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Defense and Security Studies  Original Research 
Vol. 6, No. 1, 2025, pp.91-102 
https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v6.id285 

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 91 

 
 
The evolution of warfare from conventional to a digital battlefield: an 
analysis of cyber technology and artificial intelligence in the Lebanese-
Israel conflicts  
 
Sereina Khalifeh1* 
1 Political Science and International Relations, Lebanese American University, Lebanon  
 
 

*Corresponding author E-mail:  Sereinakhalifeh@outlook.com    

Received: May 8, 2025 
Revised: Jun. 1, 2025 
Accepted: Jun. 7, 2025 
Online: Jun. 9, 2025 
 

Abstract 

This study will evaluate the transition from conventional combat methods to a 
technology-driven battlefield. In particular, the Lebanon-Israel conflict serves a 
crucial case study to analyze how digital tools and AI reshape battlefield strategies, 
operational efficiency, and psychological warfare, triggering a broader evolution 
in modern military doctrine. This study will tackle a longitudinal comparison of 
digital strategy evolution in a single dyadic conflict zone. It adds to fields of 
security studies, cyberwarfare strategy, and AI-driven conflict analysis by 
analyzing how asymmetric technological adoption constructs long-term power 
dynamics. Through a theoretical lens of realism and a complementary military 
geopolitical framework, this research will analyze the impact of cyber warfare, AI-
driven decision-making, intelligence, and precision missile systems on military 
strategies, political decision-making, and regional security. 

© The Author 2025. 
Published by ARDA. 

Keywords: cyber-warfare, artificial intelligence,  Lebanon-Israel conflicts, 
military strategy, technology warfare, hybrid warfare, Middle East security 

1. Introduction 

The warfare has gone through a significant transition, shifting from conventional combat methods to a 
technology-driven battlefield. Historically, wars have been fought through direct confrontation, depending on 
infantry, armored vehicles, and aerial bombardments. However, with the development of military technology, 
modern warfare has incorporated cyber operations, AI, and precision-guided weapons. This advancement has 
altered military strategies and significantly impacted war outcomes, reconstructing battlefield dynamics, 
decision-making processes, and geopolitical power structures.  

The Middle East, a central region for persistent conflicts and shifting military strategies, presents an important 
case for analyzing such shifts. In particular, the Lebanon-Israel conflict serves as a crucial case study to analyze 
the transition from conventional to technology-advanced warfare. Through the evaluation of the role of cyber 
technology and artificial intelligence (AI) in the Lebanon-Israel conflict of 2006 and 2023-2024. Through a 
theoretical lens of realism and a complementary military geopolitical framework, this research will analyze the 
impact of cyber warfare, AI driven decision-making, intelligence, precision missile systems on military 



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strategies, political decision-making, and regional security. This research study will evaluate how technological 
advancements have redefined the nature of modern military engagements and changed the outcomes of wars 
within the Middle East. Thus, this research seeks to answer the question of how AI and cyber warfare affected 
the strategic calculus and balance of power between Israel and Hezbollah from 2006 to 2024. 

2. Literature Review 

The transition from conventional combat to a technology-driven battlefield has redefined military strategies and 
reconstructed geopolitical dynamics. The introduction of AI-driven military technologies and cyber warfare has 
altered military engagements in the Middle East. According to Kallenborn [6] and the Marine Corps Association 
[9], AI has altered decision-making intelligence into modern military strategies and facilitated the dependence 
on cyber operations and precision-guided weapons. To illustrate, AI has become a centralized tool in target 
acquisition, predictive analytics, battlefield surveillance, and military operations. According to Daily Sabah [3], 
both state and non-state actors tend to leverage technology to manipulate adversaries and gain a strategic 
advantage. For instance, cyber warfare has become an essential element within military operations, where it has 
a crucial impact on communication networks and intelligence gathering.  

As this paper delves into a case study of the 2023-2024 Lebanon-Israel conflict, it shows a rapid evolution of 
warfare where cyber abilities and AI-driven military systems played a central role within the war. Unlike the 
2006 war where Hezbollah employed an asymmetric war and employed a guerrilla tactic.[2] In the 2023-2024 
war, it was evident that a transition to cyberwarfare had been launched. To illustrate, AI-guided missile systems 
and AI- AI-assisted command and control have been utilized to disable communication networks, disrupt enemy 
defenses, and conduct psychological operations [21]. The digital warfare tactics employed by Israel had a severe 
impact on Lebanese civilians as beyond the immediate danger of exploding communication devices, these 
strategies weakened Hezbollah as a party and created fear within the country (Khalifeh 2024).  

The psychological impact of such a tactic disrupted everyday life and contributed to a greater terror since anyone 
can be the victim of such explosions, whether they are affiliated or not. Furthermore, Israel has taken an 
innovative approach to AI in its conflict with Hezbollah, where it diverted from traditional targeting methods 
[2]. For example, Israel combined human decision-making alongside AI capabilities to maximize operational 
efficiency. According to Barazy [1], the conflict between Lebanon and Israel extended beyond modern military 
confrontation and extended into the digital realm, where platforms such as WhatsApp and Instagram were used 
to spread false information and share military strategies, such as locations that will be bombed in a specified 
time.  

