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(Online) ISSN 2744-1741 
Defense and Security Studies  Original Research 
Vol. 6, No. 2, 2025, pp.132-141 
https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v6.id291 

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others 
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 132 

 
 
Recent developments in ballistics 
 
Erdal Camci1, Fehim Findik2,3* 
 
1 Arifiye Vocational School, Sakarya Applied Sciences University, Sakarya, Turkey 
2 Metallurgy and Materials Engineering Department, Faculty of Technology, Sakarya Applied Sciences University, Sakarya, Turkey 
3 Istanbul Aydın University, Mechanical Eng Dept, Engineering Faculty, Florya Halit Aydın Campus, Istanbul, Turkey 
 
 

*Corresponding author E-mail:  findik@subu.edu.tr  

Received: Sep. 10, 2025 
Revised: Nov. 8, 2025 
Accepted: Nov. 26, 2025 
Online: Nov. 26, 2025 
 

Abstract 

Ballistics, the science of projectile motion, encompasses the study of objects such 
as bullets, missiles, and rockets from launch to impact, divided into internal, 
external, terminal, and forensic ballistics. This paper explores recent advancements 
in ballistic materials, methods, and sustainability challenges. Traditional and self-
healing materials, including microcapsule-based, bio-inspired, and metallic self-
repairing systems, are examined for their applications in armor, projectiles, and 
thermal protection.  

Experimental techniques like light gas guns and high-speed photography, alongside 
numerical simulations such as finite element analysis (FEA) and smoothed particle 
hydrodynamics (SPH), are compared for their efficacy in ballistic research. High-
velocity projectiles exceeding Mach 5, including hypersonic and kinetic energy 
penetrators, are analyzed for their aerodynamic and material challenges, with future 
directions pointing toward AI-guided systems and 3D-printed materials.  

The study also highlights green ammunition innovations, such as lead-free bullets 
and biodegradable cartridges, to address environmental concerns like toxic 
propellants and heavy metal contamination. Sustainability efforts focus on resource 
efficiency, including recycled composites and additive manufacturing, while 
military and civilian applications explore hypersonic swarms and non-lethal 
munitions.  

The paper concludes with future perspectives, emphasizing digital twins in 
forensics, space ballistics, and closed-loop ammunition recycling. By integrating 
experimental and computational approaches, this research aims to advance ballistic 
technologies while addressing ecological and ethical challenges in the field. 

© The Author 2025. 
Published by ARDA. 

Keywords: ballistics, armor, projectiles, sustainability 

1. Introduction  

Ballistics is the science of projectile motion, encompassing the behavior of objects such as bullets, missiles, and 
rockets from launch to impact. Ballistics can be divided into three categories: internal ballistics, external 



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133 

ballistics, and terminal ballistics. Internal ballistics examines the internal processes of a weapon, such as thrust, 
pressure, and muzzle dynamics. External ballistics examines the bullet's flight, trajectory, drag, and wind effects. 
Terminal ballistics examines penetration, fragmentation, and tissue damage. 

Types of ballistics can be categorized as interior ballistics, exterior ballistics, terminal ballistics, and forensic 
ballistics. The types of ballistics, focus areas, and key factors are shown in Table 1. In addition, Table 2 shows 
the application sectors, usage patterns, and sample technologies [1], [2]. 

Ballistics studies are used in the military, forensics, aviation and space, and counterterrorism. For example, the 
use of self-guided sniper rounds in the military and the controlled landing of a spacecraft under changing 
aerodynamic forces in aviation are examples of ballistics [3], [4], [5], [6], [7]. 

In this study, traditional and self-repairing materials used in ballistic applications were examined. In addition, 
experimental and numerical simulation methods used in ballistic research were examined. Then, the traditional 
and high-speed bullets used in ballistics were mixed. Traditional and green ammunition, intelligent and guided 
ammunition were examined.  

