Microsoft Word - 86-95_173.docx Defense and Vol. 2, May 2 https://doi.org This work is lice to share and ada authorship and in Review Kerim Krnj 1Mechanical En *Correspond © The Auth 2021. Published by ARDA. 1. 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All these IS R that allows others ent of the work's changed sig materials, whi nition (IM), ction techniqu use of mater the applicati y high explo in different eir stability, e known to be energy and i rials with c The propert d and improv mmunition t ational comm aterials and al to the effec ATB, NTO, ped insensiti or high perf search for th ber of energe /explosives f uter codes to energetic m ical and ther nergetic mat with other in e properties a SSN2744-174 Review Article s s gnificantly. ich include as well as ues, safety rials and a ion of new osives such stages of reliability, e chemical it has been customized ies of new ved before testing is a munity has developed cts of heat, , tests for ive materials formance and he promising etic oxidizers formulations o predict the materials with mal stability terial for it ngredients in are compared 1 e s. d g s, s. e h y. s n d DSS Vol. 2, May 2021, pp.86-95 87 with the properties of known benchmark energetic materials which are currently in use in propellant or explosive formulations. High energy materials research area received less attention from the energetic materials scientists in the past. This may be attributed to the risks and hazards associated with the research investigations. There has been progress in the synthesis and development of new energetic compounds in recent years. The other category of nitro compounds emerging as key ingredients for propellant and explosive formulations are tetrazoles, triazines, tetrazines, compounds of metallic salts of hydrazines, carbohydrazines and polymeric binders containing azo, nitro-, nitroxy- groups in the backbones. New requirements such as reduction of the vulnerability of combat platforms, stealth characteristics, and increased demand to achieve higher energetics in terms of specific impulse and performance coupled with environmental issues have forced the researchers to produce novel energetic materials. To develop a new energetic material, it is essential to consider the factors such as indigenous availability of starting materials, ease of its preparation, purity of energetic material and its cost effectiveness. One of the approaches used to synthesize insensitive explosives is basically in the maximum possible percentage of nitrogen in energy materials[1]. A brief overview of certain low-sensitivity energy substances is given. A small number of the presented compounds are already in commercial application, and most are in the research phase. Some of the most interesting new energetic materials are: TATB, FOX-7, FOX-12, TEX, NTO, RS-RDX, ANTA, DAAF. 1.1. TATB TATB is a secondary high explosive, slightly weaker than RDX but stronger than TNT. It is extremely insensitive to shock, vibration, fire or shock. The possibility of accidental detonation is very small, even under severe conditions, so this explosive can be used for applications that require extreme safety, such as explosives in nuclear weapons where accidental detonation would pose an extreme danger. All British nuclear warheads use TATB-based explosives in their primary phase. Some explosive formulations based on HMX, TATB and KeL-F were characterized for density, VOD (velocity of detonation), initiation sensitivity, ignition temperature and other explosive properties. At a density of 1.80 g/cm3, the TATB has a detonation velocity of 7350 m/s. It decomposes without melting at 350 °C, and is stable at temperatures up to 250 °C even over a long period of time. Pure TATB has a light yellow color and is insoluble in most solvents [2]. 