To further explain, both parties have engaged in cyberattacks, account hacking, and misinformation AI 
campaigns to destabilize each other’s digital infrastructure and manipulate the international opinion [1]. This 
literature review underscores the importance of understanding the intersection of technology and warfare, 
especially within the Middle East. The integration of such technology can maneuver outcomes and create 
challenges for weaker parties, redefining global security. 

3. Methodology 

This study will employ a mixed-methods approach, combining both qualitative and quantitative research 
methodologies. Through integrating diverse data sources and analytical frameworks, the research seeks to 
provide a comprehensive examination of the transition from conventional warfare to technology-driven 
battlefield while focusing on the impact of technology on the outcome of the Lebanon-Israel conflicts of 2006 
and 2023-2024.  
The study will incorporate both Primary sources, such as military reports, government statements, and expert 
interviews, where it will gather first-hand data on military strategies and technological applications. As well as 
secondary sources such as academic articles, media coverage, and policy analyses, which will provide 
contextual and historical insight into the evolution of modern warfare. Additionally, this study will employ a 
strategic approach to analyze the transition from conventional warfare to a technology-driven battlefield, 
specifically exploring the impact of technology on war outcomes.  

Realism: the primary theoretical lens of the research will analyze the evolution of military strategies, 
technological integration, and information warfare, emphasizing state behavior, power dynamics, and security 
competition. Furthermore, a case study methodology will be applied to evaluate the impact of AI and 



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Technological advancements in the Lebanon-Israel wars in 2006 and 2023-2024. By focusing on this case study, 
the study will highlight patterns, strategic shifts, and the role of emerging military technologies in determining 
outcomes of wars.  

The study justifies its methodology by integrating both primary and secondary accounts, ensuring a balanced 
assessment of the evolution of modern warfare. By systematically examining available tools, data, and research 
frameworks, the study aligns its objectives to provide a detailed analysis of shifting warfare trends and the way 
technological advancements have shaped military successes or failures. Moreover, the research is highly 
feasible since it tackles a modern time conflict that destabilizes the Mena region and the central case study is 
manageable since it is within two specific time frames July 12, 2006, till August 14, 2006) and (October 8, 
2023, till November 17, 2024) [26], and it relies on well documented events and assessable scholarly sources.  

The focus is on the existing conflicts, and it ensures that data availability will not pose a barrier. Moreover, by 
leveraging existing analytical frameworks in conflict studies, the study can provide meaningful insight within a 
structured timeline. Given the volatile nature of cyberwarfare reporting, this study will tackle the triangulation 
methods. An open-source intelligence is cross-verified with credible think tanks and defense institutes such as 
NATO, CSIS, Cyber Readiness Reports, and IISS strategic briefing assures data reliability. Misinformation risk 
can be monitored through proper dependency on verified military communiques, academic sources, and media 
triangulation. 

The study is grounded on the basis of a realist theoretical lens, especially Neorealism (Waltz 1979), which 
highlights the anarchic structure of international systems and the ways AI and cyber warfare have redefined 
power competition. Hybrid Warfare [16] will be integrated to showcase a mix of conventional, psychological 
tactics. To illustrate, the Cyber deterrence theory [22] will be emphasized to examine the escalation dynamics 
and retaliatory calculations surrounding cyber operations. These frameworks will collectively provide insight 
into how technological advancement has transitioned not only the battlefield but also has affected structural 
dynamics of power competition within the region.  

According to neorealism (Waltz 1979), the international system is anarchic, and it is driven by a sense of 
survival through the accumulation of relative power. Within this context, Israel has invested in AI and cyber 
warfare capabilities to showcase a strategic response in the evolving nature of threats, especially those posed by 
non-state actors such as Hezbollah. Technological dominance has become a form of structural power within the 
anarchic system, where military superiority ensures deterrence and regional influence. Neorealism facilitates 
Israel’s proactive cyber strategy to balance regional power and deter Iran-backed asymmetric threats. 

Hybrid warfare theory [16] is important to highlight Hezbollah’s military adaptation. Hybrid warfare is the 
blending of conventional warfare, irregular tactics, cyber operations, and psychological campaigns. Hezbollah 
as. Anon state actor has combined guerrilla warfare, social media misinformation, cyber destruction, and 
encrypted communication to counter Israel’s technological advantages. This approach showcases the stretch of 
the battlefield beyond physical terrains into digital and psychological domains, maximizing the effectiveness of 
limited sources. 

