile application arrangement thinking about the focusing on framework, anticipated number of clients and required information volume. second, the runtime layer needs to give a runtime domain to executing savvy city applications that permits to consistently scale applications across different foundations [56]. third, to manage the extent of information positions, tremendous information volume the runtime layer needs to give productive and versatile information on the board, comprising of information intercession, change, handling and capacity. at last, since different keen city applications can be executed at the same time, the runtime layer needs to give both versatile information and application confinement levels, that permit various inhabitants to work at the same time without meddling each other. the last layer (mix layer of our toolset is then answerable for incorporating novel keen city application advancement techniques, models, and reproductions [57]. the reconciliation layer bolsters diverse application improvement and organization stages (i.e. reenactment, testing, creation, and rollout), which gives administrators and engineers diverse application runtime situations by getting to either mimicked or genuine frameworks. furthermore, the reconciliation layer opens interfaces to recover information that is gathered during the execution of uses also, the administration of the basic foundation, in request to i.e. feed recreations, extricate utilization designs, or create models [58]. 6.2. modeling modeling face difficulties because of an absence of accessible real-world framework to make and confirm applications in wording of usefulness, non-utilitarian properties, or administrative necessities [59]. current dss vol. 1, december 2020, pp.34-43 40 arrangements either depend for little scope testbeds or exclusive, hand crafted reenactments to copy true situations (e.g., anylogic5) [60]. be that as it may, such arrangements are a long way from perfect, as changes in realworld conditions should be physically repeated in lab testbeds or recreations, and the relocation of uses from test framework to certifiable arrangements must be painstakingly arranged and physically completed for each new application variant [61]. moreover, brilliant city applications being worked on in part depend on information that is now accessible in the physical condition, and subsequently would profit from utilizing certifiable information rather than recreations if conceivable. inside the ioci, this test will be tended to by grasping the requirement for displaying and reproducing portions of an application's condition, just as incorporating genuine world information from the physical condition at various stages during its lifecycle at the center of our examination endeavors [62]. 7. conclusions introduction of industry 4.0 brought a lot of possibilities for many industries to profit. the one of it that profited the most are smart cities. industry 4.0 integrated into smart cities and is helping them to become more efficient using technologies like cloud and iot. one of the most significant reactions for the past three mechanical insurgencies and their related approaches is the inability to understand the most problems that are begging to be addressed that keep on confronting present day social orders. these incorporate environmental change, ceaseless maladies, and imbalance. with the progress to industry 4.0, arrangement producers should think its worldwide effect on present and potential social issues through the social components of new advancements. society on the loose should profit by such modern change, since purchaser and maker are to a great extent associated also, both can take an interest in the creation and utilization process. smart cities will surely profit from integration of industry 4.0. industry 4.0 focuses on energy efficiency and reliability and it is absolutely essential in modern smart city. artificial intelligence from industry 4.0 will help in enhancing urban transportation, water management etc. but all in all, most important aspect which industry 4.0 adds into smart cities is sustainability [63]. ability of controlling all parts of the process will make it easier to conserve raw materials and energy. all in all, we can conclude that industry 4.0 will definitely radically improve smart cities development and implementation. one of the reasons why smart city industry is booming is because there is a big rise of people living in urban areas and they all present the possible residents (as shown in figure 1) [ 64]. as this paper discussed in chapter 4 the development of internet of things as well as all digital technologies made it easier and more flexible to develop new ways of improving smart cities through digitalization and most importantly artificial intelligence [42]. artificial intelligence development will continue to rise in future as one of the main industry fields, and with its rise smart city industry will also profit. the future of smart cities as discussed in chapter 5 is all about focusing on people, governance and policy rather than 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[67] reasearchgate.net [68] globalskillsumit.com [69] wikipedia.com issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id199 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 83 using data envelopment analysis (dea) for measuring efficiency in the defense sector ivan okromtchedlishvili1* 1 phd student, business administration, faculty of business and technology, international black sea university, tbilisi, georgia *corresponding author e-mail: iokro@yahoo.com received oct. 3, 2022 revised nov. 15, 2022 accepted nov. 17, 2022 abstract the way to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of public spending, which is a top priority for any government in any country, implies the introduction of performance-based budgeting (pbb). one of the more advanced governmentwide performance budgeting systems that uses performance information systematically in the preparation of the government budget is program budgeting. it is important to keep in mind that without systematic development and use of program performance information and adequate and effective performance indicators, program budgeting in the defense sector does not make sense as a tool to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the defense resource management process. only by defining and tracking success can it be known if the defense organizations and units perform efficiently and effectively. in this article, data envelopment analysis (dea) was considered an instrument that can be used to measure, evaluate, and analyze the efficiency of the state and government as a whole, as well as commercial and non-profit organizations, including military units. it can be used as an instrument to hold managers accountable for their performance, which is critical to effective pbb. in this article, dea has been applied to nato members and some eastern europe post-soviet aspirant and partner countries (ukraine, georgia and moldova) to understand how efficient each country is at achieving its military power. in order to demonstrate the feasibility of using dea to examine the efficiency of the infantry battalions of the infantry brigades under the eastern and western commands of the georgian defense forces (gdf), an illustrative analysis of the efficiency of the aforementioned units was carried out using fictitious data. © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: program budgeting; performance; efficiency; effectiveness; data envelopment analysis. 1. introduction the introduction of performance-based budgeting (pbb) is a way to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of public spending, which is a top priority for any government in any country. this approach implies focusing rather on the results of spending and the achievement of policy objectives than on the management of inputs and provides budget decision-makers with greater discretion in the use of resources and in deciding the input dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 84 mix. however, simultaneously, increased flexibility, and weakened central controls are counterbalanced by stronger internal controls and oversight and accountability mechanisms to hold managers accountable for the results of their performance. pbb implies the systematic use of performance information in the budget process to make results a central determinant of budget funding decisions, and thereby make budgeting a powerful instrument for maximizing government’s efficiency and effectiveness. program budgeting is one of the most advanced nationwide performance budgeting systems that systematically uses performance information in the preparation of the state budget where expenditures are classified into groups of similar activities or projects (i.e. programs) with common outputs and outcomes. the main differences between the traditional line-item budget method and the program budget method are presented in the table 1. table 1. the main differences between the traditional line-item budget method and the program budget method [26] budget method characteristics primary organization feature budget focus line-item expenditure budget expenditure by commodity or resource purchased resources purchased control of resources program budget expenditure related to public goals cost data across organizational lines achievements (products or outputs) planning defense is an important part of the public sector, and its organizations consume large amounts of public resources. improving the efficiency and effectiveness of managing defense funds and ensuring a successful defense budgeting process implies introducing the performance-based (program) budgeting approach in the defense sector as well. the systematic development and use of program performance information is critical to achieving a good defense program budget. without adequate and effective performance indicators and their application to assess the performance of program managers, program budgeting in the defense sector does not make sense as a tool to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the defense resource management process; this will only make it easier and simpler for the ministry to allocate and use budgetary resources by loosening line item controls, without obtaining the core benefits of program budgeting. van dooren et al. [1, p. 20] argue that “performance can be defined as outputs and outcomes.” the principal tool of program budgeting identified by robinson [2, p. 2], along with “budgetary expenditure classification in terms of outcome/output groups (“programs”), is “the systematic gathering of performance information (through indicators, evaluation, etc.) to inform decisions about budgetary priorities between competing programs.” performance-based budgets require information on inputs (measured in monetary terms), outputs (units of output), efficiency and productivity data (cost per activity), and effectiveness information (level of goal achievement) [3]. in the case of the defense ministry, performance information (outputs, outcomes, and indicators) and its systematic development and use are critical to achieving a good defense program budget and an effective resource allocation. the existence of a clear linkage between resource allocation and desired/produced outputs and outcomes is crucial for defense decision-makers to provide them with the ability to compare the costs and benefits of alternative spending options and choose the most effective ones, as well as monitor and control performance. the old management adage “you can’t manage what you can’t measure” applies to the defense sector as well. without defining and tracking success, it is impossible to know if the defense organizations and units are successful. when considering the defense sector's activities, two aspects can be distinguished. the first concerns the products/services (outputs) produced by defense entities through the use of resources and is related to dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 85 efficiency ("doing things right"). the second aspect, which concerns the impact of the produced products or services (outputs) on the objectives set for defense, is related to effectiveness (“doing the right things”). as webb & angelis [24, p.21] noted, “to measure efficiency, we must understand the relationship between the cost of inputs and the amount of outputs […] to measure effectiveness, we must understand the relationship between the organization’s goals and objectives [or outcomes] and its outputs […].” in order to do the right things (or to achieve effectiveness), defense policy-makers and decision-makers have to choose and develop the right mix of subprogram (intermediate) outputs to produce the final output (military capability) of the defense program, maximizing their preference value for outcomes, while subprogram managers have to do things right when responsible for producing outputs efficiently [13]. data envelopment analysis (dea) can be seen as a tool to measure and evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of the state and government as a whole, as well as non-profit and commercial organizations, units and subunits (including defense organizations and units). it can be used as an instrument to hold managers accountable for their performance which is critical to effective pbb. the results of the dea analysis, in the form of potential improvements, offer management (commanders) opportunities to explore in search of higher performance. the process includes identifying the main sources of inefficiency, as well as those units that can become a benchmark for others. in this study, dea has been applied to nato members and some eastern europe post-soviet aspirant and partner countries (ukraine, georgia and moldova) to understand how efficient each country is at achieving its military power. the efficiency of the decision-making units was measured with a ccr model. as for the georgian defense forces (gdf) units, in particular the infantry battalions of the infantry brigades under the eastern and western commands, there are significant limitations in conducting such research due to the secrecy of detailed information, especially regarding the output of the defense program, namely, the military capability and its indicators – readiness levels of units. in addition, due to the peculiarities of the current defense program structure, obtaining accurate cost information, such as detailed information on the cost per battalion for any given period, should be very problematic. therefore, in order to demonstrate the feasibility of using dea to examine the efficiency of operational units, an illustrative analysis of the efficiency of the aforementioned infantry battalions was carried out using fictitious data. 2. data envelopment analysis (dea) 2.1 the use of the dea in measuring performance an excellent mathematical programming tool that can be used to measure, evaluate, and analyze performance is data envelopment analysis (dea), which has been used to evaluate the performance of many different types of organizations, including government, not-for-profit and commercial units and subunits since it was first introduced in the late 1970s. as a comparative performance measurement tool, dea is aimed at facilitating “a program to improve performance, not to provide a simple grading of service providers” [4]. according to avkiran, dea is a nonparametric method that provides a comparative ratio of weighted outputs to inputs for each decision-making unit (dmu), i.e., a relative efficiency score, which is usually reported as a number from 0 to 100% or 0 to 1. a unit scoring less than 100% is considered inefficient compared to other units in the sample [5]. efficiency can be defined as a "degree to which the observed use of resources to produce outputs of a given quality matches the optimal use of resources to produce outputs of a given quality" [4, p. 14]. sherman defines efficiency as "the ability to produce products or services with the minimum level of resources required" [6, p. 3]. farrell recognized the importance of measuring the extent to which outputs could be increased through higher efficiency without the use of additional inputs [7]. the pareto optimality condition for efficient production states that a dmu is inefficient if the output can be increased without increasing any input and without decreasing any other output; likewise, a dmu is inefficient if the input can be decreased without decreasing any output and without increasing any other input [8]. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 86 dea measures the efficiency of decision-making units (dmus) using linear programming techniques, envelops observed input-output vectors as tightly as possible and allows to consider multiple input-output vectors at the same time without any assumptions on data distribution. in each case, efficiency is measured by proportional changes in inputs or outputs. according to ji and lee, “a dea model can be subdivided into an input-oriented model, which minimizes inputs while satisfying at least the given output levels, and an outputoriented model, which maximizes outputs without requiring more of any observed input values” [9, p. 268]. the original charnes, cooper, and rhodes (ccr) dea model utilizes linear programming to produce an efficiency measure for a dmu, requiring only that the dmus convert similar inputs to similar outputs and that these can be quantified. the logic of the model implies, first, defining the underlying premise that efficiency is the sum of weighted outputs over the sum of weighted inputs [10]. the dea model for the kth dmu can be formulated as follows: t ∑ uryrk max ek = r = 1 m ∑ vixik i = 1 t ∑ uryrj s.t. r = 1 ≤ 1 j = 1,……n m ∑ vixij i = 1 ur ≥ 0 r = 1,…….t vi ≥ 0 i = 1,…….m, where: objective function ek = the efficiency index of the k th dmu; parameters yrj = the amount of the r th output for the jth dmu; xij = the amount of the i th input for the jth dmu; t = the number of outputs; m = the number of inputs; and n = the number of dmus decision variables ur = the weight assigned to the r th output; and vi = the weight assigned to the i th input [11]. generally, in the defense sector area, dea efficiency and productivity studies have focused on various support functions such as maintenance and recruitment, as well as operational units, the core area of defense (see table 2). dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 87 table 2. bibliography of dea in the military [12] paper field inputs outputs observa tions lewin and morey (1981) recruitment 10 2 43 charnes et al. (1985) maintenance 8 4 42 bowlin (1987) maintenance 3 4 21 bowlin (1989) accounting and finance 1 5 18 ali et al. (1989)* recruitment n/a n/a n/a roll et al. (1989) maintenance 3 2 10-35 clarke (1992) maintenance 4 2 17 ozcan and bannick (1994) hospitals 6 2 23 bowlin (2004) civil reserve air fleet 4 7 37-111 brockett et al. (2004) recruitment 1 10 n/a sun (2004) maintenance 6 5 30 farris et al. (2006) engineering design projects 4 1 15 lu (2011) kalin (2021) hanson (2012) hanson (2019) outlets logistics operational units combat units 4 4 3 3 (1) 2 1 1 1 (1) 31 34 11 12 *paper not available. hanson conducted interesting research that examined the productivity and efficiency of the core area of the norwegian armed forces, operational units, using data envelopment analysis (dea). a model has been developed to analyze the productivity and efficiency by dea for the operational units of the armed forces. as hanson noted, “by aggregating activity standards and quality measures the model enables a meaningful and measurable expression for the output of an operational unit” [12, p. 25]. in another study, hanson used a scenario-based planning approach to develop an effectiveness measurement model for situations where traditional methods such as two-stage regression fail due to long time lags and lack of variation in the variables. according to hanson, “from a sample of 12 combat units in the norwegian armed forces, producing different outputs, [it was found] that inefficiencies in output mix can explain most of the changes in overall effectiveness over a four-year period of time” [13, p. 1]. 2.2 examining the efficiency of nato members and some partner countries in achieving military power by using dea dea has been applied to nato members and some eastern europe post-soviet aspirant and partner countries (ukraine, georgia and moldova) to understand how efficient each country is at achieving its military power. the efficiency of the decision-making units was measured with a ccr model. 