1.2. Fox-7 Fox-7 or DADNE is a candidate for use as an insensitive explosive. This molecule has attracted attention due to its insensitivity to external impulses and its performance comparable to RDX and HMX, while its sensitivity to shock and friction is much lower than that of RDX and other nitramines. There are three different pathways of FOX-7 synthesis beeing developed, all involving nitration of the heterocyclic compound followed by hydrolysis to give FOX-7. Nitration is performed with mixed acid (sulfuric or nitric acid) at low temperature (<30 °C), and hydrolysis can be performed by isolating the intermediate and hydrolyzing with aqueous ammonia or by adding an acidic mixture of the nitrated intermediate with water[2]. Some properties of FOX-7 compared to the properties of RDX are given further in Table 1. Table 1.shows that the FOX-7 is much less sensitive to shock and shock than the RDX, and is very insensitive to friction. The detonation properties are comparable to RDX. Because of all of the above, the FOX-7 can be considered an attractive alternative to the RDX. Table 1. Properties of FOX-7 (calculations with Cheetah 1.40) and comparison with RDX[2] Property FOX-7 RDX BAM impact sensitivity (Nm) >15 7.4 Petri friction sensitivity (N) >200 120 Deflagration temperature (oC) >240 230 Density (g/cm3) 1.885 1.816 Formation energy (calculated)(kJ/mol) -118.9 92.6 Detonation velocity (calculated)(m/s) 9040 8930 Detonation pressure (GPa) 36.04 35.64 DSS Vol. 2, May 2021, pp.86-95 88 1.3. Fox-12 (GUDN) Energy dinitramides are high-energy materials that can be used for the purposes of synthesizing low- sensitivity ammunition. N-guanylurea dinitramide (GUDN or FOX-12) is a stable salt of dinitramidic acid that has good thermal stability and low solubility in water, has good resistance to mechanical shocks and as such is used in the application of insensitive energy materials [3]. Its thermal stability is comparable to RDX and superior to ammonium dinitramide (ADN). FOX 12 can be used for casting as with LOVA (low vulnerable ammunition) fuels. In addition to the advantages of low sensitivity Fox-12 burns at low temperatures, important in automatic rifles due to the erosion of barrels. The effect of FOX-12 was assessed by thermochemical calculations. These calculations were based on density (ρ = 1.7545 g /cm3) and heat of formation (ΔHf = -355.64 kJ/mol) . The results are shown in Table 2. The density, detonation velocity, and detonation pressure for FOX 12 are between the density values of TNT and RDX. Replacing RDX with FOX 12 in the RDX / TNT 60/40 composition causes a decrease in density and a consequent decrease in detonation velocity and pressure[3]. Table 2. Calculated characteristics [4] Explosive Density (g/cm3) Detonation velocity (m/s) Detonation pressure (GPa) FOX-12 1.75 8210 25.7 TNT 1.65 6900 19.6 RDX 1.81 8940 34.7 FOX-12/TNT (60/40) 1.61 7650 23.3 RDX/TNT (60/40) 1.74 8050 28.1 1.4. TEX TEX is a derivative of the powerful and very sensitive CL-20 explosive. Unlike the CL-20, the TEX is insensitive to friction, has low impact sensitivity and has a low impact sensitivity and a large critical diameter, which makes it an interesting explosive charge for insensitive ammunition. TEX has a crystal density of 1.99 g/cm3, the highest density of all nitramine explosives. The high density is due to its isovurtzitan structure, which has a tightly packed crystal lattice, and nitro groups occupy the free space between the cages. TEX is a very energetic material (due to the tense structure of the cage) that has a good combination of high detonation velocity with low sensitivity to mechanical stimuli and good thermal stability. The insensitive nature of TEX suggests that it could be a suitable alternative to TATB, NTO and RDX high performance explosives [5]. 1.5. NTO NTO is an insensitive highly explosive material, a potential substitute for RDX in explosive formulations. Although its performance is slightly lower than that of RDX, NTO is more thermally stable and less sensitive to external influences. NTO has performance levels close to RDX levels and its insensitivity is comparable to TATB. Its thermal stability is also high and it decomposes exothermically to about 272 °C. The pressure in NTO and cast explosives show superior mechanical and thermal properties and are insensitive[6]. 1.6. RSS-RDX RDX is sensitive to mechanical stimuli such as shock and friction. In recent years, it has been dedicated to the development of RDX in another form, with reduced shock sensitivity RDX (RSS-RDX) or insensitive RDX (insensitive RDX or I-RDX). When this explosive is incorporated into a molded polymer explosive PBX-109, it can reduce impact sensitivity [7]. It is important to note that I-RDX and conventional RDX do not differ in chemical, physical, and safety characteristics, and even raw impact sensitivity tests. I-RDX and conventional RDX can be produced in the same particle size distribution ranges. Differences between I-RDX and DSS Vol. 2, May 2021, pp.86-95 89 conventional RDX are visible in the impact sensitivity characteristics of cast PBX compositions. It was also observed that the use of I-RDX does not change any properties of PBX (such as aging, reaction to thermal stimuli, etc.), but only the properties of sensitivity to shock [8]. 