Whereas the Cyber deterrence theory [22] provides a different layer of interpretation, where the logic of 
escalation and retaliation in digital warfare is considered. During the 2023-2024 conflict, the cyberattacks were 
utilized to disable infrastructure, disrupt financial systems, and demoralize enemy forces without engaging in 
full-scale kinetic warfare. The theory tends to underscore the strategic ambiguity and asymmetric potential of 
cyber warfare where attribution is challenging, and retaliation can be calibrated it avoid traditional escalation.  

This model tends to suit both state actors, such as Israel, who aim for precise strikes with minimal fallout, and 
non-state actors such as Israel who aim towards precise and minimal fallout, and non-actors such as “Hezbollah” 
that aim towards benefiting from anonymity and unpredictability within the cyber domain. 

Combined, all these theoretical perspectives tend to offer a multi-layered understanding of Lebanon-Israel 
conflicts. Realism and Neorealism target the broader strategic motivation of different state actors, where hybrid 
warfare theory illuminates the developing tactics of asymmetric military groups such a Hezbollah, and cyber 
deterrence theory contextualizes the operational logic behind the non-kinetic forms of engagement. This 
showcases that rage technology is not a tool but a determinant of contemporary military strategy and geopolitical 
behavior. 



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4. Comparative analytical framework 

To evaluate the shift between the Lebanon-Israel conflict of 2006 and 2023-2024, a comparative matrix was 
developed alongside four critical dimensions (Table 1). 

Table 1. Comparative matrix with four critical dimensions 

Dimension 2006 War 2023-2024 War 

Weapons Systems 
Conventional artillery, 
airstrikes, and guerrilla tactics 

AI-guided missile systems, autonomous drones, 
cyberattacks 

Communication 
Strategies 

Radio transmissions, satellite 
phones, centralized media 

Encrypted messaging apps, cyber-infiltration, and 
decentralized misinformation 

Psychological 
Operations 

Traditional media propaganda 
(TV, newspapers) 

AI-generated misinformation, deepfake videos, 
and real-time digital manipulation 

Civilian Impacts 
Physical destruction 
(infrastructure bombing) 

Digital infrastructure targeting (banking systems, 
health networks), psychological destabilization via 
social media 

4.1. The evolution of military technology and strategic doctrine  

The advancement of military technology has transformed the warfare arena, transitioning from traditional 
methods that rely on conventional weapons and large-scale troop deployments to a technology-driven battlefield 
dominated by cyber warfare and AI [2]. Throughout history, technological advancements have served as a 
central trigger for military superiority, enabling states to exert their power and maintain security in an 
increasingly competitive international system (Chin 2019). The development of military technology showcases 
that a state seeks relative gains in power to maintain dominance and counterbalance rivals (Waltz 1979). The 
evolution of military technology can be classified into different stages.  

Early warfare relied on direct combat strategies, with heavy use of infantry, cavalry, and siege warfare. The 
industrialized revolution had evolved mechanized warfare, such as tanks, aircraft, and long-range artillery, 
which altered battlefield dynamics. With modernization and globalization, military operations have expanded 
to include cyberattacks, AI-assisted reconnaissance, and precision-guided weaponry, demonstrating a shift from 
physical confrontation to strategic technological dominance [3]. Moreover, Cyber warfare has emerged as a 
dominant asset within modern conflict as it has reconstructed traditional military engagement. It became an 
essential element for state actors providing the capability to disrupt the enemy infrastructure, shape geopolitical 
strategies without any direct military confrontation, and win intelligence advantages (Khalifeh 2024). Unlike 
conventional warfare, cyber warfare allows states to exert power asymmetrically through digital systems to 
weaken adversaries without threatening any conventional military engagement (Marine Corps Association 
2023).  

The reliance on cyber capabilities showcases the transition from traditional kinetic warfare to a more network 
centric warfare where success is often measured by a sense of ability to control and defend information systems 
[6] Cyber warfare tactics include electronic espionage, sabotage of critical infrastructure, and digital propaganda 
reflecting its impact on military operations [4]. Digital information warfare has evolved into a strategic tool to 
influence conflicts. States tend to manipulate information to have a sense of control over narratives and weaken 
the image of their adversary within the public discourse [5]. Platforms such as WhatsApp and Instagram have 
been weaponized to spread false information and create psychological fear within the public [15].  

The evolution of psychological operations showcases the reality of power dynamics where controlling 
information flow is as important as controlling physical territories. This has extended to the extent where the 
government and military forces are using AI to influence campaigns and international responses, mobilize 
public support, and delegitimize enemy morale [7]. As a result, information dominance is interconnected with 
military strength in modern conflicts [18]. Additionally, hybrid warfare integrates cyber, conventional, and 
information warfare into a single strategic framework that works on state power and reduces vulnerabilities 
[21].  