The environmental effects encountered in ballistic sustainability and difficulties, such as resource efficiency, 
were examined in this research, and solutions to these difficulties were investigated. Tables 1 and 2 below show 
types of ballistics, focus area, and key factors, as well as application areas, use cases, and example technologies 
investigated. 

Table 1. Types of ballistics, focus area, and key factors 
Type Focus Area Key Factors 
Internal Inside the barrel Propellant burn rate, pressure curves, barrel harmonics 
External Projectile in flight Drag coefficients, Coriolis effect, gyroscopic stability 
Terminal Target impact Penetration depth, energy transfer, wound ballistics 
Forensic Crime investigation Bullet matching, gunshot residue (GSR) analysis 

Table 2. Application areas, use cases, and example technologies 
Field Use Case Example Technologies 
Military Long-range sniping, missile 

guidance 
EXACTO smart bullets, hypersonic glide 
vehicles 

Law 
Enforcement 

Crime scene reconstruction 3D bullet trajectory mapping (FARO systems) 

Aerospace Rocket staging, re-entry vehicles SpaceX’s reusable rocket ballistics 
Sports Archery, shooting sports Aerodynamic arrow designs, precision rifles 
Medical Ballistic trauma research FBI’s wound ballistics studies 

2. Materials 

Various materials are used in ballistics. These materials can be divided into general materials and self-healing 
materials. Here, we will examine the general materials as projectile materials, armor materials, cannon materials, 
and thermal protection materials [3], [4], [5]. 

2.1 General 

Detailed comparison tables of materials used in ballistic applications, including projectiles, armor, railgun 
components, and thermal protection systems, are provided below. Projectile materials are listed in Table 3, 
armor materials in Table 4, railgun materials in Table 5, and thermal protection materials in Table 6.  

In Table 3, projectile materials comparison is given for high-speed kinetic penetrators, hypersonic vehicles, and 
railgun slugs. In Table 4, armor materials comparison is specified for defeating high-speed projectiles, 
fragmentation, and shaped charges.  

In Table 5, railgun materials comparison is given for rails, armatures, and structural components in 
electromagnetic launchers. In Table 6, thermal protection materials are conferred for hypersonic projectiles, re-
entry vehicles, and railgun components [1].  

 



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134 

Table 3. Projectile materials comparison 
Material Density 

(g/cm³) 
Melting 
Point (°C) 

Strength 
(MPa) 

Advantages Disadvantages Applications 

Tungsten 
Carbide 
(WC) 

15.6 2,870 500–1,200 Extreme 
hardness, high 
density 

Brittle, 
expensive 

APFSDS 
rounds, 
penetrators 

Depleted 
Uranium 
(DU) 

19.1 1,132 1,000–
1,600 

Self-
sharpening, 
pyrophoric 

Toxic, 
radioactive 

Tank 
penetrators 

Titanium 
Alloy (Ti-
6Al-4V) 

4.43 1,650 900–1,100 Lightweight, 
strong 

Lower density 
than tungsten 

Aerospace 
projectiles 

Steel (4340 
Alloy) 

7.85 1,425 1,000–
1,500 

Cost-effective, 
tough 

Heavy, lower 
performance 

General-
purpose ammo 

Carbon-
Carbon 
Composite 

1.8–2.1 3,000 
(sublimes) 

200–500 
(flexural) 

Light, heat-
resistant 

Low impact 
resistance 

Hypersonic 
vehicle nose 
tips 

Table 4: Armor materials comparison 
Material Hardness 

(HV) 
Density 
(g/cm³) 

Advantages Disadvantages Applications 

Rolled 
Homogeneous 
Armor (RHA 
Steel) 

300–400 7.85 High toughness, 
cost-effective 

Heavy, limited vs. 
DU penetrators 

Tanks, armored 
vehicles 

Ceramic (Al₂O₃, 
SiC, B₄C) 

2,500–
3,500 

3.2–3.5 Extreme 
hardness, 
lightweight 

Brittle, multi-hit 
issues 

Body armor, 
vehicle add-on 

UHMWPE 
(Dyneema, 
Spectra) 

