Microsoft Word - Findik paper - review.docx (Online) ISSN 2744-1741 Defense and Security Studies Original Research Vol. 6, No. 2, 2025, pp.132-141 https://doi.org/10.37868/dss.v6.id291 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) that allows others to share and adapt the material for any purpose (even commercially), in any medium with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. 132 Recent developments in ballistics Erdal Camci1, Fehim Findik2,3* 1 Arifiye Vocational School, Sakarya Applied Sciences University, Sakarya, Turkey 2 Metallurgy and Materials Engineering Department, Faculty of Technology, Sakarya Applied Sciences University, Sakarya, Turkey 3 Istanbul Aydın University, Mechanical Eng Dept, Engineering Faculty, Florya Halit Aydın Campus, Istanbul, Turkey *Corresponding author E-mail: findik@subu.edu.tr Received: Sep. 10, 2025 Revised: Nov. 8, 2025 Accepted: Nov. 26, 2025 Online: Nov. 26, 2025 Abstract Ballistics, the science of projectile motion, encompasses the study of objects such as bullets, missiles, and rockets from launch to impact, divided into internal, external, terminal, and forensic ballistics. This paper explores recent advancements in ballistic materials, methods, and sustainability challenges. Traditional and self- healing materials, including microcapsule-based, bio-inspired, and metallic self- repairing systems, are examined for their applications in armor, projectiles, and thermal protection. Experimental techniques like light gas guns and high-speed photography, alongside numerical simulations such as finite element analysis (FEA) and smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH), are compared for their efficacy in ballistic research. High- velocity projectiles exceeding Mach 5, including hypersonic and kinetic energy penetrators, are analyzed for their aerodynamic and material challenges, with future directions pointing toward AI-guided systems and 3D-printed materials. The study also highlights green ammunition innovations, such as lead-free bullets and biodegradable cartridges, to address environmental concerns like toxic propellants and heavy metal contamination. Sustainability efforts focus on resource efficiency, including recycled composites and additive manufacturing, while military and civilian applications explore hypersonic swarms and non-lethal munitions. The paper concludes with future perspectives, emphasizing digital twins in forensics, space ballistics, and closed-loop ammunition recycling. By integrating experimental and computational approaches, this research aims to advance ballistic technologies while addressing ecological and ethical challenges in the field. © The Author 2025. Published by ARDA. Keywords: ballistics, armor, projectiles, sustainability 1. Introduction Ballistics is the science of projectile motion, encompassing the behavior of objects such as bullets, missiles, and rockets from launch to impact. Ballistics can be divided into three categories: internal ballistics, external DSS Vol. 6, No. 2, 2025, pp.132-141 133 ballistics, and terminal ballistics. Internal ballistics examines the internal processes of a weapon, such as thrust, pressure, and muzzle dynamics. External ballistics examines the bullet's flight, trajectory, drag, and wind effects. Terminal ballistics examines penetration, fragmentation, and tissue damage. Types of ballistics can be categorized as interior ballistics, exterior ballistics, terminal ballistics, and forensic ballistics. The types of ballistics, focus areas, and key factors are shown in Table 1. In addition, Table 2 shows the application sectors, usage patterns, and sample technologies [1], [2]. Ballistics studies are used in the military, forensics, aviation and space, and counterterrorism. For example, the use of self-guided sniper rounds in the military and the controlled landing of a spacecraft under changing aerodynamic forces in aviation are examples of ballistics [3], [4], [5], [6], [7]. In this study, traditional and self-repairing materials used in ballistic applications were examined. In addition, experimental and numerical simulation methods used in ballistic research were examined. Then, the traditional and high-speed bullets used in ballistics were mixed. Traditional and green ammunition, intelligent and guided ammunition were examined. The environmental effects