2.2.1 specification of data and variables a total of 31 dmus were selected for the study. these dmus focused on nato members and some eastern europe post-soviet aspirant and partner countries (ukraine, georgia and moldova). the study was aimed at measuring how efficiently each country achieved its military power. four variables were retrieved from the open sources [28], [29], [30], [31]: two input variables defense expenditure, current prices and exchange rates us dollars for 2020; defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) for 2020; and two output variables military personnel for 2020; and military strength ranking for 2022 (reversed). dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 88 defense expenditure refers to all current and capital spending on the armed forces of a state and in theory, the higher the level of defense expenditure, the better the military power of the state. the commitment made in 2014 by members of the north atlantic treaty organization (nato) to increase their defense expenditure as a share of real gdp to 2 % by 2024 is still the subject of debate about military spending in nato [25]. in my recent article, i proposed to define the main output of a defense program as “military capability as a comprehensive force structure consisting of its constituent force elements/capabilities […] with an integrated set of aspects categorized as doctrine, organization, training, materiel, leadership development, personnel, and facilities, and with an appropriate readiness level assessed at a concrete time” [23, p. 94]. therefore, in this case, it is crucial that military personnel be considered as an integral part of military capability (combat-ready forces), i.e., the “production” of military personnel implies the simultaneous development of the military capability as a whole (across the entire dotmlpf spectrum). in principle, the gfp rating (military strength ranking) is a kind of indicator of the performance of the defense organization of a state, and an improved position in the ranking is evidence of increased efficiency and effectiveness of the defense programs. for this study, the reverse military power index (global firepower, 2022) was used, so it was assumed that the higher the military power index, the better the country. at the initial measure, the lower the military index, the better. 2.2.2 dea model and results the dea analysis was carried out using dea-solver-pro 5.0 software [22] developed by w.w. cooper, l.m. seiford and k. tone. this study performed a ccr input-oriented dea model, and the main focus was to see how efficient each country was at producing military capability and achieving its military power index, given its resources or inputs. table 3 and table 4 below show the results of running the model. table 3. dea test results rank dmu score rank dmu score 1 moldova 1 17 netherlands 0,57707535 1 united states 1 18 bulgaria 0,570603056 1 spain 1 19 poland 0,569492872 1 türkiye 1 20 hungary 0,55453459 5 czech republic 0,971773347 21 united kingdom 0,548049942 6 ukraine 0,932569009 22 belgium 0,533707754 7 italy 0,909221694 23 croatia 0,528911822 8 portugal 0,8447062 24 slovenia 0,5158751 9 georgia 0,792712503 25 slovak republic 0,476957309 10 france 0,697923222 26 albania 0,376089889 11 romania 0,665795625 27 north macedonia 0,368317769 12 germany 0,662166375 28 lithuania 0,28768714 13 greece 0,634367881 29 latvia 0,20825904 14 norway 0,631334284 30 montenegro 0,197800912 15 canada 0,610115983 31 estonia 0,157514612 16 denmark 0,578313316 dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 89 table 4. projections by the ccr model no dmu score i/o data projection difference % 1 united states 1 defense expenditure 7,84952e+11 7,84952e+11 0 0,00% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 3,72 3,72 0 0,00% military personnel 1346000 1346000 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 35,8958 35,8958 0 0,00% 2 france 0,697923222 defense expenditure 52727000000 36799397750 -15927602250 -30,21% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 2,03 1,416784142 -0,613215858 -30,21% military personnel 208000 208000 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 5,7275 5,7275 0 0,00% 3 united kingdom 0,548049942 defense expenditure 61925000000 33937992687 -27987007313 -45,20% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 2,29 1,255034368 -1,034965632 -45,20% military personnel 156200 175283,8318 19083,83183 12,22% military strength ranking (reversed) 5,2184 5,2184 0 0,00% 4 italy 0,909221694 defense expenditure 26071000000 23704318784 -2366681216 -9,08% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,38 1,254725938 -0,125274062 -9,08% military personnel 175500 175500 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 4,7871 4,7871 0 0,00% 5 türkiye 1 defense expenditure 13396000000 13396000000 0 0,00% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,86 1,86 0 0,00% military personnel 437200 437200 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 4,4351 4,4351 0 0,00% 6 germany 0,662166375 defense expenditure 58902000000 39002923817 -19899076183 -33,78% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,55 1,026357881 -0,523642119 -33,78% military personnel 186900 186900 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 4,3067 4,3067 0 0,00% 7 spain 1 defense expenditure 12828000000 12828000000 0 0,00% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1 1 0 0,00% military personnel 122500 122500 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 3,7337 3,7337 0 0,00% 8 ukraine 0,932569009 defense expenditure 5924000000 5524538808 -399461191,8 -6,74% dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 90 defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 4,1 3,823532936 -0,276467064 -6,74% military personnel 209000 209000 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 3,4016 6,261898544 2,860298544 84,09% 9 canada 0,610115983 defense expenditure 23595000000 14395686628 -9199313372 -38,99% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,44 0,878567016 -0,561432984 -38,99% military personnel 71000 111398,8073 40398,80729 56,90% military strength ranking (reversed) 3,3736 3,3736 0 0,00% 10 poland 0,569492872 defense expenditure 13590000000 7739408124 -5850591876 -43,05% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 2,28 1,298443747 -0,981556253 -43,05% military personnel 120000 120000 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 3,1759 3,1759 0 0,00% 11 greece 0,634367881 defense expenditure 5019000000 3183892393 -1835107607 -36,56% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 2,65 1,681074884 -0,968925116 -36,56% military personnel 107600 107600 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 2,8681 2,8681 0 0,00% 12 norway 0,631334284 defense expenditure 7272000000 4591062910 -2680937090 -36,87% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 2,01 1,26898191 -0,74101809 -36,87% military personnel 20800 54698,49719 33898,49719 162,97 % military strength ranking (reversed) 2,6527 2,6527 0 0,00% 13 netherlands 0,57707535 defense expenditure 13125000000 7574113967 -5550886033 -42,29% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,47 0,848300764 -0,621699236 -42,29% military personnel 40000 75401,12632 35401,12632 88,50% military strength ranking (reversed) 2,5771 2,5771 0 0,00% 14 romania 0,665795625 defense expenditure 5051000000 3362933704 -1688066296 -33,42% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 2,03 1,351565119 -0,678434881 -33,42% military personnel 66400 66400 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 2,5072 2,5072 0 0,00% 15 czech republic 0,971773347 defense expenditure 3201000000 3110646484 -90353515,56 -2,82% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,31 1,273023085 -3,70e-02 -2,82% military personnel 26800 41984,69203 15184,69203 56,66% military strength ranking (reversed) 2,3944 2,3944 0 0,00% 16 portugal 0,8447062 dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 91 defense expenditure 3306000000 2792598697 -513401303 -15,53% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,43 1,207929866 -0,222070134 -15,53% military personnel 28700 38467,306 9767,306 34,03% military strength ranking (reversed) 2,2436 2,2436 0 0,00% 17 hungary 0,55453459 defense expenditure 2770000000 1536060814 -1233939186 -44,55% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,79 0,992616916 -0,797383084 -44,55% military personnel 22700 25069,63378 2369,63378 10,44% military strength ranking (reversed) 1,7083 1,7083 0 0,00% 18 denmark 0,578313316 defense expenditure 4979000000 2879422001 -2099577999 -42,17% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,4 0,809638643 -0,590361357 -42,17% military personnel 18100 34469,74292 16369,74292 90,44% military strength ranking (reversed) 1,6836 1,6836 0 0,00% 19 slovak republic 0,476957309 defense expenditure 2050000000 977762482,9 -1072237517 -52,30% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,96 0,934836325 -1,025163675 -52,30% military personnel 12900 19568,30014 6668,300138 51,69% military strength ranking (reversed) 1,5252 1,5252 0 0,00% 20 croatia 0,528911822 defense expenditure 1031000000 545308088,2 -485691911,8 -47,11% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,8 0,952041279 -0,847958721 -47,11% military personnel 15200 16045,33197 845,3319659 5,56% military strength ranking (reversed) 1,4729 1,4729 0 0,00% 21 bulgaria 0,570603056 defense expenditure 1075000000 613398285,7 -461601714,3 -42,94% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,55 0,884434738 -0,665565262 -42,94% military personnel 25600 25600 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 1,3664 1,3664 0 0,00% 22 belgium 0,533707754 defense expenditure 5427000000 2896431982 -2530568018 -46,63% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,05 0,560393142 -0,489606858 -46,63% military personnel 25200 31646,37661 6446,376605 25,58% military strength ranking (reversed) 1,3265 1,3265 0 0,00% 23 lithuania 0,28768714 defense expenditure 1176000000 338320076,6 -837679923,4 -71,23% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 2,11 0,607019865 -1,502980135 -71,23% military personnel 16300 16300 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 0,8633 0,924254558 6,10e-02 7,06% 24 slovenia 0,5158751 dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 92 defense expenditure 568000000 293017056,6 -274982943,4 -48,41% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,08 0,557145108 -0,522854892 -48,41% military personnel 7000 9164,882239 2164,882239 30,93% military strength ranking (reversed) 0,8573 0,8573 0 0,00% 25 georgia 0,792712503 defense expenditure 292000000 231472050,9 -60527949,13 -20,73% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,8 1,426882505 -0,373117495 -20,73% military personnel 20650 20650 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 0,8169 2,09945964 1,28255964 157,00 % 26 latvia 0,20825904 defense expenditure 743000000 154736466,7 -588263533,3 -79,17% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 2,22 0,462335069 -1,757664931 -79,17% military personnel 7000 7000 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 0,6953 0,6953 0 0,00% 27 moldova 1 defense expenditure 44500000 44500000 0 0,00% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 0,4 0,4 0 0,00% military personnel 5150 5150 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 0,5859 0,5859 0 0,00% 28 estonia 0,157514612 defense expenditure 719000000 113253006,3 -605746993,7 -84,25% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 2,32 0,365433901 -1,954566099 -84,25% military personnel 6600 6600 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 0,5455 0,5455 0 0,00% 29 albania 0,376089889 defense expenditure 188000000 70704899,2 -117295100,8 -62,39% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,27 0,47763416 -0,79236584 -62,39% military personnel 6700 6700 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 0,4276 0,701893273 0,274293273 64,15% 30 montenegro 0,197800912 defense expenditure 83000000 16417475,73 -66582524,27 -80,22% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,73 0,147572816 -1,582427184 -91,47% military personnel 1900 1900 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 0,1695 0,216157282 0,046657282 27,53% 31 north macedonia 0,368317769 defense expenditure 154000000 56720936,47 -97279063,53 -63,17% defense expenditure as a share of real gdp (%) 1,25 0,460397212 -0,789602788 -63,17% military personnel 6100 6100 0 0,00% military strength ranking (reversed) 0,1283 0,67508041 0,54678041 426,1% dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 93 2.2.3 summary and recommendations the study showed that some states were efficient at producing their military capability and achieving the military power index utilizing the inputs provided, while others needed to improve. according to the test results, 4 out of the 31 countries (united states, spain, türkiye and moldova) outputted 1.00 or 100 percent efficiency across the dea model and can be used as benchmarks. the ccr input-oriented model we applied measures technical efficiency, or how resources are used during the production/delivery of an output (doing the things right). since the scores of other states were below 1.00 or 100 percent, this means that the ministries of defense should look for ways to utilize the allocated budgetary resources more efficiently to achieve higher results and improve positions in the military strength ranking. 2.3 a sample dea model for measuring the efficiency of the gdf infantry battalions in the case of the georgian defense forces (gdf), the dea can be used, for example, to examine the efficiency of operational units, particularly the infantry battalions of the infantry brigades under the eastern and western commands, on delivery of readiness. however, a significant limitation in conducting such research is the secrecy of detailed information, especially regarding the output of the defense program, namely, the military capability and its indicators – readiness levels of units. also, due to the peculiarities of the current defense program structure, it should be quite problematic to obtain accurate information regarding the inputs, for example, detailed costs per battalion for any particular period. consequently, in order to demonstrate the possibility of using dea for the above purposes, an illustrative analysis of the efficiency of battalions was carried out using fictitious data. figure 1. units, equipment, and personnel in an army infantry brigade combat team, excluding support battalion [17] dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 94 according to strategic defense review (sdr) 2021-2025 [14], the gdf future force structure, along with other military units, includes four infantry brigades under the eastern and western commands. due to the unavailability of relevant information regarding the structure of brigades of the gdf from open sources, data on the structure of brigades of the us army were used as an example. infantry brigade combat teams (ibcts) constitute the army’s “light”, primarily foot-mobile ground forces that can move by foot, vehicle, or air (either air landed or by helicopter) [15]. according to the army’s field manual (fm) 3-96, the ibcts are employed as follows: “the role of the ibct is to close with the enemy by means of fire and movement to destroy or capture enemy forces, or to repel enemy attacks by fire, close combat, and counterattack to control land areas, including populations and resources” [16, p. 1-2]. ibcts are relatively independent tactical formations that are designed to include approximately 4,400 personnel [17]. as can be seen from figure 1, there are three infantry battalions in the ibct. since there are four infantry brigades in the gdf future force structure, it can be assumed that there will be a total of 12 infantry battalions that will be treated as decision making units (dmus) in our sample dea model. two input variables can be defined for the use of personnel and equipment: (1) personnel costs pay and benefits for military personnel, compensation for civilian employees, health care costs, and travel expenses for military and civilian personnel; and (2) material costs daily expenses of operating a unit, such as equipment maintenance, training, support contractors, and so on. readiness indicators by category can be used as outputs: personnel (p-level), equipment availability (s-level), equipment readiness (r-level) and training (tlevel) (see figure 2). figure 2. data model for the dea it should be mentioned that according to avkiran, “there are some rules of thumb on the number of inputs and outputs to select and their relation to the number of dmus” [5, p. 115]. boussofiane, dyson and thanassoulis argue that to obtain good discriminatory power out of the ccr and bcc models, the lower bound on the number of dmus must be a multiple of the number of inputs and the number of outputs. for example, if there are 2 inputs and 4 outputs, the minimum total number of dmus must be 8 for some discriminatory power to exist in the model [18]. dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 95 golany and roll propose a rule of thumb that the number of units should be at least twice the number of inputs and outputs under consideration [19]. bowlin mentions the need to have three times as many dmus as there are input and output variables [20]. according to dyson et al., a total of two times the product of the number of input and output variables is recommended [21]. for example, for a 3-input, 4-output model, golany and roll recommend 14 dmus, while bowlin recommends 21 dmus. in any case, these figures should probably be used as the minimum for baseline performance models. as can be seen, the variants of dmus, inputs and outputs proposed in our example basically meet the above requirements. table 5 below shows the fictitious data for conducting the dea. table 5. fictitious data for conducting the dea dmu name input 1 personnel costs gel input 2 material costs gel output 1 p-level (%) output 2 s-level (%) output 3 r-level (%) output 4 t-level (%) 1st infantry battalion 10 800 000 5 000 000 85 91 70 85 2nd infantry battalion 10 200 000 5 500 000 75 82 75 85 3rd infantry battalion 11 760 000 6 000 000 88 74 96 87 4th infantry battalion 11 160 000 7 000 000 74 96 84 78 5th infantry battalion 10 680 000 6 500 000 96 97 99 95 6th infantry battalion 10 920 000 5 850 000 81 75 82 76 7th infantry battalion 10 788 000 5 100 000 68 85 78 82 8th infantry battalion 11 520 000 5 350 000 92 86 91 95 9th infantry battalion 11 040 000 5 120 000 77 88 99 87 10th infantry battalion 10 560 000 4 950 000 85 91 75 81 11th infantry battalion 10 320 000 6 200 000 86 69 85 73 12th infantry battalion 11 568 000 6 850 000 91 92 94 93 the exemplifying analysis was carried out using dea-solver-pro 5.0 software [22]. as can be seen from the dea test results depicted in table 6 and 7, five of the twelve infantry battalions are efficient, while the rest show some inefficiency. table 6. dea test results rank dmu score 1 10th infantry battalion 1 1 1st infantry battalion 1 1 9th infantry battalion 1 1 8th infantry battalion 1 1 5th infantry battalion 1 6 2nd infantry battalion 0,970912603 7 7th infantry battalion 0,954380827 8 4th infantry battalion 0,947123379 9 3rd infantry battalion 0,939071369 10 11th infantry battalion 0,93254636 11 12th infantry battalion 0,911386993 12 6th infantry battalion 0,87500128 dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 96 table 7. projections by the ccr model no. dmu score i/o data projection difference % 1 1st infantry battalion 1 personnel costs gel 10800000 10800000 0 0,00% material costs gel 5000000 5000000 0 0,00% p-level (%) 85 85 0 0,00% s-level (%) 91 91 0 0,00% r-level (%) 70 70 0 0,00% t-level (%) 85 85 0 0,00% 2 2nd infantry battalion 0,970912603 personnel costs gel 10200000 9903308,547 -296691,4534 -2,91% material costs gel 5500000 5340019,314 -159980,6857 -2,91% p-level (%) 75 84,23988411 9,239884114 12,32% s-level (%) 82 82,23862868 0,238628682 0,29% r-level (%) 75 85,26924191 10,26924191 13,69% t-level (%) 85 85 0 0,00% 3 3rd infantry battalion 0,939071369 personnel costs gel 11760000 11043479,3 -716520,7003 -6,09% material costs gel 6000000 5634428,214 -365571,7859 -6,09% p-level (%) 88 88 0 0,00% s-level (%) 74 90,00404513 16,00404513 21,63% r-level (%) 96 96 0 0,00% t-level (%) 87 92,00663008 5,006630078 5,75% 4 4th infantry battalion 0,947123379 personnel costs gel 11160000 10569896,91 -590103,0928 -5,29% material costs gel 7000000 6432989,691 -567010,3093 -8,10% p-level (%) 74 95,01030928 21,01030928 28,39% s-level (%) 96 96 0 0,00% r-level (%) 84 97,97938144 13,97938144 16,64% t-level (%) 78 94,02061856 16,02061856 20,54% 5 5th infantry battalion 1 personnel costs gel 10680000 10680000 0 0,00% material costs gel 6500000 6500000 0 0,00% p-level (%) 96 96 0 0,00% s-level (%) 97 97 0 0,00% r-level (%) 99 99 0 0,00% t-level (%) 95 95 0 0,00% 6 6th infantry battalion 0,87500128 personnel costs gel 10920000 9555013,98 -1364986,02 -12,50% material costs gel 5850000 5118757,489 -731242,5106 -12,50% p-level (%) 81 81 0 0,00% s-level (%) 75 78,99387085 3,993870847 5,33% r-level (%) 82 82 0 0,00% t-level (%) 76 81,84403062 5,84403062 7,69% dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 97 7 7th infantry battalion 0,954380827 personnel costs gel 10788000 10295860,37 -492139,6349 -4,56% material costs gel 5100000 4867342,219 -232657,7807 -4,56% p-level (%) 68 78,80442417 10,80442417 15,89% s-level (%) 85 85 0 0,00% r-level (%) 78 78 0 0,00% t-level (%) 82 82 0 0,00% 8 8th infantry battalion 1 personnel costs gel 11520000 11520000 0 0,00% material costs gel 5350000 5350000 0 0,00% p-level (%) 92 92 0 0,00% s-level (%) 86 86 0 0,00% r-level (%) 91 91 0 0,00% t-level (%) 95 95 0 0,00% 9 9th infantry battalion 1 personnel costs gel 11040000 11040000 0 0,00% material costs gel 5120000 5120000 0 0,00% p-level (%) 77 77 0 0,00% s-level (%) 88 88 0 0,00% r-level (%) 99 99 0 0,00% t-level (%) 87 87 0 0,00% 10 10th infantry battalion 1 personnel costs gel 10560000 10560000 0 0,00% material costs gel 4950000 4950000 0 0,00% p-level (%) 85 85 0 0,00% s-level (%) 91 91 0 0,00% r-level (%) 75 75 0 0,00% t-level (%) 81 81 0 0,00% 11 11th infantry battalion 0,93254636 personnel costs gel 10320000 9623878,44 -696121,5601 -6,75% material costs gel 6200000 5781787,435 -418212,5652 -6,75% p-level (%) 86 86 0 0,00% s-level (%) 69 87,15708111 18,15708111 26,31% r-level (%) 85 88,04103148 3,041031479 3,58% t-level (%) 73 84,94507688 11,94507688 16,36% 12 12th infantry battalion 0,911386993 personnel costs gel 11568000 10542924,74 -1025075,26 -8,86% material costs gel 6850000 6243000,905 -606999,0952 -8,86% p-level (%) 91 93,56101001 2,561010012 2,81% s-level (%) 92 93,80856701 1,808567007 1,97% r-level (%) 94 96,07991476 2,079914761 2,21% t-level (%) 93 93 0 0,00% sherman [27] argues that the dea is best used as a tool that can focus the attention of managers. in the infantry battalions example above, potential improvements suggest opportunities for managers (commanders) dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 98 to explore in search of higher performance. the process includes identifying the main sources of inefficiency as well as those units that can become reference dmus for others. 