- 0.97 Lightest armor, 
stops fragments 

Weak vs. high-
velocity AP 

Bulletproof 
vests 

Aramid (Kevlar, 
Twaron) 

- 1.44 Flexible, good 
for fragmentation 

Degrades under 
UV/heat 

Helmets, soft 
armor 

Reactive Armor 
(Explosive 
Sandwich) 

- Varies Defeats shaped 
charges 

One-time use, 
dangerous to nearby 
troops 

Tank protection 

Table 5: Railgun materials comparison 
Material Conductivity 

(MS/m) 
Melting 
Point (°C) 

Advantages Disadvantages Applications 

Copper (Cu) 58 1,085 High 
conductivity 

Low strength, 
erodes quickly 

Traditional rails 

Copper-
Chromium-
Zirconium 
(CuCrZr) 

45–50 1,080 Better wear 
resistance 

Still erodes under 
plasma 

Advanced 
railgun rails 

Tungsten (W) 18 3,422 Extreme 
durability 

Poor 
conductivity, 
heavy 

Rail liners 

Graphene-
Enhanced 
Copper 

~60 (estimated) 1,085+ High 
conductivity, 
reduced wear 

Expensive, 
experimental 

Next-gen 
railgun rails 

Plasma 
Armature 
(Aluminum 
Plasma) 

- N/A 
(ionized 
gas) 

No solid wear Energy loss due to 
heat 

Ultra-high-
speed launches 



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135 

Table 6: Thermal protection materials 
Material Max 

Temp. 
(°C) 

Thermal 
Conductivity 
(W/m·K) 

Advantages Disadvantages Applications 

Carbon-Carbon 
(C/C) 

3,000+ 50–150 
(anisotropic) 

Light, reusable Expensive, 
oxidizes above 
450°C in air 

Hypersonic 
leading edges 

Ultra-High-Temp 
Ceramics (ZrB₂-
SiC) 

2,500+ 60–120 Excellent 
ablation 
resistance 

Brittle, hard to 
machine 

Nose cones, 
scramjet parts 

Tungsten (W) 3,422 170 Extreme 
melting point 

Heavy, oxidizes Railgun 
projectiles 

Phenolic 
Impregnated 
Carbon Ablator 
(PICA) 

1,700+ 0.1–0.5 Lightweight, 
ablative 

Single-use, chars 
away 

Spacecraft heat 
shields 

Hafnium Carbide 
(HfC) 

3,900+ 20–30 Highest known 
melting point 

Extremely 
expensive 

Experimental 
hypersonics 

 

2.2. Self-healing  

High-velocity projectiles, hypersonic vehicles, and spacecraft face extreme conditions. This is why, for 
example, hypersonic missiles experience temperatures of up to 3,000°F. Similarly, microcracks form in railgun 
barrels and rocket nozzles due to repeated stress. Therefore, materials that can autonomously repair damage are 
needed to extend lifespan. 

Self-healing materials in ballistics can be divided into four categories: microcapsule-based healing, bio-inspired 
healing, intrinsic self-healing polymers, and metallic self-healing [3]. 

Microcapsule-based healing uses small polymer capsules (50–200 µm) filled with healing agents such as 
dicyclopentadiene embedded in composites. When cracked, the capsules rupture, releasing polymerized liquid 
to seal the gaps. They are also used as heat shields in the thermal protection systems of SpaceX spacecraft and 
in self-healing coatings on weapon barrels to reduce wear. 

In bio-inspired healing, the mechanism mimics human blood vessels; hollow channels in the material deliver 
healing agents upon damage. For example, in military use, they prevent fatigue cracks in turbine blades in jet 
engines. 

In intrinsic self-healing polymers, reversible hydrogen bonds recombine under heat/light. For example, 
polyurethane-elastomer composites are used in missile wings. 

Metallic self-healing involves the use of Ni-Ti shape-memory alloys, which fill cracks when heated. For 
example, self-healing metals are being tested for artillery shells [3]. 