encountered in ballistic sustainability and difficulties, such as resource efficiency, were examined in this research, and solutions to these difficulties were investigated. Tables 1 and 2 below show types of ballistics, focus area, and key factors, as well as application areas, use cases, and example technologies investigated. Table 1. Types of ballistics, focus area, and key factors Type Focus Area Key Factors Internal Inside the barrel Propellant burn rate, pressure curves, barrel harmonics External Projectile in flight Drag coefficients, Coriolis effect, gyroscopic stability Terminal Target impact Penetration depth, energy transfer, wound ballistics Forensic Crime investigation Bullet matching, gunshot residue (GSR) analysis Table 2. Application areas, use cases, and example technologies Field Use Case Example Technologies Military Long-range sniping, missile guidance EXACTO smart bullets, hypersonic glide vehicles Law Enforcement Crime scene reconstruction 3D bullet trajectory mapping (FARO systems) Aerospace Rocket staging, re-entry vehicles SpaceX’s reusable rocket ballistics Sports Archery, shooting sports Aerodynamic arrow designs, precision rifles Medical Ballistic trauma research FBI’s wound ballistics studies 2. Materials Various materials are used in ballistics. These materials can be divided into general materials and self-healing materials. Here, we will examine the general materials as projectile materials, armor materials, cannon materials, and thermal protection materials [3], [4], [5]. 2.1 General Detailed comparison tables of materials used in ballistic applications, including projectiles, armor, railgun components, and thermal protection systems, are provided below. Projectile materials are listed in Table 3, armor materials in Table 4, railgun materials in Table 5, and thermal protection materials in Table 6. In Table 3, projectile materials comparison is given for high-speed kinetic penetrators, hypersonic vehicles, and railgun slugs. In Table 4, armor materials comparison is specified for defeating high-speed projectiles, fragmentation, and shaped charges. In Table 5, railgun materials comparison is given for rails, armatures, and structural components in electromagnetic launchers. In Table 6, thermal protection materials are conferred for hypersonic projectiles, re- entry vehicles, and railgun components [1]. DSS Vol. 6, No. 2, 2025, pp.132-141 134 Table 3. Projectile materials comparison Material Density (g/cm³) Melting Point (°C) Strength (MPa) Advantages Disadvantages Applications Tungsten Carbide (WC) 15.6 2,870 500–1,200 Extreme hardness, high density Brittle, expensive APFSDS rounds, penetrators Depleted Uranium (DU) 19.1 1,132 1,000– 1,600 Self- sharpening, pyrophoric Toxic, radioactive Tank penetrators Titanium Alloy (Ti- 6Al-4V) 4.43 1,650 900–1,100 Lightweight, strong Lower density than tungsten Aerospace projectiles Steel (4340 Alloy) 7.85 1,425 1,000– 1,500 Cost-effective, tough Heavy, lower performance General- purpose ammo Carbon- Carbon Composite 1.8–2.1 3,000 (sublimes) 200–500 (flexural) Light, heat- resistant Low impact resistance Hypersonic vehicle nose tips Table 4: Armor materials comparison Material Hardness (HV) Density (g/cm³) Advantages Disadvantages Applications Rolled Homogeneous Armor (RHA Steel) 300–400 7.85 High toughness, cost-effective Heavy, limited vs. DU penetrators Tanks, armored vehicles Ceramic (Al₂O₃, SiC, B₄C) 2,500– 3,500 3.2–3.5 Extreme hardness, lightweight Brittle, multi-hit issues Body armor, vehicle add-on UHMWPE (Dyneema, Spectra) - 0.97 Lightest armor, stops fragments Weak vs. high- velocity AP Bulletproof vests Aramid (Kevlar, Twaron) - 1.44 Flexible, good for fragmentation Degrades under UV/heat Helmets, soft armor Reactive Armor (Explosive Sandwich) - Varies Defeats shaped charges One-time use, dangerous to nearby troops Tank protection Table 5: Railgun materials comparison Material Conductivity (MS/m) Melting Point (°C) Advantages Disadvantages Applications Copper (Cu) 58 1,085 High conductivity Low strength, erodes quickly Traditional rails Copper- Chromium- Zirconium (CuCrZr) 45–50 1,080 Better wear resistance Still erodes under plasma Advanced railgun rails Tungsten (W) 18 3,422 Extreme durability Poor conductivity, heavy Rail liners Graphene- Enhanced Copper ~60 (estimated) 1,085+ High conductivity, reduced