3. conclusions the way to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of public spending, which is a top priority for any government in any country, implies the introduction of performance-based budgeting (pbb). program budgeting is one of the most advanced government-wide performance budgeting systems that systematically uses performance information in the preparation of the state budget where expenditures are classified into groups of similar activities or projects (i.e., programs) with common outputs and outcomes. it is important to keep in mind that without systematic development and use of program performance information and adequate and effective performance indicators, program budgeting in the defense sector does not make sense as a tool to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the defense resource management process. only by defining and tracking success can it be known if the defense organizations and units perform efficiently and effectively. in this article, dea was considered an excellent mathematical programming and a powerful management tool that can be used to measure, evaluate, and analyze the efficiency of the state and government as a whole, as well as commercial and non-profit organizations, including military units. dea can be applied as an instrument to hold managers at all levels accountable for their performance which is critical to effective performance-based budgeting (pbb). in this study, data envelopment analysis (dea) has been applied to nato members and some eastern europe post-soviet aspirant and partner countries (ukraine, georgia and moldova) to understand how efficient each country is at achieving its military power. the efficiency of the decision-making units was measured with a ccr model. due to the secrecy and peculiarities of the current defense program structure, there are significant limitations in obtaining detailed information on the main output of the defense, namely, the military capability and its indicators – readiness levels of units and accurate cost information, such as detailed information on the cost per battalion for any given period. therefore, in order to demonstrate the feasibility of using dea to examine the efficiency of operational units, an illustrative analysis of the efficiency of the aforementioned infantry battalions was carried out using fictitious data. i believe that one of the main barriers to using dea as a valid tool for measuring and evaluating the performance of the gdf units is the current structure of the defense program. the introduction of the defense program structure proposed in my recent article [23], which will include the major force program developed on a force capabilities basis; the definition of capabilities embodied in a force element as the main output of the defense subprograms; and the identification of force (program) elements (e.g., departments, commands, brigades, and battalions) as cost centers, will facilitate the use of the dea and other statistical tools to measure and evaluate the performance of the gdf units and develop proposals for its improvement. a key precondition for the successful application of the dea and other statistical tools in measuring and evaluating performance in the ministry of defense is the development of effective computerized financial management information systems (fmis), including computerized accounting systems. one of the challenges for the ministry is to implement an effective management accounting system to provide managers (unit commanders) with timely, accurate, meaningful, and insightful information without which an effective decision-making process is impossible. well-organized accounting systems are the main original source of the best quality and ultimately the most reliable primary data for the life cycle costing to support decision-making process as well as performance measurement and evaluation. it is also crucial to include the “readiness level” as an output indicator in the defense program structure of the georgian ministry of defense. the target readiness levels of the gdf units should also be specified in the defense program guidance (dpg) and other planning documents of the mod of georgia (in the secret part of dss vol. 3, january 2022, pp.83-100 99 the documents), as well as procurement objectives and descriptions of acceptable risk. defense program managers who are accountable for the resources provided must monitor the balance of inputs to readiness and the state of readiness achieved. disclaimer the views represented in this paper are those of the author and don’t reflect the official policy or position of the ministry of defense of georgia. declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. references [1] w. van dooren, g. bouckaert, and j. halligan, performance management in the public sector, routledge, 2015, doi: 10.4324/9781315817590. 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balance 2021, routledge, 2021. https://tinyurl.com/2y3nz8ck [29] https://data.worldbank.org/ [30] https://www.globalfirepower.com/ [31] https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_184844.htm microsoft word 63-78_170 issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 2, may 2021, pp.63-78 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v2.id170 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 63 impact of industry 4.0 on aerospace and defense systems nedim tabaković1, benjamin duraković2* 1 software engineering, international university of sarajevo, bosnia and herzegovina 2 industrial engineering, international university of sarajevo, bosnia and herzegovina *corresponding author: bdurakovic@ius.edu.ba © the author 2021. published by arda. abstract the aim of this article is to address key features and the wave of new technologies that industry 4.0 brings to aerospace and defense systems. this research paper enthusiastically depicts what the future of the aerospace and defense industry could be while also providing information about those braves enough to already step into the world of all around digitalization. with this approach, the aim is to interconnect every step of the operation towards creating a mostly perfect environment which cuts off any human mistake and guarantees increase in revenue stream and customer satisfaction. the main method of implementation of industry 4.0 to many industries is digitalization. digitalization is the digital upgrade to any company or industry which, when applied correctly, guarantees nothing but success in revenue streams and customer service. this process is a complex blend of many modern technologies and implementing such a hefty upgrade might be problematic to those who have been surviving on very old business models for tens of years. industry 4.0 is a fast-changing environment and those who are quickly adapting to this wave of change are setting themselves for success. the primary goal of this research paper is to provide an insight into the world of technology industry 4.0 offers and how that technology could help aerospace and defense create a portal to the future. keywords: industry 4.0, technology, aerospace and defense systems, iot 1. introduction industry 4.0, otherwise called as the fourth industrial revolution represents a step into the future of human kind. with built-in sensing systems in nearly all industrial materials, goods, and facilities, industry 4.0 allows the manufacturing field to become digitalized [1]. from product development and buying through production, shipping, and service, industry 4.0 digitizes and integrates activities vertically throughout the whole organization. all data on operations processes, process efficiency and quality control, as well as operations planning, is available in real time, supplemented by augmented reality, and optimized in a network [2]. the fourth technological revolution is now underway in human society. it's said to be the next big thing, revolutionizing human relationships, thinking, and, most importantly, working [3]. industry 4.0 is a manufacturing system that combines operational technology (ot) with information technology (it) [4]. but fortunately, countries do meet those requirements, and many are still, slowly, but surely going towards that goal of digitalization. dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.63-78 64 figure 1. industry 4.0 market the overall implementation and usage industry 4.0 is divided into three categories. horizontal integration is the first. it introduces the idea of a new kind of global supply chain network. vertical integration is the second. the idea is to create hierarchical subsystems on the production line in order to create a line that is simple to configure and flexible. the final aspect is engineering convergence across the entire supply chain, from beginning to end, to aid in product customization [5]. industry 4.0, as on many other things, has a great impact on defense systems. industry 4.0 is based on the digital transformation of processes and in the means of defense systems – the complete automation of drones and other defense systems. as a result of industry 4.0, the whole business is already seeing benefits from taking human error out of the equation. artificial intelligence and such technological advancements might pose an improvement in other fields, but as for aerospace and defense systems it poses some ethical questions which come in play when we think about all of the possibilities of automated technologies in defense systems. as we know, the whole world is leaning towards digitalization of every aspect of our lives. although some can precipitate this as an attempt to “upload” the whole planet to computers and a way for some higher power to control our everyday lives, industry 4.0 actually represents an attempt at somewhat perfecting every possible process (with sensors and internet connectivity). for customers who depend on those processes, industry 4.0 represents the perfecting of their customer service. industries overall are experiencing an increase in customer complaints, quality standard pressure, time precision, etc. so, we can just imagine what an impact industry 4.0 has had on aerospace and defense systems which already are almost perfect in every way. applying such a broad change to the whole industry is not an easy task and as such couldn’t be done in a few simple steps. instead, industry 4.0 is implemented through the entire makeover of a company network. however, all of those steps can be organized into reworking connectivity, customizability and intelligence. reworking connectivity means the entire communication structure previously defined. being well organized and in touch, a company really becomes a living breathing creature. the ecosystem of one company blooms, rewarding its budget and schedule. but, being in industry 4.0, companies are all interconnected, which helps take off the industry to a whole another level. such changes are done by introducing digital threads. a digital thread is the communication framework which guarantees connected data flow, smarter integrated structure and smarter ecosystem [6]. as previously said, such changes are done by implementing many core changes to how the system already operates which means integrating a software platform which is used by the whole of the operation. dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.63-78 65 pros of including such a system are: • interconnectivity of the company and supply chain, • better customer and customer complaint and request management, • manufacturing and workforce efficiency increase, • reworking customizability. this digital thread approach has already shown some results in the form of efficiency growth at about 16% [7]. the digitalization of one company or company supply chain is not an easy task but brings a lot of room for financial growth and better overall connectivity. digitalization consists of many things such as: internet of things iot, augmented reality and virtual reality, large data processing, cloud computing, cyber security changes and much more. this just goes to show on that implementing such a system is not an easy task and consists of a lot of steps. however, companies which catch on early on this train of industrial revolution are already setting themselves up for success, as the results show. an overall name for this change is “digitalization” and apart from the already mentioned features, it brings many more features which will be mentioned later on in the text. figure 2. a visual representation of all of the improvements and features industry 4.0 brought [6] in theory, all of the features industry 4.0 brings should help every aerospace and defense company reach higher success and acquire remarkable financial goals, however, in reality things are a lot different. despite all of the excitement industry 4.0 brings to all industries, the reality is different. due to many reasons like digital illiteracy and lack of financial support, companies are forced to abandon the idea completely or settle for less rewarding results and minor changes. about 3% of all digital transformation initiatives within the aerospace and defense industry were succesful, 29% initiatives failed completely and 69% of initiatives settled for “suboptimal” results [8]. unfortunately, the technology might be too advanced to grasp in this exact moment but we believe it is progressing by day. of course, setbacks like lack of financial support cannot be avoided, but company owners getting educated on the issue of digitalization is mandatory. a chance like such is not something to be ignored and companies that succeed in their intention of digitalizing their bussiness model are probably going to be greatly rewarded in the near and far future. in the next section we will discuss some issues and challenges which make the process of digitalization a struggle for many companies. dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.63-78 66 2. challenges and issues 2.1. digital illiteracy of company owners as a lot of companies are owned by corporation which is digitally illiterate, most attempts of implementing new technologies at such companies result in failure. indeed, 70 percent of corporate digital transformation programs fail due to a lack of digital literacy or awareness. a notable illustration of this appears to be the leadership of a&d defense corporations [7]. this could present a great problem for those companies as industry 4.0 is a fast moving change and taking early position in it could result in greater outcome. adapting late to change could cost those companies a lot of money or even the survival of the company. so, for a company to survive today’s climate, it needs to be digitally literate [8]. 2.2. lack of financial support from corporation of course, this is tied closely to the digital illiteracy part. digitally illiterate corporation might not realise how important it is to accept changes and to invest in industry 4.0. time is a very important factor in industry 4.0, as mentioned before, and by missing the chance to incorporate it into the whole system and defying the boundaries could cost these companies a lot of money. figure 3. overall interest in the aerospace and defense (marked maroon red) by us investors from 2005 to 2018 [9] overall investment in aerospace and defense r&d by us investors from 2005 to 2018 is presented in figure 3. in the us most of the research & development investment were made by business [60], as shown in fig. 3. air travel is becoming more popular, thanks to a rising middle class in emerging nations, millennial aspirations, and lower prices. the use of digital technology to match customer expectations will be critical to seizing this opportunity. these expectations have been formed in part by experiences in other industries, such as retail and entertainment, and today include more streamlined and integrated purchase trips, seamless travel, and customized, on-demand services [10]. now, for a company to be successful in this wave of industry 4.0, they need to be ready to complete some prerequisites. to be able to keep up with the new age of technology and industry evolving, companies need to be ready to accept changes and to easy conform to any changes. dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.63-78 67 figure 4. three levels of digital transformation at aerospace and defense enterprises [54] figure 4. shows a digital transformation (digitalization) visualized by deloitte insights in three levels which companies must surpass to digitalize their business and work organization. these are three more goals of what the digital thread is trying to achieve: new services, enhancing customer engagement and making assets intelligent and interconnected [54]. 3. changes company giants which had a steady up rise during a long period of their existence and are used to a more traditional approach are being shaken up by newcomers who rely on the new industry strategies. this is why, by the standards of industry 4.0, change is better for those who are ready to accept it. between those changes, we need to give importance to following. 3.1. being agile between industry 4.0’s main improvements, one worth mentioning is being precise and agile, especially in the manufacturing sector. in aerospace and defense, such is accomplished by taking the traditional approach of manufacturing (physical and system testing) and amping it up to meet the customer needs. for example, in september 2018, the number of aircrafts reached the highest peak in 9 years. to be prepared for such speed of manufacturing and delivering, companies are starting to implement newer techniques towards keeping up with the newfound competition. the company under the name of airbus joined a research program founded by the eu, called ramp-up. this program is built for aircraft companies to research new technologies and develop better strategies to be able to fulfill all customer demand. airbus initially tested the manufacturing process according to the rampup program and found that the cost of the new materials and techniques actually cut off in half in contrast of their previous manufacturing cost [11]. 