This integration is crucial for evolution as it maximizes a state’s security while minimizing any military cost 
and casualties (Waltz 1979). The effectiveness of hybrid warfare is dictated by its ability to blur lines between 
state and non-state actors through utilizing cyber capabilities, misinformation, and unconventional tactics to 
undermine opponents [2]. States tend to deploy AI-driven drones, automated warfare technologies, and cyber 



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infiltration tactics that enhance strategic advantages [3]. This evolution reflects the priority of adapting military 
doctrine to maintain the relative power in the evolving international system. Digital warfare has extended 
beyond just a battlefield but integrated itself into global politics, where technological evolution in warfare has 
become a significant influence in regional balances, alliances, and international conflict resolutions. 
Technological dominance has become an asset for securing military and economic power in an anarchic 
international system (Mearsheimer 2001).  

States must adapt to emerging technologies as a need to maintain their relative power and deter any threats. In 
this context, digital warfare has redefined the balance of power, it shifted geopolitical strategies, and influenced 
diplomatic relations [3]. States tend to invest their resources in cybersecurity, AI-driven defense systems, and 
automated military capabilities, reinforcing their strategic importance within modern warfare [6]. To delve into 
this notion deeper, as automation in warfare increases, concerns about reduction in human oversight, unintended 
escalations, and algorithmic errors present new security and ethical dilemmas [4].  

To illustrate, as states begin to develop advanced cyber capabilities to enhance their security, adversaries 
perceive this as a threat, which drives them to increase their own AI warfare investment, and it becomes a 
competition within the international arena. This creates an escalatory cycle like the nuclear deterrence that took 
place within the Middle East in 2003, yet now it's manifested within cyber arms races and AI-driven military 
strategies [11]. Therefore, the increased reliance on digital warfare as a tool of power projection can become an 
asset for security and strategic advantage in an anarchic world. As digital warfare remains shaping global power 
structures, alliances, and conflict dynamics, states need to balance strategic advantage with ethical 
responsibility, ensuring technological superiority does not cause destabilization or any unintended escalation 
within future conflicts. 

4.2. Technological transformation of armed conflict: Lebanon- Israel (2006-2024)  

War is an inevitable consequence of power struggles, national interest, and the anarchic nature of international 
systems (Waltz 1979). The Lebanon-Israel conflicts of 2006 and 2023-2024 exemplify military strength, 
geopolitical competition, and technological superiority that shape war outcomes. These conflicts were rooted in 
history and shaped through regional power struggles, driven by security dilemmas. Each side of the conflict had 
sought to deter future threats through escalating military capabilities [16]. These wars have highlighted the 
changing nature of warfare, where in 2006 war relied mainly on conventional tactics such as the guerrilla tactic 
used by Hezbollah against Israel, while in 2023-2024 war introduced cyber warfare, AI, and precision military 
operations, which altered battlefield strategies [6].  

The 2006 war was triggered by a Hezbollah cross-border raid on July 12, 2006, during which two Israeli soldiers 
were captured [2]. In response, Israel launched a full-scale military operation on Lebanon targeting Hezbollah 
positions, Lebanese Infrastructure, and key military sites in the south. The war lasted around 34 days, causing 
extreme destruction in Lebanon and significant losses. The conflict ended with a United Nations-brokered 
ceasefire (1701 resolution), which called upon the withdrawal of Israeli forces and the deployment of Lebanese 
and UN peacekeepers along the border [22]. While the 2006 war was fought mainly using conventional combat 
strategies, the 2023-2024 War between Lebanon and Israel can be understood as the continuation of a power 
competition where military strength and technological superiority dictate outcomes. Both wars highlighted a 
sense of a security dilemma where Israel and Hezbollah (supported by Iran) engaged in military escalation to 
deter future threats. The Lebanon-Israel conflicts of 2023-2024 were shaped by deep-rooted geopolitical 
tension, historical animosities, and shifting regional power dynamics [3].  

The war in 2023-2024 marked a technological and strategic evolution from previous wars. Unlike 2006, this 
war was infested with cyber warfare, artificial intelligence, and precision military operations. The introduction 
of AI-assisted battlefield strategies allowed faster response times, predictive analytics for military operations, 
and enhanced target acquisition [9] The shift from conventional war to technology driven warfare in 2023-2024 
war it demonstrates a future conflict that will not be dealt with through physical battlefield but also in cyberspace 
and digital information domains, making technology superiority a critical factor within military dominance. The 
integration of AI within military operations has revolutionized modern warfare, where it has enhanced 
battlefield decision-making, surveillance capabilities, and precision targeting [6]. The Lebanon-Israel conflict 
of 2006 and 2023-2024 is a case study of how technological advancements have shifted military strategies. In 
2006, the guerrilla warfare and decentralized command provided Hezbollah with a strategic edge. For instance, 
Israel dependency on the conventional doctrine and airpower demonstrated key limitations. In 2023 -2024, Israel 



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employed AI-powered missile guidance, cyber operations, and drone warfare to disable Hezbollah’s 
communication and logistics. Hezbollah has adapted by employing encrypted messaging, cyber defenses, and 
AI-assisted drone swarms, which shows the growing sophistication of non-state actors  

4.3. The weaponization of information and infrastructure: the strategic transition in digital warfare  

AI had minimal to no presence in the Lebanese-Israeli War. Military operations conducted on Human 
intelligence, traditional surveillance, and manual decision making were utilized. Conventional artillery and 
piloted airstrikes were employed with no automation or predictive analysis. For instance, the lack of automated 
systems translated into slower military decision-making, causing it to be slow and heavily reliant on human 
interpretation of battlefield conditions [13]. While Israel airstrikes targeted Hezbollah’s positions and Hezbollah 
eventually launched missile barrages into Israeli cities with no evident data processing or AI-driven threat 
analysis to enhance the target precision [11].  