1.7. ANTA and DAAF ANTA is an amino-nitro-heterocyclic compound used in the use of IM due to the high heat of formation. It can also be said that the insensitive energy material with a density of 1.81 g/cm3, 228 °C melting point, 225.2 kJ/mol heat of formation and performance is slightly lower than TATB [6]. DAAF is also an insensitive explosive that has good resistance to mechanical stimuli and characteristics similar to those of TATB. With its characteristics such as density 1.747 g/cm3, heat of formation 443.5 kJ/mol, impact sensitivity h50%>320 makes it suitable for use in boosters [9]. 2. Technical requirements for IM (Insensitive Munitions) In fact, the potential to develop energetic materials with IM properties is not limited to new materials. The sensitivity of well-established energetic materials can be reduced through various material improvements, such as better crystal quality, reducing crystal or molecular defects, eliminating voids, chemical impurities or the existence of multiple phases. Properties that are advantageous for IM systems include the following [10]: high decomposition temperature; low impact and friction sensitivity; no phase transitions when the substance is subjected to rapid volume expansion or contraction; no autocatalytic decomposition; spherical crystal morphology; good adhesion of the binder matrix; no voids brought about by solvent or gas bubbles; phase purity. Performance characteristics and IM properties of various materials are given in Table 3. Table 3. Performance characteristics of explosive components and example formulations [11] Properties RS-RDX FOX-7 GUDN NTO TEX DAAF TATB Decomposition temperature (oC) 238,8 260 217 272 >250 249 >350 Melting point (oC) 206 254 no 270 299 255 330 Oxygen balance (%) -21.6 -21.6 -19.1 -24.6 -42.7 -22.64 -55.8 Detonation pressure (GPa) 34.1 33.7 25.7 349 365 306 300 Velocity of detonation (m/s) 8750 9090 8210 8500 8560 7930 8100 Impact senisivity (cm) 39 126 >49 87 170 >320 170 Friction sensivity (N) 160 360 >335 360 490 >360 >360 ∆Hf-heat of formation (kJ/mol) 16 -133.9 -355 -129.4 -445.6 +443.35 -140 Density (g/cm3) 1.82 1.87 1.75 1.93 1.99 1.74 1.93 3. Tests and standards for insensitive ammunition The primary purpose of IM testing is to determine the response of ammunition to unplanned stimuli when tested under certain conditions. This information is then used to determine compliance with national IM policies. System security testing conducted 50 years ago in the United States has become the foundation of today’s IM testing standards. In 1964, the US Navy established a safety directive for the WR-50 system for registering warhead vulnerabilities and certain security features [12]. This included a fast and slow cook-off test and a reaction to a projectile impact. Following the establishment of the IM program in the United States, requirements for IM tests were also introduced. Requests for testing also followed in the international community through the NATO program. NATO established IM principles and technical requirements in 1995, and in 2003 the USA incorporated NATO technical requirements into MIL-STD-2105C [13]. The test requirements are defined via individual STANAGs. The number of tests and testing practices varies from country to country, but most IM testing programs are based on NATO STANAG 4439 Edition 2 (Policy for introduction and assessment of insensitive ammunition (IM)) and AOP-39 (Guidance on the Assessment and Development of Insensitive Munitions (IM)) edition 2 [14]. For each of the six tests defined in AOP-39, there DSS Vol. 2, May 2021, pp.86-95 90 is a standard test designed to classify ammunition based on the type of response. Those six tests and their performance are [15] : 1. Slow Cook-off – This requirement specifies a slow warming test that may result from a fire in an adjacent magazine, premises, or vehicle. These types of incidents require exposure to a