3.2. redesign of current business models since industry 4.0 heavily relies on the use of new technologies, sensors and data measuring devices being a part of them, using the collected data may be the only way to advance in today’s age. by recording customer feedback as well as any other possible technical and or financial information, by molding their new business model by these new parameters, the company is set for success as they provide only what makes them grow. for example, the aircraft manufacturing company boeing recently developed their data collecting program called “analytx” which is consisted of customers exploring and traveling their data-based travel plans that deliver information about fuel efficiency and notable operational setbacks. [12] dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.63-78 68 3.3. supply chain improvements by collaborating closely with vendors, aerospace and defense manufacturers are maintaining innovation and mutual collaboration towards the goal of sharing the best strategies and practices for fulfilling the new challenges of the supply chain. the manufacturers accomplish this by using digital design, integration and simulation. this way, they don’t need to spend unnecessary time on prototypes. by supplying this information to the supply chain, the supply chain becomes transparent and visible which speeds up the whole process. in other words, all companies, being it manufacturing or part supply vendors, need to work together towards a great goal. boostaerospace, a supply chain between the european aerospace and defense manufacturers is an example of this. they provide any information needed between all suppliers, them being underdogs or well-known manufacturers [13]. the art and science of managing physical, financial, and information flows from the production of raw materials to end customers is known as supply chain management. two current trends pose a threat: 1. changes in information technology are permitting better coordination and analytical evaluations as a result of globalization; 2. globalization necessitates managing increasingly complicated and geographically distributed flows [14]. 3.4. cyber-security challenge with all of this, being private earlier, now being shared between companies via clouds and the internet, they face the new risk of their cyber-security being scrutinized. cyber-security issues present a great threat and a setback in these companies progress towards being by all means industry 4.0. so, protecting or intellectual property and ensuring the safety of the data being shared, companies needed to form cyber-security operational centers (csoc). the main goal of these centers is to detect threats, collect intelligence, respond to incidents, form a team of digital forensics, and monitoring and possibly avoiding cyberattacks [15]. the current problem for the a&d industry is two-stepped. first, the industry must endeavor to stay two steps ahead of the cyber danger rather than simply one. they need to keep investing in new capabilities, technologies, and concepts. they must remain attentive in the face of a danger that is exceedingly adaptable. they also need to put a greater emphasis on building security into their goods from the start. at the same time, a&d players will need to guarantee that any weaknesses in their present cybersecurity posture are filled [16]. 5.5. industry 4.0 inspired system aerospace & defense 4.0 is the application of industry 4.0 technologies in the a&d industry for developing new cost-effective products and services, making existing products smarter using sensors and connectivity, and leveraging advanced manufacturing processes such as additive manufacturing, among other [17]. creating a sustainable, inner-connected system based on cloud technologies, big data, internet of things (iot) etc. is also referenced as creating a “digital thread”. a digital thread is a system which is consisted of every possible work aspect of one company which are connected and relying on each other. figure 5. loop diagram of a never-ending cycle of one’s product manufacturing [18] dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.63-78 69 each section is interconnected and does its own part towards serving the customer. every branch is interconnected and works like a living breathing creature. the flow of information in these kinds of structures is the most important factor, and the digital thread is a perfect, never-ending loop of information [18]. 4. features and improvements of industry 4.0 4.1. being efficient productivity growth is at the heart of every industrial revolution. previous industrial revolutions had a significant impact on the manufacturing process itself. companies increased their production by using the steam engine, electricity, and the transition from analogue to digital technology, for example. the fourth industrial revolution, on the other hand, has a broader impact, affecting not only production but other indirect departments, particularly engineering processes. that indicates that improving brainwork and decisionmaking processes has the greatest potential for increasing productivity. this process can be accelerated with collaboration at all levels [19]. for a&d, digitalization means the improvement of already well-established systems. companies which choose to implement industry 4.0 in their processes, benefit from not having to manually and physically test their products. they can instead test their products with simulation software which cuts costs and guarantees time efficiency. for example, the company “airbus” which is a manufacturer of aircrafts, decided to conduct simulations for the assembly of their “a350” aircraft to ensure that the new design and new more advanced materials do not result in unnecessary cost. the result has shown that the cost of the whole development was cut in half compared to competitor companies [20]. 4.2. new business models companies can use all of the sensor and system information gathered towards creating new business models which are more efficient, cost less and create better customer service. it would take a lot of time to create a business model from the data gathered, but using software, the issue is solved in minutes and business models are created overnight. in terms of a&d, companies might use data collected to create more efficient fuel economy, organize flight plans which suit more customers etc. new enabling technologies like big data, cloud computing, collaborative robots, additive manufacturing, artificial vision, or augmented reality are being introduced solely to improve the value creation architecture (key resources and activities) by increasing efficiency and improving performance (reducing costs, time, and failures, employee training, and so on). this might be the first step toward traditional industrial enterprises adopting industry 4.0 without taking on significant risks [21]. 4.3. supply chain and logistics changes companies can achieve optimal productivity and cost savings by establishing supply chains that are much more effective and do not depend on humans using high-performance quantum computing. this means that this technology can reduce errors (particularly human errors) and improve logistics and inventory management. this type of technology will take the form of a portal that manufacturers and vendors can use. a network called "airdesign," which is a platform for collaborative creativity in the a&d industry, is an example of this technology [22]. 4.4. cyber security improvement until recently, cybersecurity was primarily concerned with defending organizational perimeters, that is, preventing illegal access to a privately owned computer network. to protect the perimeter from hackers, the most common technique was to install safeguards such as firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and virus protections at the perimeter's entrance. as industry 4.0 blurs the lines between the real and digital worlds, this cybersecurity approach is quickly becoming obsolete. similarly, communication technology, in combination with social and cultural considerations, are altering working patterns in the direction of "anywhere, anytime" [23]. for a&d companies, security and cybersecurity is something very important. with the introduction of industry 4.0 and digitalization, companies are more exposed to risk as the data they now digitally store could potentially be harmed. this calls for the betterment of their security systems which automatically improves dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.63-78 70 the overall security of one company. in other words, because digitalization poses a possible challenge and an issue with cybersecurity, companies spend more time designing a better cybersecurity system which protects everything. as the need of creating strong levels of digital trust grows, so does the relevance of transparency and nonrepudiation, which provide verification of the integrity and origin of one's own and third-party data. strong risk management and data integrity solutions can help businesses avoid breaches and effectively manage operational disruption [24]. 5. industry 4.0 methods many industry 4.0 technologies could support the aerospace and defense industries. however, while not every invention or method would be useful in the long term, they all have the same function of interacting with one another to form a "world ecosystem" [25]. as it was mentioned earlier, digitalization is consisted of many features which work together towards a better goal. methods of industry 4.0 that can be used for aerospace and defense systems following. 5.1. internet of things there are over 20 iot characteristics that can complement and add benefit to aerospace systems in a variety of ways, including reducing consumer pain points including flight termination and delays, but the most important ones are: • interconnectivity interconnection is maintained when all of the sensors and systems are interconnected via internet [26]. • things-related services within the limits of things, such as privacy protection and semantic coherence between real and virtual things, the iot can provide thing-related services. both the physical and information world technologies will have to alter in order to deliver thing-related services within the restrictions of things [27]. • heterogenity the iot devices are heterogeneous, since they are based on many hardware platforms and networks. through various networks, they may communicate with other devices or service platforms [28]. • dynamic changes device states, such as sleeping and waking up, being connected and/or disconnected, and the context of devices, such as location and speed, alter dynamically. furthermore, the number of devices might fluctuate. • enormous scale the number of devices that will need to be controlled and interact with one another will be at least an order of magnitude greater than the existing internet's gadgets [29]. • safety the obligation to preserve the legitimate interests of users and the integrity of the ecosystem that links them is implicit in the freedom to innovate. this is especially true when the internet expands into physical areas and the availability of next-generation technologies and artificial intelligence grows [30]. • connectivity connectivity is self-explanatory. through industry 4.0, everything and anything is interconnected and that greatly helps towards building a massive, breathing and living system which can ease the process of manufacturing and getting information by a great margin [32,33]. 5.2. big data analytics big data is a modern wave of technology and architectures that are developed to derive value from massive data volumes with a wide range of data types, enabling real-time computation and analysis. the "digital plane" of today, which can capture up to 300,000 parameters based on the length of the flight and the type of aircraft, is a direct example of big data's effect on the aerospace industry. according to one big aircraft maker, data sharing will grow by 14% in the next few years [34]. the phrase "big data" refers to the development and application of technologies that offer the appropriate user with the right information at the right time from a massive amount of data that has been expanding dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.63-78 71 exponentially in our society for a long time. the issue is not just dealing with fast expanding data volumes, but also handling more varied forms as well as increasingly complicated and interlinked data [35]. simulation – as expected, simulation is up there with the most important innovations and techniques of industry 4.0. simulation may be used to test product designs, systems, and device configurations. simulating risky flight conditions, like all other facets of aviation, can be done by simulation. simulators are particularly well suited to training scenarios that are inefficient, impossible, risky, or costly to replicate in a live setting. many potentially risky conditions can only be encountered infrequently by aircrew. if these circumstances arise, they must be dealt with quickly in order to prevent drastic repercussions. simulators may be used to expose trainees to certain unique conditions in a repeatable and controlled way, with little danger to the pilot, aircraft, other operators, or the environment [36]. simulation has become a significant technique for supporting and developing a wide range of systems in the twenty-first century. simulation has enormous promise for the creation and enhancement of products and industrial processes. simulation is a potent and well-known methodology for addressing the manufacturing industry's present difficulties. industrialized nations frequently struggle to maintain the expanding industrial sector within their borders. new manufacturing plants are being created from the ground up to conform to the trend of mass customization over mass production while enhancing profitability [37]. 7.3. augmented reality in the aerospace and defense industries, augmented reality will aid engineers in the development of new technologies as well as the improvement of existing systems by including 3d graphics of drawings and simulations for whatever is being designed. the aim of this category is to make guidance easier to interpret if they were available as 3d models superimposed on the real equipment demonstrating how the activities are to be performed step-by-step with illustrations to make the directives ever more clear [38]. overall, the usage of augmented reality in the industry domain is very important because it greatly improves communication in product design and production development: it aids in the early detection and avoidance of design errors; it reduces the number of physical prototypes and saves time and money for businesses. in many industrial applications, augmented reality is seen as a beneficial tool for enhancing and speeding up product and process development [39]. figure 7. augmented reality organization [40] figure 7. is a visual representation of an augmented reality work organization between workers, the data (sensors, cameras, internet of things iot), the presentation of the data (overlays, audio cues and live representation) and the interaction with the data (gestures, voice commands, gaze and attention). this all results in an environment which takes use of augmented reality [40]. 5.3. advanced analytics (for monitoring real-time aircraft health and identifying system failures in advance) the continual rise of the aviation sector has produced a highly competitive environment in which airline businesses are trying to stay afloat in a market with poor profit margins. consistently more rigorous maintenance schemes have resulted in an increase in aviation safety, despite increasing expenses. to stay competitive, airlines are decreasing total cost by running their operations as smoothly as possible. as a dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.63-78 72 consequence of technological improvements in the business, the availability of flight data has risen, causing airlines to monitor their fleet's behavior more thoroughly. the aircraft's systems gather flight data, which is then decoded and transmitted to the engineering, maintenance, and safety departments for interpretation and analysis [41]. 5.4. digital reality (replacing assembly manuals with smart-glasses) body-tracking and motion-tracking capabilities are core features, allowing a user to manipulate and move objects using haptic controllers, head-mounted displays, and headsets [42]. such technologies can be used for manipulating assembly manuals and instructing assembly workers on creating aero systems and machines as well as for many other uses. figure 8. integration of digital reality in assemblies / manufacturing processes [43] figure 8. shows different ways of digital reality integration into assemblies and manufacturing processes by worldwide companies. it can clearly be seen what can be accomplished with use of some kind of headwear which projects information associated with a part in the machine [43]. computers, processing power, the internet, cloud computing, and the internet of things are all part of the fourth industrial revolution. virtual reality is used in industry 4.0 to reduce design and manufacturing costs, maintain product quality, and solve technological tradeoffs such as decreasing rendering complexity while maintaining high refresh rates or improving resolution while maintaining a stable vr experience. virtual reality is an undeniably unique tool with numerous applications, ranging from teaching students all over the world to simulating safety scenarios. however, it must be integrated with viable use case scenarios and realtime data collection in order to capture physical movement and provide a pleasant vr experience [44]. figure 9. digital reality [45] digital reality center of gravity business developm ent market investments and strategy talent and loction corporate developm ent conferences and events marketing and activation eminence value chain vendors prototypes dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.63-78 73 figure 9. shows al of the opportunities digital reality creates as the center of its own solar system. many scientists and scholars agree that a system like it can create many opportunities for a lot of people of the world. it is the center of gravity for many industry branches, events, investments, ideas and eminence [45]. 5.5. autonomous robots autonomous robots are robotic systems which demand no human interaction or effort other than building them and can be used for many actions in aerospace and defense, basically any physical action a human can do, a robot can replicate. currently, many companies that use autonomous robots have implemented them for targeted functions within their supply chain, piloting various robots to verify expected efficiency gains. as innovative companies grow and expand operations, robots that build robots could be the norm for economically and efficiently optimizing manufacturing operations [46]. intelligent automation has a history in the a&d sector, including so-called "smart" weaponry developed by top-tier military and space missions powered by modern technology. the creation of new and interesting methods to add value to domestic and global a&d supply chains will continue to be driven by that inventive attitude [47]. 5.6. cloud computing cloud computing is a system that provides usable information within a certain company, workspace or organization. cloud computing offers flexible access to computing resources, providing both efficiencies and challenges to the aerospace industry where proprietary information not only is business critical but also can be a national security risk if exposed inappropriately [48]. nitha rachel shows how cloud computing is utilized to host services on a ground station, which subsequently gives services to airplanes passing through the area. a vm (virtual machine) will be relocated from one node to another node on a different cloud in a new geographical region when an aircraft transfers from one geographical network to another. it also defines an aviation data network with a virtual private cloud that uses an ipsec connection to deliver cloud services [49]. 