In 2024, AI became a main element used in warfare. AI drones, surveillance systems, and predictive algorithms 
enhanced the battlefield and shifted the outcomes of the war. It allowed a faster automated response to threats. 
AI-driven missile guidance, drone swarm coordination, and battlefield simulations replaced many traditional 
command operations, which made warfare efficient and more precise [9]. This allowed a faster, more precise 
military response, which allowed less human error in decision making [14]. A key advancement in the 2023-
2024 war was the usage of AI-driven missile guidance systems that were automated and self-correcting missile 
trajectories powered by AI algorithms [6].  

This transformation from human-led to AI-assisted warfare in the Lebanon-Israel war is a fundamental shift 
within military dynamics, where machine learning and automated defense systems have replaced traditional 
command operations. In 2006, cyber warfare played no significant role in military engagements where both 
parties fought with missiles, airstrikes, and ground invasions, and their communications relied mainly on radio 
signals and satellite phones. In 2023-2024, cyber warfare revolutionized the battlefield. Cyberattacks targeted 
infrastructures, soldiers, military command centers, and financial networks, weakening Hezbollah. 
Physiological warfare leveraged social media and AI-generated misinformation to delegitimize Hezbollah and 
control the public perception. In 2006, the military communication was state-controlled and centralized, it relied 
mainly on traditional media outlets, newspapers, and television to shape both war narratives. Both countries 
used official press statements to communicate and exert their political legitimacy to ensure the information was 
contained within a state-controlled framework.  

However, in 2023-2024, information warfare shifted from state-controlled narratives to decentralized, real-time 
digital manipulation. Social platforms such as Twitter and WhatsApp emerged as tools for propaganda. Both 
states and non-state actors weaponized digital platforms to exert their dominance over the public. The revised 
information transformed the information sphere into an extension of the battlefield. The evolution of cyber 
warfare showed its significance within the Lebanon-Israel war in 2023-2024, where digital operations have 
taken control and cyber-attacks played a decisive role, delegitimizing enemy capabilities and shaping global 
narratives [6]. This marked a radical departure from the 2006 conflict and expanded to a cyberwarfare that was 
virtually non-existent, and combat relied mainly on solely on conventional military strategies such as air raids, 
missile strikes, and ground incursions [2].  

Communications in 2006 were mainly dependent on radio transmissions, satellite phones, and even basic 
encryption techniques, with minimal to no reliance on digital warfare as a military tool. As a result, strategic 
decision-making was slower. By 2023-2024, cyber warfare had been altered it enabling states to destroy enemy 
infrastructure, intercept military communication, and manipulate financial systems remotely [3]. AI-powered 
tools were used for cybersecurity attacks. State-backed cyber operations targeted Hezbollah command centers, 
logistical networks, and secure communications systems, which caused a disruption in battlefield coordination, 
leading to leakage in the database, intercepted strategic plans, and altered operational directives, which led to 
tactical disarray among its forces. One of the major cybersecurity attacks within the 2023-2024 conflict between 
Hezbollah and Lebanon was the explosion of thousands of pagers within the same second, weakening 
Hezbollah’s members, members, and leaders [19].  

Beyond military operations, cyber warfare in 2023-2024 had played a crucial role in psychological warfare and 
information manipulation. AI-generated misinformation, deepfake videos, and automated propaganda 
campaigns flooded social media to destabilize Hezbollah’s leadership, lower troop morale, and influence 
regional public opinion [11]. Social media platforms such as Twitter and WhatsApp have become the primary 



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tools for digital propaganda where fabricated war reports, manipulated images, and bot-driven narratives spread, 
creating fear and threat within the public discourse [18]. Cyber warfare had extended beyond military and 
psychological dimensions and impacted financial networks, banking systems, and Hezbollah funding channels, 
which weakened its ability to finance military operations [4]. Israel was able to freeze financial assets, block 
international transactions, and disrupt logistical supply chains vital to Hezbollah's war efforts [4].  

This Transformation from conventional to cyber warfare has highlighted an increased significance of digital 
battlespaces in shaping military outcomes. Cyber warfare is no longer a secondary tool that complements 
military strategies but a primary means of military engagement, allowing states to gain a strategic advantage 
without deploying thousands of troops [6]. This ability to mobilize and manipulate enemies’ military 
infrastructure and attack financial networks remotely can make cyber warfare one of the most powerful and 
unpredictable aspects of modern military conflict.  