gradually increasing thermal environment at a rate of 3.3 °C/h. 2. Fast Cook-off – The requirement to investigate the danger of rapid warming comes from a liquid fuel fire, such as burning aviation fuel on a flight deck or burning diesel fuel from a truck as a result of a car accident. Therefore, these types of incidents require the test sample to be exposed to heat fluxes in a burning flame of a burning fuel. 3. Sympathetic Detonation − The purpose of this test is to subject one or more packages of ammunition to the effects of the worst case scenario, is to detonate an identical package of ammunition under conditions that are most likely to result in a sympathetic reaction. The purpose is to determine the sympathetic response of ammunition sensitivity and ultimately to provide information on the effectiveness of the safety barriers used to separate a single, packaged, or multiple ammunition package. 4. Multiple Bullet Impact − This requirement describes the examination of the danger of ammunition strikes from small arms during terrorist or combat events. The aim of this test is to provide a standard test procedure for assessing the reaction of ammunition to the impact of a triple burst of M2 machine gun, caliber 12.7 mm, AP ammunition (armor-piercing). 5. Multiple Fragment Impact – The request for testing comes from combat or terrorist events that use artillery missiles or improvised explosive devices for attacks. To predict the response of ammunition to these types of events, the test sample is subjected to the impact of a calibrated high-speed fragment representing fragments of a bomb or fragments formed from artillery grenades. 6. Shaped Charge Jet Impact Testing − This test is performed due to possible damage or unwanted reaction of ammunition when using missiles, guided weapons or air bombs. The test is performed by subjecting the ammunition to a direct impact of a cumulative shaped charge jet and monitoring their reaction. It is also preferred that the diameter of the detonation be larger than the diameter of the jet so that the test can be performed. 4. Chemical and thermal stability of IM 4.1. Chemical stability An energetic material may undergo chemical reaction in response to shock, thermal, or chemical insults. In this review, we concentrate on stability to shock excitation. It is often the case, however, that a material’s stability to various forms of loading is highly correlated with one another. Energetic materials exist in a higher energy state than their lowest energy decomposition products. Thus energetic molecules are often termed metastable. Recently, several metastable nitrogen and oxygen compounds have been proposed that contain novel bonding. This has led to recent theoretical studies of hypothetical systems as high-energy density materials (HEDM), such as oxygen ring–strained systems (O4 and O8), tetrahedral N4, and cubic N8. The dissociation energy of the weakest bond of an explosive molecule plays an important role in initiation events. However, the correlation between bond strength and impact sensitivity is not general, but is limited within a particular class of molecules. Given the complexity of the chemistry of detonation of explosives, it is not surprising that the energy of dissociation of bonds alone is not sufficient to explain the sensitivity of explosives [16]. It can be seen from Table 3. that there is some correlation between the dissociation energy of the De bond and the sensitivity of the explosives. Nitrobenzene compounds with the highest De values are the least sensitive. The correlation between De and Ed could be an important quantity in determining the impact sensitivity of molecules[16]. DSS Vol. 2, May 2021, pp.86-95 91 Table 3. Bond strength (De) of the weakest bond, energy content (Ed, kJ/cc), impact sensitivity H50 (cm) [16] Material Weakest bond De (kJ/mol) Ed (kJ) H50 (cm) TATB C-NO2 323 8.6 >320 DATB C-NO2 312 8.6 >320 TNA C-NO2 300 8.1 177 TNT C-NO2 261 7.7 148 HMX N-NO2 179 11.1 32 RDX N-NO2 174 10.4 28 TNAZ C-NO2 167 11.229 29 NTO C-NO2 284 7.7 >280 TETRYL C-NO2 120 8.8 37 TNB C-NO2 283 8.6 100 EDNA N-NO2 207 9.2 35 HNB C-NO2 183 14.3 8,5 DINGU N-NO2 180 8.5 24 PETN O-NO2 167 10.5 14 N N-NO2 157 10.0 20 From an analysis of the structures of thermally stable explosives, it appears that there are four general approaches to impart thermal stability to explosive molecules [17]:  introduction of amino groups;  condensation with a triazole ring;  salt formation;  introduction of conjugation. 