3. Methods 

Both experimental and numerical simulation methods are used in ballistic research. Detailed comparison 
information covering the principles, advantages, limitations, and applications of experimental methods and 
numerical simulations used in ballistic research is provided in Tables 7-9.  

It is seen from Table 7 that experimental methods in ballistics, their description, advantages, disadvantages, and 
applications are given.  

Numerical simulations in ballistics are also given, namely in Table 8 via their definitions, advantages, 
limitations, as well as application areas.  

Comparison of experimental vs. numerical approaches in ballistics is given in Table 9, for different criteria, 
including cost, time, accuracy, scalability, as well as limitations.     

 



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Table 7: Experimental methods in ballistics 
Method Description Advantages Limitations Applications 
Light Gas Gun 
(LGG) 

Uses compressed 
hydrogen/helium to 
launch projectiles 
at Mach 6+ 

Extremely high 
velocities, 
controlled 
environment 

Limited 
projectile size, 
single-shot 

Hypervelocity 
impact studies, 
armor testing 

Split-
Hopkinson 
Pressure Bar 
(SHPB) 

Measures dynamic 
material properties 
under high strain rates 

Accurate stress-
strain data for 
materials 

Limited to small 
samples, not full-
scale 

Penetrator/armor 
material 
characterization 

Ballistic Gel 
Testing 

Fired projectiles into 
calibrated gelatin 
blocks 

Simulates tissue 
damage, 
standardized 
testing 

Not fully 
representative of 
human tissue 

Terminal ballistics, 
wound ballistics 

High-Speed 
Photography 

Captures projectile 
flight/impact 
at >1,000,000 fps 

Visualizes 
deformation, 
fragmentation 

Expensive, 
requires precise 
timing 

Fragment analysis, 
impact dynamics 

Flash X-ray 
Imaging 

X-ray pulses capture 
internal 
projectile/armor 
interactions 

Sees through 
obscuration 
(smoke/debris) 

Limited to a few 
frames, radiation 
hazards 

Penetrator behavior 
behind armor 

Doppler Radar 
(e.g., Weibel, 
RAdar) 

Tracks projectile 
velocity and 
deceleration in flight 

Real-time velocity 
data, long-range 

Expensive, 
requires a clear 
line of sight 

Exterior ballistics, 
drag coefficient 
validation 

 

Table 8: Numerical simulations in ballistics 
Software/Method Description Advantages Limitations Applications 
Finite Element 
Analysis (FEA) (e.g., 
ANSYS, LS-DYNA) 

Solves material 
deformation under 
impact using mesh-
based methods 

Handles 
complex 
geometries, 
material 
nonlinearity 

Computationally 
expensive, mesh 
dependency 

Armor 
penetration, 
fragment 
simulation 

Smoothed Particle 
Hydrodynamics 
(SPH) 

Meshless 
Lagrangian method 
for extreme 
deformations 

No mesh 
distortion issues, 
good for 
fractures 

High computational 
cost, less accurate 
for elasticity 

Hypervelocity 
impacts, 
explosive 
fragmentation 

Computational Fluid 
Dynamics (CFD) (e.g., 
Fluent, OpenFOAM) 

Models 
aerodynamics, 
shockwaves, and 
heat transfer 

Captures 
hypersonic flow 
physics 

Requires high-
fidelity turbulence 
models 

Drag/wave drag 
optimization, 
thermal analysis 

Molecular Dynamics 
(MD) 

Simulates atomic-
scale interactions 
under impact 

Reveals material 
failure 
mechanisms 

Limited to 
nanoscale, extreme 
computational cost 

Novel material 
design (e.g., 
graphene armor) 

Coupled Eulerian-
Lagrangian (CEL) 

Combines fluid 
(Eulerian) and solid 
(Lagrangian) 
modeling 

Ideal for fluid-
structure 
interaction (e.g., 
shaped charges) 