4.3.1. Rise of electronic warfare in the Lebanon-Israel conflict 

The evolution of electronic warfare and countermeasure technologies has contributed to shaping the modern 
military conflict, especially within Lebanon and Israel 2006 and 2023-2024 wars. The contrast between these 
two conflicts highlights the shift from the conventional era to an electronic-dominated battlefield that determines 
the outcomes of the war. In 2006, there was minimal usage of electronic warfare, and countering technologies 
were employed, where limited radio frequency jamming, anti-craft countermeasures, and radar-based 
surveillance were employed. The warfare remained largely mechanical and human-operated [2]. The absence 
of sophisticated electronic warfare systems meant the dependency on human intelligence, satellite 
reconnaissance, and conventional command structures to execute military operations (Norton 2007). However, 
in 2024, electronic warfare expanded to include GPS spoofing and radar interference. This allowed the forces 
to deceive enemy targeting systems and disrupt precision-guided weaponry [14]. Israel deployed an advanced 
cyber-offensive capability, launching a cybersecurity attack on Hezbollah military networks, disabling the 
communication infrastructure. To illustrate, the cybersecurity attack that was carried by Israel against thousands 
of Hezbollah soldiers and members began as a sign of the war in Lebanon weakening thousands of Hezbollah 
martyrs.  

This demonstrates how electronic warfare can both serve as a strategic weapon and force multiplier on the 
battlefield (The Intercept 2024). The war also witnessed a significant advancement in anti-jamming and 
cybersecurity defenses, which prevented intelligence leaks and secured military communications [4]. The 
assassination of the spokesperson, Hasan Nasrallah, through a precision-guided airstrike demonstrated how real-
time technology and cyber-enabled target tracking can be integrated into decisive military strategies. This 
assassination shocked Hezbollah and destabilized its internal structures, but also showcased the terror of 
electronic warfare [9]. Ultimately, the shift from conventional to electronic warfare in 2023-2024 illustrates the 
increasing role of cyber capabilities, AI-driven intelligence, and digital battlefield operations, which determine 
war outcomes. This transformation will signal future conflicts that are most likely going to rely on cyber-
electronic warfare and autonomous combat systems, which reshape modern military strategies and global 
security. Strategically, the cyber arms race in the Middle East mirrors the Cold War-era deterrence models. In 
Iran and Israel, they engage in covert cyber campaigns, where Gulf states invest in AI-driven defense systems. 
Turkey utilizes the AI-powered drones in Syria, Libya, and Azerbaijan. The following dynamics underscore a 
shifting regional order increasingly shaped by digital capabilities. 

4.4. Quantitative analysis of the rising cost of cyber warfare  

Globally, the cost of cyber warfare increases frequently. According to the Center for Strategic and International 
Studies state state-sponsored cyberattacks have caused an estimated 10.5 billion in global damages in 2023, let 
alone with more than 60% of these attacks targeting critical infrastructure within conflicted zones such as Syria, 
Ukraine, and the Middle East [12]. In 2006, the Lebanon-Israel war in Lebanon caused an estimated 3.5 billion 
dollars in physical infrastructure destruction, primarily from digital infrastructure targeted [8]. In contrast, in 
2023-2024 conflict saw Israel employ a comprehensive cyber strategy, which resulted in 1.8 to 2.2 billion in 
damages to Lebanon both digitally and physically, such as banking systems, mobile communications, and power 
grids [4]. This financial damage has underscored the increasing economic weight of non- kinetic warfare where 
the costs where not through the destruction of buildings but through the crippled digital networks, information 
paralysis, and inaccessible financial assets. 



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Beyond the financial implications, Cyber and AI warfare have shaped operational dynamics. During the 2024-
224 war, Israel's cyber units had disabled 40% of Hezbollah’s encrypted logistical communication within 72 
hours [21]. This showcases how digital disruption can substitute kinetic occupation. This reflects trends 
observed within the Russia-Ukraine conflict, where Ukrainians had military analysts who estimated that 70% 
of early-stage battlefield intelligence was derived from AI-enabled drone and satellite imagery, which reduces 
the reliance on traditional reconnaissance ([21]). Likewise, the Department of Defense estimates that 80% of 
recent military decision cycles are included in predictive algorithms and real-time battlefield reinsuring the trend 
towards algorithmic control of combat operations (DoD 2023).  