5.7. additive manufacturing additive manufacturing is a process of printing certain parts of a mechanical system, otherwise known as 3d printing. additive manufacturing (am), is a manufacturing technique that builds objects layer by layer using materials such as polymers, metals, and composites. figure 10. additive manufacturing process figure 10. shows a visual representation of the process of additive manufacturing, also known as 3d printing in which the manufacturing of a turbine goes through 5 steps towards its completion. it firstly is designed in cad software, then it is processed to a .stl file, the layers are sliced and sent into the am system in which it is printed and lastly assembled [50]. 5.8. industrial internet of things industrial internet of things is a technology dealing with the interconnection of physical devices along with inter-relation of data via internet without requirement of human to machine or human to human interaction. as internet of things (iot) it can be used for manufacturing aero systems and by doing it this way, errors and especially human errors could be avoided efficiently. by connecting devices and data, iot presents opportunities for organizations to transform themselves, gain entry into new markets, and harness data to drive more timely and powerful business decisions [51]. cad-based 3d model *.stl file sliced ayers am system end part finishig final product dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.63-78 74 applications in the following sectors may have the greatest immediate effect from industrial iot from these features: • bringing together information from suppliers, logistics providers, and customers; • data from new technologies, peripherals, tools, and equipment are introduced; • production in a distributed environment requires adding of additional data sources, locations, and owners; • raw materials, parts, goods, and orders going through organizations are all equipped with sensors [52]. 6. quantitative diagrams of industry 4.0’s usage figure 11. usage of industry 4.0 technologies and features by aerospace and defense companies in 2017 figure 11. shows a quantitative value of the usage of industry 4.0 technologies, features and services by all of aerospace and defense companies in 2017. it encompasses following: • 77% augmented reality – used for sales and marketing (interaction with customers), • 63% artificial intelligence – used for collecting product sales and customer usage data, • 57% virtual reality – used for design techniques, walk-ins and tutorials, • 57% blockchain technology – used for managing configuration data [53] . due to many aviation companies implementing digitalization into the core of their systems in industry 4.0, we can see the “boom” industry 4.0 made in 2015. figure 12. profit due to digitalization in the aviation industry in period 2010 2021 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% augmented reality artificial intelligence virtual reality blockchain technology dss vol. 2, may 2021, pp.63-78 75 figure 12. shows a worldwide profit due to digitalization in the aviation industry 2010-2021 as collected from icao.int, the uniting aviation united nations specialized agency. consumer expectations are changing all across the world as a result of digitalization. because of its speed and size, businesses must rethink and reinvent their customer experiences in order to keep up, including new products, applications, and technologies to improve customer interactions [53]. 7. conclusion in conclusion, a new wave of amazing and future-promising technology is something aerospace and defense companies are striving to achieve. these features are built to ease the process of manufacturing, customer service and financial growth and many companies recognize this. the cost of manufacturing significantly drops, customer service feedback is great and the financial growth is incomparable to that of older business models. but, for some companies, trying to navigate new technologies and business models doesn’t go to plan. converting to this new form of business, which lies on the platform of digitalization, is not an easy task. for a company to succeed in its attempt to digitalize, there are some unavoidable factors which need to be fulfilled. so, we believe, the issue is not in the new technology, but in humans running these operations and feeling comfortable with what they possess right 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[60] b. durakovic and e. trgo, “perspectives and the role of bosnian defense industry in national innovation system,” defense and. security studies, vol. 1, pp. 26–33, apr. 2021, doi: 10.37868/dss.v1.id145. microsoft word 1-14_183.docx issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies original research vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id183 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 1 numerical simulations of the formation behavior of explosively formed projectiles minel salkičević* 1 defense technologies department, mechanical engineering faculty, university of sarajevo * corresponding author e-mail: s.minel97@gmail.com received oct. 13, 2021 revised dec. 22, 2021 accepted jan. 12, 2022 abstract explosively formed projectile (efp) is a self-forging shape charged structure having very high penetration ability compared to conventional kinetic energy projectile. the penetration capability of an efp is strongly dependent on various design parameters. the main parameters can be roughly divided into geometric and material parameters used in the warhead configuration. the present research is an effort to study the effect of metal casing thickness, type of metal used for casing, explosive type, liner thickness, type and configuration on the formation of efp. effectivness of an efp is studied in terms of final velocity and shape of formed penetrator. the study is carried out by performing a number of simulations by using explicit finite element (fe) hydrocode ansys/autodyn. © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: explosively formed projectiles (efp); numerical simulations; ansys/autodyn 1. introduction generally, an explosively formed projectile system consists of charge, liner, casing and wave-shaper. the geometric and physical parameters like length, diameter, liner shape and material and type of charge strongly influence the shape and velocity of the penetrator [1]. figure 1. the schematic of efp configuration [1] dss vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 2 similar to shaped charge (cumulative) projectiles, after detonation, very high pressure collapses the liner into the appropriate shape (depending on the design) of the penetrator moving at a speed of up to 3 km/s [2]. the process of penetrator formation from the initial shape of the liner is shown in figure 2 [3]. figure 2. the formation process of efp [3] there are two structural types of solutions used in the fight against armored combat vehicles. the first type are anti-tank penetrating mines (with antenna or non-contact, electromagnetic activation mechanism), effective at a distance of up to one meter – one such is shown in figure 3a. the second type are explosively formed projectiles that are used to pierce armor at greater distances (stand-off projectiles) – shown in figure 3b. the penetrating abilities of these two types are different, which results from the way of attacking the chosen target. the first type hits the floor plate or tracks of an armored vehicle (in modern tanks, the floor armor is not thicker than 20 mm). the second type hits the side armor (the thickness of the side armor in modern tanks does not exceed 80 mm), and in modern times also the upper side of the tank armor. the minimum penetrating power of the first type is 40 mm at a distance of up to one meter, and the second type 80 mm at a distance of up to 100 m [4]. figure 3. schematic representation of the solution based on the misznay schardin effect (a anti-tank mine; b-efp; where: 1-liner, 2-exp. charge, 3activation mechanism, 4-metal casing) [4] two major applications have evolved since 1975 for efp warheads, namely, long-standoff sensor-fuzed submunitions and medium-standoff, close-overflight missiles, as depicted in figure 4. the former application, which is the more traditional one, requires the formation of a single-piece efp capable of flying in a stable position to the target. this refinement has led to the flared efp rod and, more recently, to the finned efp rod desings. for the medium – or short-standoff applications, a new type of efp was developed. the need for an aerodynamic shape is not necessary for these applications because of the short distance the efp must travel, hence, the length of the rod was increased and the flared tail was eliminated from the design. in fact, some of these rods are purposely stretched beyond their breaking point and fracture into several pieces resulting in greater total length [5]. initiation point explosive charge liner (1) initial configuration (2) formation process (3) final configuration dss vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 3 figure 4. two modern applications of efp technology [5] 2. numerical model the numerical model for simulations are generated using ansys/autodyn software with appropriate boundary conditions and accurate geometric modeling. in order to predict behaviour of the liner, euler grid is used to design all three components: the explosive, the liner and the casing geometry. the mesh is modelled using 0.25 mm rectangular cells in both regions (the jet formation and the transition region). the free space is filled with still air with an initial density of 0.001225 mg/mm3 and internal energy of 2.06640·105 microjoules. outflow boundary condition is applied to all computational borders except the symmetry. this allows the expanding detonation products to leave the computational domain without interacting with its boundaries. figure 5. shows the initial geometry of standard efp used in numerical simulations in this paper. [6] figure 5. geometry of simulated efp [7] the initial geometry used in this investigation is shown in fig.6. the hmx was used as exp. charge material. the shaped charge liner is made of copper with different forms and casing is made of steel. it is important to mention that the configurations and materials of previously mentioned parts varies with the test cases. [8] dss vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 4 figure 6. efp model used in the research (autodyn) [8] 3. results and discussions in order to validate numerical model, a series of numerical simulations have been carried out. obtained results were compared with numerical results found by hussain et al, [7] where a good agreement was observed. 3.1. metal casing in this section, the influence of the metal casing wall thickness and the influence of the metal casing material will be analyzed. initial configuration is shown in figure 5. in order to show the influence of metal (steel 4340) casing thickness on the process of penetrator formation, two numerical simulations were performed in the autodyn software. the configuration of the efp is the same in both simulations, only the thickness of the metal casing is varied. the thickness in the first simulation is 3 mm (figure 7a). in the case of the second simulation, the thickness of the metal casing is 5 mm (figure 7b). [8] figure 7. different metal casing thicknesses used in numerical simulations (solidworks) [8] figure 8 shows formed copper penetrators, as well as their velocities after 100 μs. it can be concluded that the thickness of the metal body affects the velocity of the formed penetrator thicker casing corresponds to a higher velocity of the penetrator. in the case of the first simulation, the casing thickness was 3 mm and the penetrator velocity was about 1750 m/s (figure 8 left). in the second simulation, the casing thickness was 5 mm, and the penetrator velocity was about 116 m/s higher than in the first simulation. the thicker the metal casing, around the explosive charge and the liner, the bigger the impact time of the explosive impulse and the bigger the total energy transmitted from the explosive to the liner. [8] space air copper steel hmx a) b) dss vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 5 figure 8. different penetrator velocities for different metal casing thicknesses (autodyn) [8] apart from the fact that body thickness has an influence on the process of penetrator formation in efp, it is important to note that the body material also has a certain influence. so another simulation was done that shows the difference between the formed penetrators in the case of a steel casing and a casing made of aluminum. namely, the geometry of the efp from figure 7a was used in the additional simulation. all the characteristics remained the same except that in the additional simulation, aluminum was used as the efp casing material instead of steel (figure 9). [8] figure 9. penetrator velocity of efp with casing made of aluminum (autodyn) [8] in figure 9 it can be seen that the velocity of the penetrator, in the case of an aluminum casing, is about 1480 m/s. if this velocity is compared to simulation in which the casing was made of steel, it can be concluded that in that case the penetrator had a higher velocity, by about 270 m/s. material of higher density and higher values of yield strength increases the time of influence of the explosive impulse and increases the total energy transmitted from the explosive to the liner. [8] table 1 shows the characteristics of the materials used (steel and aluminum), as well as the difference in penetrator velocities after 100 µs (t=100 µs). [8] table 1. characteristics of materials used for efp’s casing and their influence on penetrator velocity [8] casing material density (kg/m3) tensile strength (mpa) yield strength (mpa) penetrator velocity (m/s) steel 7830 745 470 1750 aluminium 2700 305 215 1480 it is also important to note that it is not always possible to choose a material with more favorable characteristics, due to limiting factors. steel, as a material with higher density than aluminum, increases the overall system mass which can be a limiting factor. [8] 3.2. explosive charge in this part, an analysis of the influence of explosive charge type on velocity of the formed penetrator will be performed, and a comparison will be made for the following three types of explosives: hmx, tnt and comp b. in order to show the influence of the density and other characteristics of explosive charge on the process of penetrator formation, three more numerical simulations are presented below. initial configuration shown in figure 5 is retained (all measures, metal casing material – steel 4340, liner material – copper, metal casing velocity (m/s) velocity (m/s) velocity (m/s) dss vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 6 thickness = 3 mm, liner thickness = 2 mm); however now the explosive charge is different (everything else is identical). instead of the previously used hmx, now a tnt is used, with a lower density and therefore a lower detonation velocity (relative to hmx). [8] figure 10 shows a penetrator, initiated by tnt, moving at a velocity of about 1380 m/s. thus, the same efp configuration with different explosive charge led to the conclusion that the penetrator velocity was higher by about 370 m/s in the case when octogen (hmx) was used as the explosive charge. [8] figure 10. penetrator velocity of efp initiated by tnt, measured after 100 µs (autodyn) [8] figure 11 shows a penetrator, initiated by composition b, moving at a velocity of about 1635 m/s. the velocity of this penetrator is about 255 m/s higher than the penetrator initiated by tnt, and about 115 m/s lower than the velocity of the penetrator initiated by octogen. table 2 compares the results for 3 efp configurations with identical characteristics and different explosive charges. it can be easily seen from the table that a higher density of explosive guarantees a higher detonation velocity, and thus a higher value of the explosive impulse transmitted from the explosive to the liner. all previously mentioned penetrator velocities are measured after 100 µs from the initiation time point. [8] figure 11. penetrator velocity of efp initiated by composition b, measured after 100 µs (autodyn) [8] table 2. comparison of simulation parameters with different explosive charges [8] simulation no. exp. charge charge density (kg/m3) det. velocity (m/s) penetrator velocity (m/s) rel. diff. compared to tnt (%) 1 hmx 1890 9110 1750 26.8 2 tnt 1630 6940 1380 3 comp.b 1720 7620 1635 18.5 through the development of these projectiles, the charge with tnt itself was suppressed at the expense of more explosive mixtures with higher detonation velocities. this improvement leads to higher velocities and an increase in the slenderness of the penetrator, which increases its penetration capability. [8] velocity (m/s) velocity (m/s) dss vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 7 3.3. metal liner in order to show the influence of the liner material on the penetrating capability of the efp, a series of numerical simulations is presented below. the basic geometry of the efp used in the simulations is shown in figure 5. in this chapter the material of the liner will be varied for the purpose of collecting information on the behavior of the explosive-formed penetrator depending on the liner material. copper, aluminum, tantalum and iron will be used as the liner materials. after the material, the configuration and the thickness of the liner (made of copper) will also be analyzed. [8] the first material to be used in the simulation is aluminum, the characteristics of the aluminum used in the simulation are shown in figure 12. [8] figure 12. characteristics of aluminum used in numerical simulation (autodyn) [8] aluminum is a material of relatively low density (2700 kg/m3); precisely because of its low density, the aluminum penetrator accelerates to high velocities (3500 m/s) in a short time interval. figure 13 (left) shows the velocity of aluminum penetrator after 30 µs, and on the right after 50 µs. the velocity of the aluminum penetrator in both cases is about 3500 m/s. [8] in the figure on the right, it can be noticed that the penetrator is slowly tearing apart; the reason for that is the relatively low density of aluminum. this type of aluminum penetrator is not effective in the case of firing at targets located at a greater distance, unless the thickness of the liner is increased in this case it is 2 mm, and it is constant. [8] figure 13. velocity and shape of aluminum made penetrator (autodyn); left-after 30 µs, right-after 50 µs [8] velocity (m/s) velocity (m/s) dss vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 8 the other material to be used in the simulation is tantalum, the characteristics of the tantalum used in the simulation are shown in figure 14. [8] figure 14. characteristics of tantalum used in numerical simulation (autodyn) [8] tantalum is a material of relatively high density (16690 kg/m3); because of its high density, tantalum penetrator hardly accelerates to high velocities, so that the penetrator remains at lower velocities during flight compared to other tested materials. [8] figure 15 shows the velocity of tantalum penetrator after 100 µs. the velocity of the penetrator is around 1125 m/s. the high density of tantalum guarantees that the penetrator barely loses its kinetic energy and is able to travel long distances. [8] figure 15. velocity and shape of tantalum made penetrator (autodyn); after 100 µs [8] the third material that was used in the simulation is iron, and the main characteristics of iron used in the simulation are shown in figure 16. [8] velocity (m/s) dss vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 9 figure 16. characteristics of iron used in numerical simulation (autodyn) [8] iron, with a density about 7890 kg/m3, produces a penetrator with slightly higher velocity than the one made of copper. the velocity of the penetrator is around 1882 m/s (figure 17), which is 132 m/s higher than for the copper penetrator. [8] figure 17. velocity and shape of iron made penetrator (autodyn); after 100 µs [8] penetrator velocities are presented in table 3. table 3. comparison of penetrator velocities made of different materials [8] liner material time (µs) penetrator velocity (m/s) copper 100 1750 aluminium 50 3500 detached part aluminium 100 penetrator tearing up tantalum 100 1125 iron 100 1882 velocity (m/s) dss vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 10 it can be noticed that there was a rupture of the aluminum penetrator; the