Complex setup, 
long solve times 

Explosively 
formed 
penetrators 
(EFPs), blast 
effects 

Discrete Element 
Method (DEM) 

Models granular 
materials (e.g., 
sand, ceramic 
fragmentation) 

Simulates brittle 
fracture, 
particulate flow 

Limited to granular 
systems, calibration 
needed 

Ceramic armor 
failure, soil 
penetration 

 



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137 

Table 9: Comparison of experimental vs. numerical approaches 
Criteria Experimental Methods Numerical Simulations 
Cost High (equipment, ammo) Lower (after software acquisition) 
Time Slow (setup, repetition) Faster (parametric studies) 
Accuracy High (real-world physics) Depends on model fidelity 
Scalability Limited (physical constraints) Highly scalable (virtual prototypes) 
Data Output Direct measurements (e.g., velocity, damage) Full-field data (stress, temp., etc.) 
Limitations Safety risks, material costs Requires validation, assumptions 
Best For Validation, terminal effects Parametric optimization, conceptual design 

4. High-speed projectiles 

In ballistics, high-velocity projectiles refer to objects launched at speeds significantly higher than conventional 
ammunition, typically exceeding 1,700 m/s (Mach 5). These projectiles are analyzed for internal ballistics 
(inside the weapon), external ballistics (flight dynamics), and terminal ballistics (impact effects) [4], [5]. 

High-velocity projectiles can be divided into hypersonic projectiles, kinetic energy penetrators, and 
hypervelocity impactors. Hypersonic projectiles are used in advanced military applications such as railguns and 
scramjet-assisted projectiles. Kinetic energy penetrators are used in tank ammunition, such as armor-piercing 
and finned projectiles. Hypervelocity impactors are used in space exploration. 

High-speed projectiles present challenges such as aerodynamic heating, drag, and stability. For example, at 
speeds of Mach 5+, air friction causes extreme temperatures (1,000-3,000°C), requiring advanced materials 
such as tungsten, ceramic, or carbon composites. Shock waves also disrupt flight; specialized shapes, such as 
thin nose cones, improve efficiency. Furthermore, spin stabilization can fail; fins or homing systems are 
typically used. Propulsion methods such as chemical thrusters and electromagnetic railguns are used to address 
these challenges. 

High-velocity projectiles can be used in military and civilian applications. For example, these high-velocity 
projectiles are used in military applications, long-range precision-strike hypersonic missiles, and to penetrate 
modern tank armor. In space and science, high-velocity projectiles are also used to simulate high-velocity 
impacts on satellites and to test asteroid deflection via hypervelocity impact. 

Future developments of high-velocity projectiles can be envisioned as follows: the use of guided hypersonic 
projectiles for AI-assisted mid-range corrections, the use of energy-efficient railguns to overcome power and 
barrel wear issues, and the use of 3D-printed materials to develop heat-resistant alloys for sustained hypersonic 
flight [1], [2]. 

5. Ammunition 

Ammunition is a term that encompasses all spare parts and ammunition necessary for warfare that are not fixed 
assets. Ammunition, on the other hand, is any explosive or penetrating material prepared for firing from 
firearms. There are many different types of ammunition. This section will focus solely on green ammunition 
and smart ammunition. 

Green ammunition is used in environmentally friendly ballistics to reduce toxicity, pollution, and resource 
consumption in firearms and artillery. Green ammunition includes lead-free bullets, biodegradable cartridges, 
and clean propellants. 

Lead poisoning harms wildlife and contaminates shooting ranges. Non-toxic W-Cu alloys, lightweight polymer-
composite bullets, and ammunition that fragments on impact and does not ricochet can be used as solutions. 
These are examples of lead-free ammunition. 

Brass/steel cartridges take decades to decompose. This creates environmental pollution. Biodegradable 
cartridges can be used as a solution to this problem. Examples of this include PHA-based polymers and seed-
embedded hives. PHA-based polymers decompose within 1-2 years, and seed-embedded hives are destroyed 
and then planted. Nitrocellulose gunpowder emits carcinogenic substances. Alternatively, nitroamine-based 
propellants, which have lower toxicity and higher energy efficiency, are used, or electric ignition, which 
eliminates the chemical encapsulation. 