5. Detonation Performance Analyses for Recent Energetic Molecules In order to assess the potential of new high-energy materials, their energy characteristics must be compared with those of modern materials. One of the programs used to predict IM performance is Jaguar's computer program, which provides accurate estimates for the detonation and performance of an explosive if precise data on its density and heat of formation are known. This post-assessment data is used to compare performance against already known energy materials such as TNT, RDX, HMX and CL-20. The detonation properties of the known compounds obtained by the Jaguar model have deviations of about 2-3% compared to the experimental results. The predicted values of the C-J velocities, temperatures, and pressures, Gurney velocities at 3 and 7 area expansions, and limiting energies are presented in Table 4.[18]. Table 4. Jaguar predicted detonation properties[18] Explosive Density (g/cm3) ∆Hf (kJ/mol) Det. velocity (km/s) C-J Pressure (GPa) C-J Temp. (K) Gurney velocity (km/s) Boundary energy E0 (kJ/cm3) Oxygen balance (%) CL-20 2.044 376.6 9.79 45.6 4035 2.88 -13.07 -11 TNAZ 1.832 11.8 8.73 35.1 4224 2.77 -11.49 16.7 HMX 1.905 75 9.09 38.7 3514 2.76 -11.38 -21.6 RDX 1.816 70 8.76 34.8 3708 2.73 -10.88 -21.6 TNT 1.654 -63 6.89 19.8 3092 2.20 -7.11 -74 TATB 1.937 -140 8.778 31.8 2393 2.12 -7.78 -55.6 FOX-7 1.885 -133.9 8.80 35 2917 2.554 -9.35 -21.6 TEX 1.99 -445.6 8.51 32.7 2631 2.26 -8.83 -40.4 DAAF 1.747 443.35 8.16 28.2 3155 2.44 -8.23 -52.8 NTO 1.93 -129.4 8.64 32.7 2389 2.25 -7.34 -24.6 5.1. C-J and The results comparison model and t DAAF value For the initia the analytica of which is g Figu Figure 2 sho the cylinder density of 1. The analyse low-sensitiv results for m d Gurney ve obtained by of the exper the analytica es and their f NTO DAAF DAAF DAAF al density of al model of t given in Figu ure 1. Gurney ows a very sm from the exp .725 g/cm3 [1 s provide in vity explosive most high-ene elocity comp y the Jaguar rimental deto al model of formulation w Tab Explosive F F/RDX/VITO F/NTO/VITO f the FOX-7/ the cylinder ure 1. [18]. y velocity ch mall deviatio perimental v 18]. sight into th es. Jaguar h ergy material parisions for model from onation and t the cylinder with HMX, R ble 5. NTO a wt (% 100 100 ON 80/15 ON 60/35 /Viton (95/5) show a very hange for FO on of the calc alues for the e detonation as proven to ls. 92 r energetic c m Table 4. re the Gurney v r. Table 5 sh RDX, Viton and DAAF fo %) Densit 0 0 1 5/5 5/5 ) mixture, th small deviat OX-7 / Viton culated Gure e mixture of D n behavior an o be a metho compounds equire some velocity with hows a sligh were taken f formulations[ ty (g/cm3) 1.87 1.86 1.83 1.80 1.685 1.66 1.67 he obtained G tion from the explosive at eny speed wi DNMT/HMX nd performan od that is co DSS V accuracy ch h the values ht deviation for experime [18] Dexp (km/s) D ( 8.22 8.20 8.09 8.02 7.93 7.76 7.91 Gurney veloc e experiment a density of ith Jaguar an X formulatio nce of the ne onsistent with Vol. 2, May 2 hecking in th obtained fro in the resul ental velociti DJaguar (km/s) 8.38 8.31 8.18 8.07 7.93 7.70 7.83 cities with th tal values, th f 1.945 g/cm3 nd the analyti on (49.5/50.5 ew available h experimen 2021, pp.86-95 he form of a m the Jagua lts. NTO and es [18]. he Jaguar and he illustration 3 [18] ical model o 5) at an initia e high-energy ntally derived 5 a ar d d n f al y d Figu 5.2. Predict Predicting th materials. Th velocities of namely the t crystal densi  the form  seco form ure 2. Gurney ting detonat he density an he results of f several exp thermochem ity [20]: first set of mation and de ond set of da mation and de F y velocity ch tion velocity nd heat of fo f a study of o plosives are mical code an data, the c ensity. ata, the calcu ensity. Figure 3. De hange for DN y using Chee ormation can one such pred presented us d using the B calculated de ulated detona tonation velo 93 NMT/HMX e etah 1.40 provide insi diction are sh sing two dif BKWC libra etonation ve ation velocity ocities predic explosives at ight into the hown in Figu fferent ways ary (Backer-K elocity was y was based cted by Chee DSS V a density of possible