detonation wave elongated aluminum penetrator way beyond its stretching limit due to its low density and relatively weak atomic structure. the velocity and range of the tantalum penetrator are the smallest; this penetrator suffers the greatest decrease in density, which causes an increase in its temperature. tantalum penetrator makes the largest hole (diameter) in the target (when breaking through the target, it results in a wider crater). the highest temperature occurs with tantalum penetrators which also means the creation of hot fragments on the target. due to its lower price, easy procurement and easy machining, iron is an attractive material for the production of efp liners. the copper penetrator has the greatest slenderness it is mostly used due to the greatest depth of penetration. copper and mild steel are the main materials used to make the liners in the efp configuration that provide the formation of a "solid" penetrator figure 18 (right). tantalum, aluminum and iron are preferred in efp configurations that guarantee the formation of a "hollow" penetrator figure 18 (left). [8] figure 18. hollow ef penetrator (left); solid ef penetrator (right) [9] in addition to the liner material, the liner geometry itself has a great influence on the penetrator formation process. the various liner shapes and penetrators formed from such shapes will be shown below. the dependence between the geometry of the liner and the final shape of the penetrator is very complex and has not yet been adequately described. numerical model that establishes a dependence between the finite velocity of the penetrator and the initial geometry of the liner is presented below. two different models were used, the first model implies a constant liner thickness the thickness in four configurations will vary from 5 to 14% of the explosive charge diameter. the second model implies variable liner thickness (thickness increases or decreases from the periphery to the center of the liner) as presented in table 4. copper will be used as the liner material, as an explosive charge hmx (octogen), and detonation will be performed from the point located at the rear end of the explosive charge on the axis of symmetry. [8] for a constant liner thickness of 2 mm, a numerical simulation has already been presented earlier in the paper, the velocity of the penetrator was around 1750 m/s, and the mass of the liner was around 13 g. the kinetic energy of this penetrator is around 19.93 kj, after 100 µs. [8] for a constant liner thickness of 3 mm, the liner mass is about 19.5 g and the penetrator velocity is around 1305 m/s (figure 19). the kinetic energy of this penetrator, after 100 µs is around 16.62 kj. [8] figure 19. velocity and shape of copper made penetrator (autodyn); after 100 µs (liner thickness = 3 mm) [8] velocity (m/s) dss vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 11 for a constant liner thickness of 4 mm, the liner mass is around 26 g and the penetrator velocity is around 1010 m/s (figure 20). the kinetic energy of this penetrator is around 13.26 kj. [8] figure 20. velocity and shape of copper made penetrator (autodyn); after 100 µs (liner thickness = 4 mm) [8] for a variable liner thickness of 2 mm in the center, and 1 mm on the periphery, the liner mass is around 9.5 g and the penetrator velocity is around 1618 m/s (figure 21). the kinetic energy of this penetrator is around 12.45 kj, after 100 µs. [8] figure 21. velocity and shape of copper made penetrator (autodyn); after 100 µs – liner thickness is variable (2 mm – center; 1 mm – periphery) [8] for a variable liner thickness of 1 mm in the center and 2 mm on the periphery, the liner mass is around 9.36 g and the penetrator velocity after 20 µs is around 2900 m/s the penetrator front end (figure 22 left). the kinetic energy of this penetrator is not relevant because it breaks. the figure 22 on the left shows the penetrator after 20 µs, while the figure on the right shows the penetrator after 30 µs. it is evident that due to the velocity gradient (the velocity of the penetrators front end is about 2900 m/s and the velocity of the tail is about 1800 m/s) the penetrator will rupture for these reasons the shaped charge jet is separated into primary and secondary jet (speaking of high-explosive anti-tank warheads). in this case, the front end of the penetrator would have the greatest impact on the penetration of the projectile the mass of the front part of the penetrator should be calculated in order to reach the actual value of kinetic energy, assuming that no subsequent rupture of the front end of the penetrator will take place. penetration rupture occurs solely due to the difference (variation) between the velocities of the front end and tail of the penetrator (velocity gradient). [8] velocity (m/s) velocity (m/s) dss vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 12 figure 22. velocity and shape of copper made penetrator (autodyn); after 100 µs – liner thickness is variable (1 mm – center; 2 mm – periphery) [8] in the specific case, the problem was the shape of the liner. the explosive impulse first reaches the part of the liner closest to it (the central part of the liner), accelerating the central, and in this case the thinnest part of the liner to a higher velocity than the peripheral parts. numerical simulation showed that there will be a subsequent rupture of the penetrators front end, after approximately 65 µs, as shown in figure 23. [8] figure 23. copper penetrator shape (autodyn); after 65 µs liner thickness is variable (1 mm center, 2 mm periphery) [8] table 4 presents the results of simulations where the thickness of the liner was varied to describe the behavior of the penetrator penetrator velocities were recorded after 100 µs, except for the velocity of 2900 m/s (after 20 µs). [8] table 4. different geometries of efp copper made liner [8] figure 24 shows a fully formed copper made ef penetrator after 160 µs of simulation time. the thickness of the liner was in this case 2 mm. velocity (m/s) velocity (m/s) liner configuration thickness liner mass (g) penetrator velocity (m/s) kinetic energy (kj) front end dss vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 13 figure 24. fully formed copper penetrator, after 160 µs (autodyn) [8] 4. conclusions based on theoretical considerations and analysis of available numerical model (presented in [7]) for predicting the shape, velocity, pressure distribution, density and kinetic energy of explosively formed penetrator, a numerical model was created in autodyn (ansys) software. the data obtained from ref. [7] (all data obtained by numerical model presented in [7] is compared to the data obtained from experiment, and good agreement was achieved), and the data obtained by numerical simulation presented in this paper were compared. the following can be said: 1. the penetrator velocities (provided with the model from [7]) have a satisfactory agreement with the penetrator velocities from numerical model presented in this paper. the largest difference between the values is 4.12%. maximum deviations occur when the penetrator reaches a stable velocity (while the minimum deviations occur between 10 and 40 µs – depends on the liner material). 2. the presented numerical model gives useful results, the values of the penetrator velocity and shape. good agreement between the results of the numerical model and experiment data indicates that the initial and boundary conditions are well set. 3. the advantage of the numerical model is that it allows the calculation of penetrators parameters based on varying the geometric, material and other characteristics of the liner, explosive and metal casing – performing relatively low-cost analysis. 4. the accuracy of the numerical model depends on the mesh, initial and boundary conditions. the accuracy of the numerical model can be increased by modifying the mesh (i.e. by increasing the number of finite elements). declaration of competing interest the authors declare that they have no any known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. funding information no funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. dss vol. 3, march 2022, pp.1-14 14 references [1] s. m. zakir, l. yulong, a. sohail, "numerical study on the optimum design od explosively formed projectile", 15th international bhurban conference on applied sciences and technology (ibcast), 2018. [2] alan catovic, anti-tank projectiles (lectures), mechanical engnieering faculty, sarajevo, 2020. [3] https://fas.org/man/dod-101/navy/docs/es310/ballstic/ballstic.htm, [4] a. stamatovic, projectile construction, belgrade, 1995. [5] j. carleone, tactical missile warheads, washington dc, 1993. [6] h. kemmoukhe, s. savić, s. terzic, m. lisov, n. rezgui, h. sedra, "improvement of the shaped charge jet penetration capability by modifying the liner form using autodyn-2d", belgrade, october 2018. [7] g. hussain, a. hameed, j.g. hetherington, a.q. malik, k. sanaullah, "analytical performance study of explosively formed projectiles", journal of applied mechanics and tehnical physics, january, 2013. [8] m. salkicevic, explosively formed projectiles, master thesis, university of sarajevo, mechanical engineering faculty, defense technologies department, june 2021. [9] f. rondot, "terminal ballistics of efps – a numerical comparative study between hollow and solid simulants 19th international symposium of ballistics, interlaken, switzerland, 7–11 may 2001. microsoft word alan-pregledano_188 issn 2744-1741 defense and security studies review article vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v3.id188 this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 32 cybersecurity challenges in industry 4.0: a state of the art review elmedina avdibasic1, amanzholova saule toksanovna2, benjamin durakovic1* 1 international university of sarajevo, bosnia 2 international information technology university, kazakhstan *corresponding author e-mail: bdurakovic@ius.edu.ba received jul. 22, 2021 revised aug. 27, 2022 accepted aug. 13, 2022 abstract cybersecurity is an important topic for industry 4.0, which will face a lot of nontraditional challenges before it can be fully implemented to help society. the objective of the study is to recognize recent cybersecurity trends, newly occurring threats and challenges as well as their potential solutions. the articles reviewed in the paper are found through science direct, scopus, semantic scholar and google scholar. after reviewing them, ideas from articles were grouped together to show how different articles had similar thoughts. through the analysis of 70 articles, it was found that cybersecurity still needs a lot of improvement in order to efficiently implement industrial internet of things (iiot), especially since many articles underline the need for security-by-design approach, followed by regular updating. key challenges are lack of awareness and security experts, increased cybercriminal and the fact that the chain is as only as strong as its weakest point. some of the most important solutions include incorporating security into design, stronger encryption, regular updates to patch vulnerabilities and good prevention and detection mechanisms. once cybersecurity challenges are overcome, industry 4.0 will be able to bloom to its full extent. © the author 2022. published by arda. keywords: cybersecurity, industry 4.0, internet of things (iot), artificial intelligence 1. introduction as humanity progressed throughout the time, the focus was always on developing better technologies. purpose of industry revolutions is to improve production. the first industrial revolution brought us mechanization, second one introduced mass production, and third one was about automatization. next in line is fourth industrial revolution, or as some like to call it, industry 4.0. some of the concepts of industry 4.0 is to make the machines smarter by introducing machine learning, and then interconnecting those machines so that the data can be exchanged between them. therefore, the following core components of industry 4.0 can be recognized [1]: 1. cyber-physical systems. purpose is to combine networks and computers-which are cyber part, with manufacturingwhich is physical-systems part. the idea is to have manufacturing processes under the surveillance of computers. 2. smart factory. a background system that manages the virtual and physical systems, gives almost real time feedback about manufacturing. it’s basically a self-sustaining factory that does not need intervention of humans. 3. internet of things. dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 33 cooperation and communication of devices that are part of one cyber-physical system is provided through internet of things. they can share the data and help each other with problem solving. 4. internet of services. all the services that are needed are accessible through the internet. there are few questions that arise when it comes to the challenges of industry 4.0. the articles that are written about the industry 4.0 and its challenges discuss these questions and their possible answers, ways to overcome these challenges. do the companies have enough competent staff needed to shift to this new technology? do they have the right infrastructure needed to make this change? another very important question is regarding the data privacy, whether the shared data is safe. how to protect the consumer and consumers’ data? how secure are the clouds where the data will be uploaded, and how exactly is the data going to be manipulated? cybersecurity surely is one of the biggest challenges that 4.0 will face [1]. figure 1 shows the context of cybersecurity in the big picture of industry 4.0 and industrial internet of things (iiot). figure 1. industry 4.0, iiot and cybersecurity context security needs to be integrated into the design. after releasing the initial product, its software needs to be updated regularly to patch up new vulnerabilities. data encryption will need to be improved in order to keep data safe, and employees will need to be trained to keep up with new security measures. lack of awareness could be a problem, so both users and employees will need to be educated about the importance of cybersecurity. since the cybersecurity represent one of the biggest industry 4.0 challenges thus, the purpose of this paper is to provide most recent advancement in cybersecurity for industry 4.0. therefore, the paper is structured as follow: section 1.2.2 section 2 explains methods that were used to choose the articles to be reviewed for this paper. section 3 results and discussion, contains literature review with tables and diagrams with the actual article analysis. ideas from the articles are grouped and combined into following topics: general information about industry 4.0, hyperphysical systems, smart manufacturing, internet of things and cybersecurity for health system in industry 4.0. at the end in section 4 conclusion is made. 2. method applied in study first database that was used to obtain sources used in this paper was sciencedirect.com. the key terms for search were “cybersecurity industry 4.0”. the total number of results were 344. among the article types that had these keywords were editorials, review articles, book chapters and research articles. after filtering the search results, two different diagrams were created in excel to visually present the popularity of the topic and areas of research where the topic was present. to choose among the huge number of articles and decide which articles will be used in the paper, the relevancy “test” was performed. relevancy was determined in the following way: the article had to have words “cybersecurity” and “industry 4.0” in its title, and it had to be written over the period of past few years. second part of the articles was found through google scholar, by searching the keywords “cybersecurity industry 4.0” and alternative version “security industry 4.0”. among many articles that passed relevancy test on google scholar, 16 of them were chosen. third database that was used for finding articles was semantic scholar, and it has turned out to be the one with the largest number of relevant recent studies. dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 34 another way of finding articles was through the references of already chosen articles – if the article chosen was of good quality, it probably cited reliable, quality sources, so those were taken into the consideration as well, as long as they were written from 2015 onward. since the topic of the paper is focused on current literature, the spotlight was on the papers written in the period from 2015 to present, since the papers written before that period are most likely not relevant anymore, or not as relevant as the ones written in the past few years. the first part of the actual research was to read the abstracts of articles, as well as summary/conclusion part of the article if it was available, since in many cases it provided information that was helpful in deciding whether the article was relevant to the topic and if it contained information that was worth including. after choosing the articles that would be reviewed for this paper, second step was to read full articles to gain better understanding of the topic. after that, main ideas were compared between different articles and important points in the articles were summarized. information from articles were then grouped by similar topics. 3. results and discussion as found in the literature, topic of cybersecurity for industry 4.0 has been discussed/mentioned in 332 articles available there. popularity of this topic has certainly increased over the years, as can be seen from figure 2 below. results from the first initial search are included in the diagram. figure 2. topic popularity referring to figure 2, it is observed that this research field is pretty young. the first paper publish was in 2002 but since 2016 the number of publications is gradually increasing from year to year. referring to figure 2, it is observed that this field of research is quite new and emerging. the first work was published in 2002, but until 2015 there was no noticeable increase in the number of publications. since 2016, the number of publications has been increasing significantly from year to year. which is an indicator that the topic attracts more and more researchers from all over the world. second diagram in figure 3 shows the research areas where this topic was mentioned/written about. as expected, computer science, engineering and decision science are most frequent scientific areas in which articles appeared. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 2002 2007 2011 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 n um be r o f a rt ic le s year 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 materials science chemical engineering environmental science psychology energy social sciences business management and accounting decision sciences engineering computer science number of articles dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 35 figure 3. areas of research below are shown tables that contain categorized research papers used in this review. table 1 shows articles sorted by topic they were used for. table 1. division by topic industry 4.0 cyber-physical systems smart manufacturing internet of things healthcare published article [56] [32] [26] [17] [59] [58] [57] [50] [33] [27] [25] [24] [18] [65] [64] [63] [62] [61] [60] [37] [35] [34] [22] [21] [20] [19] [13] [12] [11] [9] [8] [6] [5] [36] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] results obtained from articles, threats that would cause problems and possible solutions are specified in the tables down below, together with the references where those were mentioned. table 2. threats mentioned in articles table 3. solutions mentioned in articles threats and challenges references lack of awareness [45] [46] [47] lack of experts [48][58] companies are unprepared [60] large attack surface due to many entry points [12][27][30] [68] vulnerable device connected to a network [6][16][27][22] weak link in a supply chain [25][59] unsafe data exchange [23][26][49] stealing sensitive data for private benefit [5][16][31][69][50][53][66][40][68] [70] blackmailing [5][24] dos attacks [13] [23] [61][6] harming safety of people [51][16] [36][67] [68] financial harm [5][16][52][69] default passwords [21][34] unsafe updates, or lack of [63] [12][35] interruption in providing services due to connection being lost [11] [8] solutions references training employees, educating people [48] [58] [15] [7] [3] security-by-design [24] [15] security embedded in layers [2] [3] identifying most vulnerable spots and putting extra protection there [54] [17] [65] [41] prevention and detection techniques [24] [15] [25] additional authorization and authentication [4] [18] dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 36 1.1 article analysis it is worth noting that throughout the paper, terms “industry 4.0”, “industrial internet of things (iiot)” and “digital manufacturing” will be used interchangeably. “industrial internet of things” is the same as “industry 4.0” or the term “smart manufacturing”, but it needs to be stated that industry 4.0 is a broader term than smart manufacturing is [38]. even though cybersecurity is widely used word, the universal, standard definition for it doesn’t exist. it’s definitions vary and they can be subjective [44]. with that in mind, a couple of definitions are provided down below. the purpose of that is to show what meaning cybersecurity has in the further sections of this paper. 