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138 

Smart and guided munitions can be divided into two categories: self-guided projectiles and AI-assisted 
targeting. Self-guided projectiles have demonstrated real-time course correction. Self-guided projectiles have 
demonstrated real-time course correction. Machine learning increases hit probability for snipers and artillery by 
taking into account wind, humidity, and target movement. Machine learning, used in AI-assisted targeting, 
increases hit probability for snipers and artillery by accounting for wind, humidity, and target movement. 

6. Sustainability 

The field of ballistics is facing increasing scrutiny regarding environmental impact, resource efficiency, and 
ethical concerns, while also advancing with the latest technologies. Below is a breakdown of sustainability 
challenges [4], [5]. 

Sustainability challenges in ballistics can be divided into two categories: environmental impacts and resource 
efficiency. Environmental impacts include toxic propellants, heavy metals, and ammunition contamination. For 
example, traditional gunpowder (nitrocellulose) and lead-based bullets contaminate soil/water. Green 
ammunition, known as lead-free bullets (W or Cu composites), could be used as a solution. Biodegradable 
cartridges (plant-based polymer cartridges) could also be a potential solution. 

Ammunition pollution is another factor affecting the environment. Unexploded ordnance, such as landmines 
and artillery shells, damages ecosystems. Research is underway on self-degrading mines as a solution to this 
problem. Furthermore, AI-powered cleaning drones are being used to detect and destroy old ammunition. 
Another challenge in sustainability is resource efficiency. Resource efficiency can be explored in terms of rare 
earth material dependency and energy-intensive systems. Tungsten is a combat material used in armor-piercing 
projectiles. As an alternative to this heavy metal, some recycled composites, such as depleted uranium 
alternatives, can be used. Additive manufacturing (3D printing) can also be used to reduce waste in projectile 
production. Rail guns and hypersonic missiles also require tremendous power. Energy sources such as portable 
fusion reactors are being explored as alternative solutions [8], [9]. 

7. Future perspectives 

Future perspectives and innovations can be briefly examined in four groups: military and defense, forensics and 
law enforcement, space and aviation, and civilian applications [6], [7]. Various trends, their application 
examples, and sustainability angles for military and defense are shown in Table 10.  

Table 10. Military & defense applications and sustainability 
Trend Example Sustainability Angle 
Hypersonic Swarms AI-coordinated micro-missiles Reduced collateral damage 
Energy Weapons Laser interceptors (e.g., HELIOS) No physical ammunition waste 
Bio-Inspired Design Shape-changing projectiles (DARPA) Improved aerodynamics = less fuel use 

 
Forensics and law enforcement, topics such as digital twins and non-lethal smart munitions can be discussed. 
In preparing digital twins for crime scene problems and supporting critical decision-making processes, 3D 
simulated bullet trajectories reduce laboratory waste. Furthermore, fatalities can be minimized by using 
electroshock bullets, a type of non-lethal smart munition. In space and aviation, research is underway for future 
use in self-orbiting satellites and planetary defenses [10], [11]. 

Finally, for civilian applications, sustainable hunting ammunition and sport shooting can be discussed. 
Regarding sustainable hunting ammunition, it can be noted that Federal's non-toxic shot (steel/bismuth shot) is 
gradually replacing lead. Furthermore, studies on the construction of solar-powered shooting ranges and the use 
of recycled brass materials in sport shooting can be reported. Various areas, including green ammunition, space 
ballistics, and sustainability, are shown in Table 11 between 2025 and 2030 as well as beyond 2030 [4], [5], [6], 
[7], [8], [12], [13].  