wear Expensive, experimental Next-gen railgun rails Plasma Armature (Aluminum Plasma) - N/A (ionized gas) No solid wear Energy loss due to heat Ultra-high- speed launches DSS Vol. 6, No. 2, 2025, pp.132-141 135 Table 6: Thermal protection materials Material Max Temp. (°C) Thermal Conductivity (W/m·K) Advantages Disadvantages Applications Carbon-Carbon (C/C) 3,000+ 50–150 (anisotropic) Light, reusable Expensive, oxidizes above 450°C in air Hypersonic leading edges Ultra-High-Temp Ceramics (ZrB₂- SiC) 2,500+ 60–120 Excellent ablation resistance Brittle, hard to machine Nose cones, scramjet parts Tungsten (W) 3,422 170 Extreme melting point Heavy, oxidizes Railgun projectiles Phenolic Impregnated Carbon Ablator (PICA) 1,700+ 0.1–0.5 Lightweight, ablative Single-use, chars away Spacecraft heat shields Hafnium Carbide (HfC) 3,900+ 20–30 Highest known melting point Extremely expensive Experimental hypersonics 2.2. Self-healing High-velocity projectiles, hypersonic vehicles, and spacecraft face extreme conditions. This is why, for example, hypersonic missiles experience temperatures of up to 3,000°F. Similarly, microcracks form in railgun barrels and rocket nozzles due to repeated stress. Therefore, materials that can autonomously repair damage are needed to extend lifespan. Self-healing materials in ballistics can be divided into four categories: microcapsule-based healing, bio-inspired healing, intrinsic self-healing polymers, and metallic self-healing [3]. Microcapsule-based healing uses small polymer capsules (50–200 µm) filled with healing agents such as dicyclopentadiene embedded in composites. When cracked, the capsules rupture, releasing polymerized liquid to seal the gaps. They are also used as heat shields in the thermal protection systems of SpaceX spacecraft and in self-healing coatings on weapon barrels to reduce wear. In bio-inspired healing, the mechanism mimics human blood vessels; hollow channels in the material deliver healing agents upon damage. For example, in military use, they prevent fatigue cracks in turbine blades in jet engines. In intrinsic self-healing polymers, reversible hydrogen bonds recombine under heat/light. For example, polyurethane-elastomer composites are used in missile wings. Metallic self-healing involves the use of Ni-Ti shape-memory alloys, which fill cracks when heated. For example, self-healing metals are being tested for artillery shells [3]. 3. Methods Both experimental and numerical simulation methods are used in ballistic research. Detailed comparison information covering the principles, advantages, limitations, and applications of experimental methods and numerical simulations used in ballistic research is provided in Tables 7-9. It is seen from Table 7 that experimental methods in ballistics, their description, advantages, disadvantages, and applications are given. Numerical simulations in ballistics are also given, namely in Table 8 via their definitions, advantages, limitations, as well as application areas. Comparison of experimental vs. numerical approaches in ballistics is given in Table 9, for different criteria, including cost, time, accuracy, scalability, as well as limitations. DSS Vol. 6, No. 2, 2025, pp.132-141 136 Table 7: Experimental methods in ballistics Method Description Advantages Limitations Applications Light Gas Gun (LGG) Uses compressed hydrogen/helium to launch projectiles at Mach 6+ Extremely high velocities, controlled environment Limited projectile size, single-shot Hypervelocity impact studies, armor testing Split- Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) Measures dynamic material properties under high strain rates Accurate stress- strain data for materials Limited to small samples, not full- scale Penetrator/armor material characterization Ballistic Gel Testing Fired projectiles into calibrated gelatin blocks Simulates tissue damage, standardized testing Not fully representative of human tissue Terminal ballistics, wound ballistics High-Speed Photography Captures projectile flight/impact at >1,000,000 fps Visualizes deformation, fragmentation Expensive, requires precise timing Fragment analysis, impact dynamics Flash X-ray Imaging X-ray pulses capture internal projectile/armor interactions Sees through obscuration (smoke/debris) Limited to a few frames, radiation hazards Penetrator behavior behind armor Doppler