1. definition by public safety canada: “the body of technologies, processes, practices and response and mitigation measures designed to protect networks, computers, programs and data from attack, damage or unauthorized access so as to ensure confidentiality, integrity and availability [10].” 2. definition by kaspersky, which is one of the leading companies that are taking care of cybersecurity: “cyber security is the practice of defending computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems, networks, and data from malicious attacks. it's also known as information technology security or electronic information security [42].” 3. definition by us government: “cybersecurity is the art of protecting networks, devices, and data from unauthorized access or criminal use and the practice of ensuring confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information [43].” since vulnerability is mentioned very often throughout this paper, the definition of vulnerability is quoted as well. vulnerability is: “weakness in an information system, system security procedures, internal controls, or implementation that could be exploited or triggered by a threat source [71].” defense advanced research projects agency has stated that “security shield for internet of things” is among the 4 programs that are predicted to have impact bigger than the internet had. this is probably due to the fact that iiot connectivity will bring cybersecurity to another level because of the many non-traditional challenges it will face [28]. among all the other challenges that industry 4.0 will be facing, cybersecurity is one of the most serious ones. since 4.0 introduces a lot of new concepts, it will not only have to deal with usual security problems that occur when certain system is connected to the internet, but it will also have to deal with security and privacy issues that will be unique and characteristic for industry 4.0. that is what may make it harder to troubleshoot these problems, and unless these issues are properly taken care of, industry 4.0 may not achieve its full potential [14] in one of the surveys about digital manufacturing, companies were asked about largest challenge they are facing while implementing digital manufacturing. only 18% stated they were concerned about data security [45]. annual wef report regarding global risks stated for year 2019 that unfortunately a lot of tech companies didn’t see “security by design” as their primary interest, but as something secondary-their main goal was, expectedly, to put their goods on the market. for 2019, cyber-attacks were listed as the 5th in the list of the "top 10 risks" by likelihood, and 7th by the impact it would have [46]. as for the 2020 report, cyber-attacks were ranked 8 by impact and 7 by likelihood [39]. direct-to-machine data transfer [18] computational and cyber threat intelligence [54] [24] stronger encryption [3] [63] [26] blockchain technology [55] high availability through redundancy [8] controlled areas [53] [40] ditching default passwords [3] [62] encouraging reporting vulnerabilities [3] [62] regular updates [3] [64] [62] certifying cybersecurity technologies [64] dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 37 it is important to raise the awareness of the importance of cybersecurity. if the idea of industry 4.0 is implemented and the machines and different phases of the production are connected, then it is also necessary for all the workers who are involved in the process of production to be trained to understand and practice security requirements [15]. right now in, in some environments cybersecurity is underestimated and is seen only as a “technical” problem, and many companies see it only as an additional, maybe even unnecessary cost that they are not eager to pay [47]. in one of the articles, it was mentioned how the security had the image of being a “trouble-maker” in traditional manufacturing environments [29]. however, cybersecurity in the industry 4.0 has the opportunity to be seen as an enabler, something that could provide additional valuable services. another article mentioned the same ideacybersecurity produced opportunity for providing “additional services” in following way: due to cyber threats that come with new technologies, companies that are able to provide protection, security and reliability within their products can profit from that through “selling” those three promised features. however, developing technologies that would ensure the highest percentage of security may be pretty expensive, and if the awareness of importance of cybersecurity is not present, then the question is whether the customers would be willing to pay for such product [47]. raising awareness is something that comes up whenever cybersecurity is mentioned. people will have to be trained to think of the cybersecurity intuitively. just like a person checks left and right before crossing the street, it needs to become intuitive to check if the iot device is secure enough, and that paying more for a secure device is worth it [7]. another roadblock for adopting the industry 4.0 security procedures beside lack of awareness is lack of security experts. people who already work in ot or it security are experts in that area, but for industry 4.0 they will need to be trained to work in new environments that industry 4.0 brings with itself. there will also be need to raise awareness about security issues of new technologies, that are unlike any traditional security issues that they may have been facing. an enisa recommendation for this is to raise awareness through training the employees and helping them transition, as well as educating the students through their courses about the importance of security in industry 4.0, which would help with raising awareness and understanding [48]. interconnecting different objects comes with a certain risk. in one of the articles, they give an example of business partners who are exchanging sensitive data [23]. industry 4.0 should provide them with a safe space for the data exchange, however this space can be reached and attacked by outsiders, via dos attacks that can interrupt the data flow and cause integrity issues. compared to systems that are not interconnected, systems in the iot environment pose a bigger threat due to the larger surface for cyber-attacks [30]. up to the recent days, number of entry points was rather restricted. this made cybersecurity a lot easier to deal with, but still there were a lot of cyber-attacks happening. with iiot happening any time now, traditional security measures that were in practice until now will need to be changed and improved to correspond to the huge scale of iiot. companies will now be in need of security measures that cover the whole system and all of the many entry points they have, so security will need to be implemented among many layers [2]. another article supports the layered security approach and gives its suggestions. the security measures for each layer that the article is recommending are following [3]: • network layer: using firewalls, antiviruses, use more secured wireless network like wpa2 and not wep, using encryption when transferring data to the cloud, using many ssid-s. • application layer: checking for csrf vulnerabilities, as well as vulnerabilities in the versions of open-source libraries and third parties that an application is using, changing default password if an app is a service provided by some other company; using https, encryption, setting normal behavior which will help to later identify any abnormalities. • device layer: updating firmware on time, changing any default passwords and configurations, testing the device regularly. • physical layer: limiting access to certain areas by using secure keys/badges, using security cameras. • human layer: training employees regularly, educating users on how to secure their devices, encourage employees and users to report any vulnerabilities they may find, and reward them for doing so. among “the top ten privacy risks” are information transfers that aren’t secure enough, collecting information unrelated to the main function, and possibly forwarding that and other information to the third parties [49]. there are different types of sensitive data that could be stolen. one of the worst scenarios mentioned in one of the articles was attackers stealing the information that is crucial for product designbasically stealing ideas for new products, as well as the instructions for manufacturing that product. this could also lead to the emerging dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 38 of more counterfeit products [50]. a threat can come from the inside as well. employees who have access to the sensitive data can steal it and sell it to the outsider with the highest bid [31]. cybersecurity is especially important when it comes to the idea of smart cities and buildings. each building needs to be designed with security in mind, since all the systems will be connected. control systems, security cameras, fire detectors, elevators, even electricity, and many other services that are provided could be compromised. the damages that could be done is interrupt in providing these services, which could harm safety of people and safety of sensitive information in the banks or other organizations. a way into the smart building could be hacking the most vulnerable spot, like smart tv, which wouldn’t be hard since up to date there aren’t any anti-virus/malware software for smart tvs [16]. as for the attacks on cars, they won’t need to be physicala connected vehicle will have connections to the cloud, wireless and bluetooth connections that could be compromised, and through these connections an outsider could meddle with car controls. the center of attention for security and protection will need to be transitioned from the physical aspect to the cyberattacks [51]. cybersecurity attacks leave a mark on the financial state as well. kaspersky lab conducted a worldwide survey in 2017, and reported that among the companies that endured cyber-attacks, 20% of them stated that harm on their finances has increased due to these attacks, and that lead them to increase their fund for cyber security systems [52]. to achieve a healthy and strong system that has effective cybersecurity, it is important to have cyber-attack prevention tactics, as well as detection methods and response procedures [25]. one of the solutions for physical control and data protection that was mentioned in two different articles was “controlled areas”, also called protected areas [40] [53]. rooms where sensitive information is spoken so it can be heard need to be protected so that no outsider could get access to the data. to prevent third partied from hearing sensitive data, sound insulation can be implemented for those rooms. to prevent radio and electromagnetic signals that contain sensitive data from getting beyond the walls of protected rooms, the electromagnetic shielding for the rooms could be implemented as well. in order for the company to be ready to deal with cybercrime and defend from it, there are a couple of things they can do to ensure effective cybersecurity. a company needs to analyze what their most important assets are and then invest in protecting them. cyber threat intelligence helps to prepare by analyzing when and where the threats could occur. there needs to be a constant improvement of cybersecurity. topic of security needs to be a recurring element, a regular part of meetings and discussions [54]. general solution for protecting the system as whole would be to estimate in advance what are the most vulnerable and the most critical parts of the network that need to be protected [41]. they say that earlier systems did not give much thought to the cybersecurity during their design phase. and now a different approach is needed, where the security would be integrated in the design. instead of focusing on responsive actions that would need to be taken after a cyber-attack, they propose focusing on preventive policies that would provide security from the start [15]. some of the measures that can help with assuring security would be authorization of the software on the connected devices, authenticating the device prior to the data transfer to/from the cloud, and using firewalls [4]. a new approach to cybersecurity is using blockchain technology. it is famous for being used in bitcoin, and with its help, the transactions are more secure and safe. users on the different ends of transaction don’t have to trust each other, and after the transaction is confirmed, it isn’t possible to reverse it. due to its decentralized nature, blockchain is basically impossible to hack, which makes it safe and perfect to use in cybersecurity for industry 4.0 [55]. 3.1. cyber – physical systems industrial control systems (ics) is a part of cyber-physical systems. well performing ics present a solid foundation for the success of industry 4.0. ics are category of control systems that are used for handling and automatization of industrial processes. with bigger connectivity comes a bigger risk of cyber-attacks, which means that ics will need better security. as one article noted, south-east asia had the largest percentage of ics infections in 2018-61% of their devices were attacked in h1 of 2018, and 57.8% in h2 of 2018 [56]. number of articles suggest using cad (computer aided design) in the process of creating cyber-physical model [32]. together with offering a lot of amazing features, cad model also comes with its own cybersecurity risks. one of the inevitable things regarding industry 4.0 is collaboration via cloud when developing new products. however, it is going to be a challenge to protect sensitive data about the model of a new product, if it is shared via cloud. one of the articles suggested using customized encryption for cloudshared cad models. there would be two different types of users, owner of the model and its collaborators. dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 39 the way that the encryption would work is the owner of the model would upload to the cloud cad model in encrypted form, and then collaborators can download the encrypted model from the cloud and decrypt it [26]. another article offers the steps for managing the cybersecurity risks. first thing is to identify those risks, by identifying weaknesses, as well as possible threats. second is analyzing those risks, by determining how likely is it for such situation to happen, as well as determining the possible impact of the risk. third would be evaluating risks. what would the magnitude of the risk be, is the risk acceptable? last step are risk controls, and it would be performed by implementing controls for the risk [17]. 3.2. smart factory the idea behind smart factory is to get more from the manufacturing by transitioning from the traditional way to the industry 4.0 way – creating a network of suppliers and a connected system that uses real-time data and adjusts the manufacturing so that the new demands can be met. that results with a system that is overall more efficient and that could rank better than the other competitors in market [57]. smart factory, just like other parts of industry 4.0, will face certain challenges. types of jobs that people will have in factory will evolve into something more complex, as the automation takes over the repetitive and dull jobs. some may argue that automation presents a threat to the current job positions in manufacturing. however, the jobs will still remain, but the tasks that workers will do will change. companies will need workers who will operate on new technologies that industry 4.0 will bring. right now, they say that it’s hard to start implementing new digital technologies because there aren’t enough workers that have skills that are required to be able to run those technologies. companies will eventually have to invest in training their employees and equipping them with skills needed to operate the new technologies. apart from this challenge, another one will be dealing with cybersecurity [58]. table presents summary of results on key cybersecurity challenges for cyber-physical system and smart factory. table 4. key cybersecurity challenges for cyber-physical system and smart factory challenge result reference manufacturing processes as potential risk. • multiple connected suppliers may not have the same security levels. probably smaller suppliers, will have weaker cybersecurity which will cause a threat to the rest of the connected suppliers. • an outside attacker could identify the weakest link and use it to get access to the rest of the suppliers. • 92% of overall cyber-attacks for a year happened in a smaller organization. this would be a scenario likely to happen with smart manufacturing supply chains where outsiders would attack smaller companies because of their vulnerability, • interconnections come with a certain risk but solution maybe to limit the communication between the machines or separate the machines that are used for production from the personal computers that are on the same network. [18], [25], [33], [50], [59]. industrial control systems (ics). • south-east asia had the largest percentage of ics infections in 2018-61% of their devices were attacked in h1 of 2018, and 57.8% in h2 of 2018 • collaboration via cloud when developing new products is challenge to protect sensitive data about the model of a new product • there would be two different types of users, owner of the model and its collaborators and the encryption would work cad files uploaded to the cloud, and then collaborators can [17], [26], [56]. dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 40 challenge result reference download the encrypted model from the cloud and decrypt it. • risk identification, analysis, evaluation and control are necessarily phased of the risk management. smart factory challenges. • companies have to be prepared for cybersecurity challenges such as: detection of viruses and malware before they get into system, and using computational intelligence for spotting and tracing threats like viruses and hackers that could lead to data manipulation, cyber stalking, blackmailing, executing terroristic acts, and other actions that may harm the system or parts of the system. • industry 4.0 depends on data that is transmitted from sensors in real-time, which puts security at risk due to number of entry points that each network has and increases the potential number of weaknesses in the system and vulnerabilities that hackers may use. • types of jobs that people will have in factory will evolve into something more complex, the jobs will still remain, but the tasks that workers will do will change. • companies will need new talents who will operate on new digital technologies that industry 4.0 will bring. • companies have to invest in training their employees and equipping them with skills needed to operate the new technologies. [24], [27]., [58], one of the articles says that security-by-design is mandatory for securing smart factories. it includes detection of viruses and malware before they get into system, and using computational intelligence for spotting and tracing threats like viruses and hackers that could lead to data manipulation, cyber stalking, blackmailing, executing terroristic acts, and other actions that may harm the system or parts of the system [24]. industry 4.0 depends massively on data that is transmitted from sensors in real-time. that puts security at risk because of many entry points that each network has, and then all of those networks are interconnected as well. this increases the potential number of weaknesses in the system and vulnerabilities that hackers may want to take advantage of [27]. an example of a possible risk would be the connection of suppliers and their manufacturing processes [25]. multiple suppliers are connected in a supply chain, and they probably will not have the same security levelssome of them, probably the smaller suppliers, will have weaker cybersecurity which will cause a threat to the rest of the suppliers that are connected to that chain. an outside attacker could identify the weakest link in the chain and use their weak security in order to get access to the rest of the suppliers. in one of the reports, it was stated that 92% of overall cyber-attacks for that year happened to the smaller organizations. this would be a scenario likely to happen with smart manufacturing supply chains (unless the security is better taken care of than it is now), where outsiders would attack smaller companies because of their vulnerability, and since they represent the easiest entry into the chain, that would lead them to bigger companies that are their actual target. these small companies would represent a risk for the bigger organizations since they could be easily attacked through them, despite the cybersecurity measures that they have accomplished in their own company [59]. since interconnections come with a certain risk, one of the articles suggested that a solution would be to limit the communication between the machines, and limit the machines that can communicate with each other. additionally, they could also separate the machines that are used for production from the personal computers that are on the same network, that way limiting the access [50]. dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 41 several solutions for protecting critical data are offered throughout these articles. one of the solutions discussed the situation when certain data would need to be transferred through different layers, until it finally reaches the machine that executes it. solution would be to skip all the unnecessary carriers of that data, and transfer it directly to the machine, with help of authentication and authorization. it would also strip off any non-essential data – only the information that is required for the execution would be given to the machine [18]. also it is important to remove the walls between information technology sector and operations technology sector, and have them share the information with each other, since these two are the sectors that will be crucial for effective defense of industry 4.0. focal point for it is cia-confidentiality, integrity and availability, and ot mostly puts focus on availability. issue with ot is that they lack room for adding cybersecurity into the equation in a way that wouldn’t have disadvantageous impact on production [33]. 