In parallel, the informational domain has founded a critical warfighting environment. In the Lebanon-Israel 
conflict, psychological operations conducted through Twitter, Telegram, and WhatsApp had spread 
misinformation, fake airstrike alerts, and deepfake videos, which are utilized by both parties to influence civilian 
sentiment and international perception. Moreover, certain tactics tend to affect those employed in Syria, where 
AI-generated content was deployed to shift blame for chemical attacks and destabilize public trust in real time 
[24]. While casualty figures are lower within modern conflict, the intensity and complexity of damage in both 
digital and psychological aspects have increased as adversaries target populations, perceptions, and 
infrastructures rather than only enemy combatants. According to the NATO 2024 Cyber Readiness report, the 
member states have increased their cyber defense budgets by an average of 17% between 2020 and 2024. This 
shows that cyber dominance is equivalent now to the air, land, and sea superiority [25]. This transition requires 
scholars and policy makers to reevaluate the traditional metrics of military success and consider the ethical, 
legal. And the strategic implications of technological warfare.  

4.5. Strategic and humanitarian implications of cyber and AI warfare: empirical data from the 2023-
2024 Lebanon-Israel conflict  

The evolution of warfare within the digital world has underexamined consequences for civilian populations, 
specifically within asymmetrically affected regions in Lebanon. The 2023-2024 conflict between Israel and 
Hezbollah introduced a new dimension of harm, which is not physical destruction, but widespread systemic 
disruption. Civilian infrastructure such as schools, hospitals, electricity grids, and banking systems was 
compromised throughout cyberattacks and resulting in medical equipment failures, halted salary payments, and 
a loss of access to emergency services [4]. The Lebanese central bank had reported temporary shutdowns of 
interbank transfers while mobile networks were in a 48-hour blackout within the southern district, cutting off 
vital information and emergency response (Al Jazeera 2024). The psychological toll of digital misinformation, 
especially deepfake videos of falsified airstrikes and fake evacuation alerts, had triggered mass panic, 
displacements, and anxiety among the vulnerable and exposed population [1].  

The deployment of autonomous weapons and AI-powered targeting systems has raised the critical questions of 
accountability and legal oversight. The absence of human intervention has caused certain Israeli drones to strike 
and cause targeting errors, which led to the bombing of several houses mistaken for Hezbollah safe houses [21]. 
Human Rights Watch [7] and other advocacy organizations have repeatedly warned that the usage of 
autonomous weapons violates the Martens Clause, which protects the civilian dignity in situations not clearly 
covered by existing law [19]. The United Nations also urges the monitoring and regulation of lethal autonomous 
systems and ensuring the need to legally bind frameworks to ensure meaningful human control over AI-driven 
weaponry [20]. Within the context of Lebanon, this country is fighting against a long-term developmental 
setback. The intersectionality of warfare, law, and ethics demands an urgent international dialogue to precisely 
the weaker states and civilian populations become more vulnerable to non-kinetic yet deeply destabilizing 
military strategies 

4.6. Limitation and counterarguments: the risk of overreliance on AI and cyber dominance 

The Study provides an overlay of transformative roles artificial intelligence and cyber warfare has reshaped 
Lebanon-Israel conflicts, it is important to explore the inherited limitations and ethical concerns that are related 



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to technologies. Technological superiority is not only a guarantee of strategic success, but rather it is immune 
to unintended consequences. AI-driven military systems are susceptible to algorithmic biases and systemic 
errors, which may cause civilian casualties or misguided strikes. The precision system promised by AI often 
shows the reality that machines are still trying to operate based on incomplete or flawed data, especially in a 
complex urban environment such as southern Lebanon. Moreover, there is a growing concern where the 
growing erosion of human oversight in lethal decision making. Moreover, AI handles critical battlefield 
functions and targets acquisition. The risk of strategic miscalculation increases. The systems might cause the 
conflict to escalate autonomously, especially in environments that lack clear rules of engagement for 
automated warfare.  

Unlike human intelligence, machine adapts to the cultural and contextual dimension, machine learning tends 
to lack the capacity for moral reasoning or situational empathy, where both are essential in minimizing 
collateral damage. Moreover, the alternative explanation for Israel’s strategic advantage cannot be 
overshadowed. Israel had its success in the 2023-2024 conflict, which not only contributed to AI and cyber 
capabilities. Its robust intelligence and sharing network with Western allies gave its position a push forward 
within the arena. Hezbollah has challenge in countering Israel's dominance also originates from deep regional 
isolation, where limited financial infrastructure and asymmetric resource constraints interfere, not only 
technological inferiority. The shaping of cyber warfare as a golden bullet diminishes the multifaceted realities 
of military power, which encompasses diplomatic capital, alliances, economic resilience, and ideological 
mobilization. Therefore, while AI and cyber technologies remain essential for the battlefield yet their 
integration. It must be understood as a part of a broader matrix of power, and battlefields still rely on human 
agency, economic capacity, and geopolitical alliances. 

5. Discussion  

The comparative analysis between the 2006 and 2023-2024 Lebanon-Israel war demonstrates the profound 
strategic shift that occurred within modern warfare. The 2006 conflict has been constructed by traditional 
combat and limited technological integration, while the 2023-2024 war illustrates the dominance of artificial 
intelligence, cyber operations, and digital information warfare. This transformation is structural and constructs 
how states tend to conceive and execute military engagements. Through a realist perspective, the transition to a 
technology-driven battlefield had mirrored the continuous quest for relative power in an anarchic international 
system.  