Table 11. Future outlook for different areas between 2025 and 2030. 
Area 2025–2030 Beyond 2030 
Green Ammo Mandatory lead bans (EU/NATO) Bio-fabricated "living bullets" 
Space Ballistics Hypersonic missile treaties Lunar railgun launches pads 
Sustainability Range cleanup drones Closed-loop ammo recycling 



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139 

Recently, experimental and numerical investigations have been done about the ballistic impact on polymer-
based composite materials as well as metallic systems [14], [15], [16], [17], [18]. In polymeric-based composite 
metals [14], [15], various guns were used from a certain distance to the target, and their impact performance 
was determined (Figure 1). Also, various design in metallic systems (Figure 2) was employed and their impact 
performance was investigated via experimental as well as numerical systems [16], [17]. It is predicted that some 
more investigations can be done about the ballistic impacts of different materials and composites to better 
understand of the ballistic performance via experimental as well as numerical studies.      

 
Fig. 1 An illustration of deformed bullets following a firearm test [15] 

 
Fig. 2 CAD model of the armor system designed using CREO Parametric software [16] 



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140 

8. Conclusions 

The following conclusions can be drawn from the previous investigation for ballistic perspectives: 
 Ballistics is the science of projectile motion, encompassing the behavior of objects such as bullets, 

missiles, and rockets from the moment of launch to the moment of impact. Ballistics studies are used 
in military, forensic science, aviation and space, and counterterrorism. The use of self-guided sniper 
rounds in the military and the controlled descent of a spacecraft under changing aerodynamic forces in 
aviation are examples of ballistics. 

 To extend the lifespan of ballistics, self-healing materials are needed. These materials can be divided 
into four categories: microcapsule-based healing, bio-inspired healing, intrinsic self-healing polymers, 
and metallic self-healing. 

 Both experimental and numerical simulation methods are used in ballistic research. The experimental 
methods used in ballistic research are very informative, but they require a long time to prepare the 
materials, and these materials are quite expensive. Therefore, it is recommended to model the study in 
a virtual environment before the experiment and solve it in a simulation environment using various 
methods such as FEM. 

 In ballistics, high-velocity projectiles refer to objects launched at speeds significantly higher than 
conventional ammunition, typically exceeding 1,700 m/s (Mach 5). These projectiles are analyzed for 
internal ballistics (inside the weapon), external ballistics (flight dynamics), and terminal ballistics 
(impact effects). High-velocity projectiles can be classified as hypersonic projectiles, kinetic energy 
penetrator projectiles, and hypervelocity impactor projectiles. 

 Ammunition is any explosive or penetrating substance designed to be fired from a firearm. Green 
ammunition is used in environmentally friendly ballistics to reduce toxicity, pollution, and resource 
consumption in firearms and artillery. Green ammunition includes lead-free bullets, biodegradable 
cartridges, and clean propellants. Smart and guided munitions can be divided into two categories: self-
guided projectiles and AI-assisted targeting. Self-guided projectiles have demonstrated real-time course 
correction. 

 Sustainability challenges in ballistics can be divided into two categories: environmental impacts and 
resource efficiency. Environmental impacts include toxic propellants, heavy metals, and ammunition 
contamination. Green ammunition, also known as lead-free ammunition (W or Cu composites), can be 
used as a solution. Ammunition contamination is another factor affecting the environment. Unexploded 
ordnance, such as landmines and artillery shells, damages ecosystems. Research is ongoing on self-
destructing mines as a solution to this problem. 

 In forensics, preparing digital twins for crime scene problems and supporting critical decision-making 
processes, 3D-simulated bullet trajectories reduce laboratory waste. Furthermore, fatalities can be 
minimized by using electroshock bullets, a type of non-lethal smart ammunition. Examples include 
sustainable hunting ammunition for civilian applications and sport shooting. It's worth noting that non-
toxic shot (steel/bismuth shot) is increasingly replacing lead when it comes to sustainable hunting 
ammunition. 

Declaration of competing interest 

The authors declare that they have no known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material 
discussed in this paper. 

Funding information 

No funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. 

 
 



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141 

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