per ure 3. [19]. T of using the Kistiakowsk based on th on the theor etah 1.40 [20 Vol. 2, May 2 f 1.725 g/cm3 rformance of The calculate e Cheetah 1 ki) Wilson/Ch he experime retically pred 0] 2021, pp.86-95 3 [18] f high-energy ed detonation .40 program heetah at ful ental heat o dicted heat o 5 y n m, ll f f DSS Vol. 2, May 2021, pp.86-95 94 6. Conclusion No explosive molecule has all the desired properties from a high efficiency and low sensitivity perspective. In a constant effort to optimize desirable properties such as insensitivity to stimuli and shocks (shock, spark and friction), as well as high thermal stability and small critical diameter, various energy materials and material mixtures are constantly researched and developed. The main disadvantages of current conventional explosives such as those based on RDX and HMX are the relatively high impact sensitivity and moderately high handling sensitivity. However, their advantage is small critical diameter and high performance. With materials that are the basis of low-sensitivity ammunition, there is a compromise for lower performance and higher critical diameter, but impact sensitivity is reduced and sensitivity in handling is almost eliminated. Insensitive ammunition (IM) is defined as ammunition that reliably meets its performance, readiness and operational requirements when needed, but minimizes violent reactions and subsequent collateral damage when exposed to unplanned stimuli. Testing is a vital component of any national IM program. Hazards and threats to high-energy materials are either thermal events or caused by shock and shock. The international community has established requirements for testing and testing the insensitivity of materials, developing six unique tests representing these events. There are two basic documents that provide guidelines for IM testing. STANAG 4439 (Non- Sensitive Ammunition Introduction and Assessment Policy), lists all STANAG tests that provide requirements and provide guidance for individual IM tests. Additional information can be found in AOP-39 (Guidelines for the Assessment and Development of Non-Sensitive Ammunition). This document includes test requirements, test protocols, a list of response descriptions, and an assessment methodology for IM coding. Thermochemical calculation methods have been developed to predict the properties of new materials. The detonation properties of the known compounds can be calculated with deviations of about 2-3% from the experimental results. In the future, it is expected that a wider range of energy materials will be able to be adapted to specific purposes. Many new low-sensitivity energy materials are still in the experimental phase. Their production costs are very high, which is currently a limiting factor for their use. Therefore, it is necessary to make an effort to make their production profitable. References [1] R. Meyer, J. Kohler, Explosives, 4th revised and extended ed., VCH Publishers, Weinheim, New York, 1993. [2] Dilip M. Badgujar, Mahadev B. Talawar, Pramod P. Mahulikar, High Energy Materials Research Laboratory, Pune-411021, India 2 School of Chemical Sciences, North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon-425001, India. [3] H.Östmark, U.Bemm, H.Bergman,A.Langlet, “N-Guanylurea-Dinitramide: A New Energetic Material with Low Sensitivity for Propellants and Explosives Applications”, Termochimica Acta, 384, 253-259, 2002. [4] H.Oestmark, A.Helte, T. Carlsson, “N-guanylurea-dinitramide (FOX-12): A new extremely insensitive energetic material for explosive application”. Proceedings of the 13th International Detonation Symposium, 121-127, 2007. [5] E. Koch, “TEX-4,10-Dinitro-2,6,8,12-tetraoxa-4,10-diazatetracyclo - dodecane - Review of a Promising High Density Insensitive Energetic Material”. 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Agrawalt, Physics and Chemistry of Solids, Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. U.K. [18] https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5044989 [19] L. E.Fried, M. R.Manaa, P. F.Pagora, R. L.Simpson, “Design and synthesis of energetic materials”. Annu Rev Mater Res., 31, 291-321, 2001 [20] L. E. Fried, P. C. Souers, “BKWC: An Empirical BKW Parametrization Based on Cylinder Test data”, Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics, 21,215–23, 1996.