Technology superiority and dominance have become a determinant of battlefield success, allowing rapid 
decision-making, psychological manipulation, and infrastructural damage. The incorporation of AI-powered 
surveillance, missile guidance systems, and cyber-espionage during the 2023-2024 conflict provided Israel with 
crucial strategic depth and flexibility, especially in targeting Hezbollah’s command networks and financial 
systems. Whereas Hezbollah’s shift to encrypted communications and AI-assisted drone swarms portrays how 
non-state actors can adapt to a new warfare paradigm.  

An important pillar is that cyberwarfare is no longer an auxiliary to military strategy; instead, it is central. 
Information dominance now parallels territorial control. The weaponization of social media platforms such as 
Twitter and WhatsApp shows the real-time psychological warfare and misinformation campaigns demonstrate 
how the battlespace has expanded to the civilian digital arena. The following areas blurred the lines between 
Military and non-military targets, raising ethical and legal concerns under international humanitarian law. The 
transition into a broader sense of cyber arms race within the Middle East, where states such as Iran, Turkey, and 
Israel challenge each other towards Technological dominance and hegemony within the area.  

As AI-driven systems tend to replace traditional military hierarchies, there is a growing sense of concern over 
algorithmic escalation, unintended consequences, and the decrease of human oversight in lethal decision-
making. The developments echo Cold War deterrence models but also work within a less regulated cyber 
domain, increasing the risk of miscalculation and unchecked escalation. This discussion illustrates that future 



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100 

conflicts will be categorized by invisible, instantaneous engagements not labeled by frontlines through data 
streams, algorithmic commands, and cyber vulnerabilities. The Lebanon-Israel case study is an example for 
analyzing how technological evolution redefines military doctrine, international law, and regional stability, 
calling for new regulatory frameworks and strategic foresight in global security planning 

6. Conclusions  

This study has tackled the transition from conventional warfare to a technology-driven battlefield through a 
comparative analysis of the Lebanon-Israel wars in 2006 and 2024. Through incorporating a realist perspective, 
the research highlighted how state and non-state actors continuously adapt their military strategies in response 
to technological advancements to maximize their power and dominance within the international arena. The 
finding reveals the nature of warfare within the Middle East, particularly Lebanon and Israel, transitioned from 
traditional military engagement involving guerrilla tactics, ground incursions, and airstrikes to a high-tech 
confrontation featuring artificial intelligence, cyberwarfare, and electronic countermeasures. This shift 
showcases the increasing militarization of cyberspace and automation, where digital capabilities are becoming 
as important as physical forces.  

The 2023-2024 Lebanon-Israel war is the most evident example of how cyber warfare and AI-powered military 
applications have reshaped battlefield decision-making, targeting precision, and real-time intelligence 
processing. Unlike in 2006 where human intelligence and conventional tactics were dominant. The study 
reinforces the notion that future conflicts will not rely on physical force only, but will begin determining their 
outcomes using digital and cyber technology to enforce their power and dominance. The role of technology in 
military strategy is now inseparable from geopolitical power struggles as states begin to leverage cyber-attacks 
and AI-driven battlefield management to gain advantage, as it allows them to deter threats and maintain relative 
power within the anarchic international system. The warfare in 21 century has been determined through AI, 
cybersecurity, and digital misinformation: creating more challenges for global military and blurring the 
boundaries between conventional and cyberwarfare. This has positioned technology as an asset to every factor 
in military dominance. Policy recommendations tend to arise from analysis that incorporates the need to regulate 
AI in warfare under international law and instigates cyber norms to prevent escalation when cyberattacks include 
acts of war.  

This study fills in a crucial research gap by offering a rare longitudinal comparison of conventional versus 
digital battlefield dynamics within a dyadic conflict zone (Lebanon- Israel). It illuminates the evolving nexus 
of cyberwarfare, regional security, AI, and provides a valuable empirical foundation for future work within 
security studies, hybrid warfare strategy, and Ai conflict modeling. Through technological escalation 
increasingly analyzes asymmetric conflicts, this paper aims for a greater integration of AI and cyber dimension 
into strategic stability theory and the security planning framework. The deployment of autonomous lethal 
systems tends to raise concerns about miscalculation risk. Future research must explore the role of AI through 
post-conflict reconstruction, through predictive conflict modeling, and its impact in other asymmetric conflicts 
such as Syria, Yemen, and Libya. As autonomous systems develop, they both tend to reduce casualties and 
increase the risks of strategic miscalculation. Therefore, Modern Battlefield is transitioning into a more powerful 
and technology-driven warfare, influencing and changing the trajectory of several wars in the upcoming years..  

Declaration of competing interest 

The authors declare that they have no known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material 
discussed in this paper. 

Funding information  

No funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. 



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