3.3. internet of things one of the articles argues that the security is the number one challenge of iiot [19]. one of the surveys that was conducted among 400 experts from four countries uk, germany, us and japan, concluded the following: • regarding the iot security, 75% stated it was important, however just 16% stated that the company they were working for is ready for it. • companies were generally not prepared for each part of the security ensuring action, which consists of predicting, preventing, detecting and reacting. • regarding the strategies for cybersecurity that can be applied to iot as well, less than two thirds stated that they have one ready [60]. another article notes that systems that are part of iot should from the very beginning be designed with possibility of integrating it with the other systems [20]. protection measures need to be taken regarding protecting 3 things: device security, data security and privacy of the user. to protect the security of device, it needs to be saved from engaging in distributed denial-of-service (ddos) attacks and harming devices that are connected to the same network as that device. protecting data means taking care of confidentiality, integrity and availability (cia) of information on the iot device, ensuring its security while its being transferred and analyzed. protecting users’ privacy means protecting the personally identifiable information that could possibly impact the user, either directly or indirectly [61]. accountability is important when implementing security procedures since it distributes responsibilities and holds objects accountable for their actions. accountability isn’t enough to prevent cyber-attacks from happening on its own, but it does help to make sure that the rest of security methods, such as confidentiality or integrity are functioning well [9]. as availability is one of the key features that cybersecurity keeps safe, availability for the crucial devices needs to be as close to the 100% as possible. a very high percentage of availability at all times can be accomplished through redundancy, which in essence means that in case that one part fails to provide service, then there exists a backup of that same part that can provide service instead [8]. possibility of losing connectivity could interfere with proper functioning of iot device, and potentially reduce its security. extreme case would be inability of the device to function without the connection to the internet. solution that bitag proposes is to configure device in a way that it can still fulfill its main purpose even in case of losing the connectivity [11]. table 5 shows summary of results related to iot device cybersecurity. table 5. review of key iot device cybersecurity results challenge result reference iot devices mass production. • cost of producing iot devices will decrease but update feature may be costly / impossible due to limited resources. • updates of iot devices are one of the possible places for the outsiders to attack. updates need to be secured especially since they are usually arranged for a specific time slot and executed throughout the downtime. • more iot devices means more entry points that can be hacked. [12], [35], [37], [63], [65]. dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 42 challenge result reference unpreparedness for iiot security. • iiot security is the number one challenge. • protection measures have to include: device security, data security and privacy of the user. • protecting data means taking care of confidentiality, integrity and availability (cia) of information on the iot device, [19], [20], [61]. unpreparedness for iiot security. • 400 experts from uk, germany, us and japan concluded that 75% stated it was important, 16% stated they were working on it. • companies were generally not prepared for each part of the security ensuring action, which consists of predicting, preventing, detecting and reacting • regarding the strategies for cybersecurity that can be applied to iot as well, less than two thirds stated that they have one ready. [60]. employees smart devices (shadow devices) connected to organization’s network, without knowing of it department. • these shadow devices are a door for hackers for entering the organization’s network. • 46% of organizations found shadow devices connected to their corporate network. • only 25% of organizations haven’t discovered any shadow devices connected to their network. • it will be possible to turn many iot devices into botnets and use a massive army of modems, controllers, routers and other devices to execute a ddos attack. [13], [21], [22]. default passwords. • default passwords for commercial iot devices could usually be found online in less than half an hour. • most users want to buy a new technology, but they are too lazy to read the user manual and check how to change password or restrict access. [21], [34]. home automation controllers and remote controllers for garage doors. • hackers use that data from these devices identify perfect timing for executing robberies. • criminals from these data when the user is at home and when the garage doors are opened / closed. [5]. healthcare iot devices. • healthcare infrastructure is among the most frequently targeted industries for cyber-attacks. • hackers can attack iot medical devices and send commands to the device and to stop them working. • these devices are vulnerable harming patient’s privacy and breaking physician-patient confidentiality, and harming patients and possibly causing more health problems. • medical information is attractive to attackers to be used to get [36], [66], [67], [68], [69]. dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 43 challenge result reference prescription medication and drugs that can be sold on darknet, or occasionally contains the data that can be used for opening new bank accounts or taking out loans. insufficient law regulations regarding iot devices. iot devices rules in uk law: • iot devices passwords cannot be rosetted to the default factory settings. • iot device manufacturer must come up with an easy and accessible way to contact them so that any new-found vulnerabilities and weaknesses in their products can be reported, and they have to respond in an appropriate amount of time. • iot device manufacturer must declare minimum time before the device software becomes outdated and needs to be updated. [62]. certification of iot technologies. • european cybersecurity organization came up with the idea to certificate • iot devices are always changing and in need of regular updates that would fix new-found vulnerabilities. • a one-time security certificate is not sufficient thus it has to be adjusted to implement an agile procedure for certificating such systems, that would make sure that its cybersecurity is updated and suited for the system at each point throughout its lifespan. [64]. veracode conducted a study where it inspected six new always-on household iot devices, most of them being controller device for home automation, and remote controllers for switches, garage doors and outlets. they found many vulnerabilities in the devices. one of the results said that hacking the data from home automation controllers and remote controllers for garage doors, criminals could know the pattern of when the user is at home or when the garage doors are opened and closed, and they could use that data to find perfect timing for executing robberies. hacking into a central control device would enable them to set the microphone on so they can hear sensitive information that they can steal, or information they can later use for blackmailing [5]. one of the threats for the iot, that is already happening at this time are shadow devices. basically, employees of a company bring their smart watches or fitness trackers which are iot devices with themselves to the work, and then connect them to the organization’s network, without it department knowing about it. they are usually not aware that those products pose a threat by being unregistered iot device connected to the network. these devices can be used by hackers as a door for entering the network and committing cyber-crimes. infoblox reported that in the previous year 46% of organizations found these shadow devices connected to their corporate network. only 25% haven’t discovered any shadow devices to be connected to their network [22]. if one device has weak points in its security, then it could put the whole network that it is connected to at risk. if that device is hacked, it can be used for ddos attacks. since iot will enable a lot of devices connected to a network, it would mean that hacker would get the opportunity to recruit a big number of targets from one network and use them for attacks [6]. another article claims the same thing, it will be possible to turn many iot devices into botnets and use the massive army of modems, controllers, routers and other devices to execute a ddos attack [13]. another issue are passwords. users are not aware of importance of the security of their devices. most of them just want to buy and use the new technology, but are too lazy to read the user manual and check how to dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 44 change password or restrict access [21]. researchers have found that default passwords for commercial iot devices could usually be found online in less than half an hour. the intention behind that was probably to make it easier for the user to set up their device, however the issue here is that the hackers can easily find this password too, and since users aren’t too keen on changing the default password, hackers have even more chance to easily take advantage of this “password protected” device. another problem that was found was that devices that were produced by same companies had the same default passwords. the worst scenario is if it is impossible to change the password, because then the whole idea of password doesn’t make any sense [34]. law regulations in uk will make it mandatory for iot devices sold in uk to oblige to these 3 rules: 1. all of the devices will need to have one-of-a-kind passwords that cannot be rosetted to the default factory settings. 2. producers of these devices have to come up with an easy and accessible way to contact them so that any new-found vulnerabilities and weaknesses in their products can be reported, and they have to respond in an appropriate amount of time. 3. producers have to declare minimum time before the device’s software becomes outdated and needs to be updated [62]. one article notes that cost of producing iot devices will decrease, and huge number of the devices will be produced, and more iot devices means more entry points that can be hacked. since update feature can be costly, or impossible due to the resource restrictions, new-found vulnerabilities will not be possible to fix. and if update is obtainable, some companies do not seem to be using encryption when downloading them to the devices, and all of these things pose a serious threat to the security of these devices [12]. another article agrees that it would be a huge threat to the security of device if it cannot receive an update once a vulnerability is identified. another threat is if the data is in the clear text form while being transferred across the cloud, apps and networks. there needs to be a secure encryption for the data transfer to eliminate the possible threats of data stealing and manipulation [63]. one more article agrees that updates for iot devices are one of the possible places for the outsiders to attack, especially since they are very different from the traditional updates that we have now. these updates need to be secured especially since they are usually arranged for a specific time slot and executed throughout the downtime [35]. european cybersecurity organization came up with the idea to certificate iot cybersecurity technologies. iot devices and systems are dynamic, always changing and in need of regular updates that would fix new-found vulnerabilities. due to these characteristics, a one-time security certificate could be of short lifetime, so strategy would be to adjust the certification to these characteristics and implement an agile procedure for certificating such systems, that would make sure that its cybersecurity is updated and suited for the system at each point throughout its lifespan [64]. one of the researchers claims that many household devices will become iot devices, even though they would not need to be. the cost of producing a smart device using a chip will be only a dime. since the cost will be so low, manufacturers will try to turn as many of these devices into smart ones, not for the benefits of users, but so that they can collect data with those chips [37]. some argue that certain types of iot devices should have increased security. such devices are high risk iot devices like ones made for children. vulnerable people like children would not know how to deal with compromised devices, and they probably would not realize that they should report it. another example of high-risk devices would be ovens and thermostats. if attacked, these devices could make more harm than other devices that are not high-risk [65]. 3.4. healthcare iot devices can do a lot of good in healthcare by providing a more efficient diagnosing of the patients and collecting accurate data on patients’ status. however, these devices are also vulnerable to potential cyberattacks which would lead to harming patient’s privacy and breaking physician-patient confidentiality [66]. one of the threats that healthcare faces are attacks on their medical devices, services they provide and their infrastructure, that could affect safety and well-being of their patients, indirectly harming them and possibly causing more health problems, and in worst case scenario, even death [67]. reports have shown that healthcare infrastructure is among the most frequently targeted industries for cyber-attacks. right now, each dss vol. 3, august 2022, pp.32-49 45 bed in a hospital is connected to up to 15 different medical devices that can be furtherly interconnected, which is already a relatively big number of entry points. hackers exploit these points to get access to the data, and potentially to harm the patients. when the iiot time comes, the surface available for cyber-attacks will only grow bigger, so healthcare is one of the industries that are going to need cybersecurity the most [68]. one of the reasons why hackers may attack healthcare systems is for financial benefit. it may be generally unknown, but data from the healthcare has bigger worth than other type of data. these illegally obtained medical identities are later utilized to get prescription medication and drugs that can be sold on darknet. medical information occasionally contains the data that can be used for opening new bank accounts or taking out loans [69]. one of the parts of industry 4.0 will be smart connected health. it would lower the price of medical treatments, help to identify any abnormal changes in the patient through analysis of collected data, and generally boost the efficiency of the whole system. however, using iot medical devices can also be dangerous since it could be possible for hackers to attack them and send commands to the device to stop working. this can be very harmful since certain devices, like cardiac devices are crucial for keeping a patient alive [36]. one of the studies has shown that during the period of time 2013-2017, 1512 data breaches happened in the usa, which affected records of 154 415 257 patients. even though the percentage of data breaches caused by hacking incidents was below 25%, it was found that hacking was accountable for almost 85% of the records that were affected. and this happened in the time when iot was not there yet. as healthcare gets to implement the iot technologies in the future, the incidents may get worse, unless the healthcare implements very strong cybersecurity technologies [70]. 4. conclusions development of new technologies is what led to the industry 4.0. through making machines smarter, interconnecting them and combining cyber and physical systems, industry 4.0 will soon face its blooming phase. it will also face some challenges like cybersecurity that will force it to furtherly improve. this paper reviewed selected articles that discuss the cyber threats that industry 4.0 will most likely face, as well as the possible solutions. some of the threats for cybersecurity include lack of awareness, security not being incorporated into the design, poor encryption, default passwords and over-the-air updates. major problems that industry 4.0 will probably face are lack of experts on cybersecurity areas, stealing and manipulation of sensitive data, vulnerable points in the network chain that put the whole network at risk, ddos attacks, as well as other types of cyber-attacks. healthcare may face one of the more serious problems, where the health and safety of the patients might be compromised, beside their data that may be stolen. apart from these challenges, there are also some good news and solutions for some of these problems. some of them are layered security approach, stronger encryption, more frequent authentication and authorization of devices, as well as prevention, detection and response mechanisms regarding cyber-attacks. suggestions include analyzing the system and detecting its vulnerable points and adding extra security around those. through creating cyber-attack scenarios, companies will be able to identify possible breaches and find a way to stop them before they happen. and lastly, implementing law regulations that would guard the satisfactory security levels in the devices and certificating the cybersecurity software. one of the possible directions 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