Radar (e.g., Weibel, RAdar) Tracks projectile velocity and deceleration in flight Real-time velocity data, long-range Expensive, requires a clear line of sight Exterior ballistics, drag coefficient validation Table 8: Numerical simulations in ballistics Software/Method Description Advantages Limitations Applications Finite Element Analysis (FEA) (e.g., ANSYS, LS-DYNA) Solves material deformation under impact using mesh- based methods Handles complex geometries, material nonlinearity Computationally expensive, mesh dependency Armor penetration, fragment simulation Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) Meshless Lagrangian method for extreme deformations No mesh distortion issues, good for fractures High computational cost, less accurate for elasticity Hypervelocity impacts, explosive fragmentation Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) (e.g., Fluent, OpenFOAM) Models aerodynamics, shockwaves, and heat transfer Captures hypersonic flow physics Requires high- fidelity turbulence models Drag/wave drag optimization, thermal analysis Molecular Dynamics (MD) Simulates atomic- scale interactions under impact Reveals material failure mechanisms Limited to nanoscale, extreme computational cost Novel material design (e.g., graphene armor) Coupled Eulerian- Lagrangian (CEL) Combines fluid (Eulerian) and solid (Lagrangian) modeling Ideal for fluid- structure interaction (e.g., shaped charges) Complex setup, long solve times Explosively formed penetrators (EFPs), blast effects Discrete Element Method (DEM) Models granular materials (e.g., sand, ceramic fragmentation) Simulates brittle fracture, particulate flow Limited to granular systems, calibration needed Ceramic armor failure, soil penetration DSS Vol. 6, No. 2, 2025, pp.132-141 137 Table 9: Comparison of experimental vs. numerical approaches Criteria Experimental Methods Numerical Simulations Cost High (equipment, ammo) Lower (after software acquisition) Time Slow (setup, repetition) Faster (parametric studies) Accuracy High (real-world physics) Depends on model fidelity Scalability Limited (physical constraints) Highly scalable (virtual prototypes) Data Output Direct measurements (e.g., velocity, damage) Full-field data (stress, temp., etc.) Limitations Safety risks, material costs Requires validation, assumptions Best For Validation, terminal effects Parametric optimization, conceptual design 4. High-speed projectiles In ballistics, high-velocity projectiles refer to objects launched at speeds significantly higher than conventional ammunition, typically exceeding 1,700 m/s (Mach 5). These projectiles are analyzed for internal ballistics (inside the weapon), external ballistics (flight dynamics), and terminal ballistics (impact effects) [4], [5]. High-velocity projectiles can be divided into hypersonic projectiles, kinetic energy penetrators, and hypervelocity impactors. Hypersonic projectiles are used in advanced military applications such as railguns and scramjet-assisted projectiles. Kinetic energy penetrators are used in tank ammunition, such as armor-piercing and finned projectiles. Hypervelocity impactors are used in space exploration. High-speed projectiles present challenges such as aerodynamic heating, drag, and stability. For example, at speeds of Mach 5+, air friction causes extreme temperatures (1,000-3,000°C), requiring advanced materials such as tungsten, ceramic, or carbon composites. Shock waves also disrupt flight; specialized shapes, such as thin nose cones, improve efficiency. Furthermore, spin stabilization can fail; fins or homing systems are typically used. Propulsion methods such as chemical thrusters and electromagnetic railguns are used to address these challenges. High-velocity projectiles can be used in military and civilian applications. For example, these high-velocity projectiles are used in military applications, long-range precision-strike hypersonic missiles, and to penetrate modern tank armor. In space and science, high-velocity projectiles are also used to simulate high-velocity impacts on satellites and to test asteroid deflection via hypervelocity impact. Future developments of high-velocity projectiles can be envisioned as follows: the use of guided hypersonic projectiles for AI-assisted mid-range corrections, the use of energy-efficient railguns to overcome power and barrel wear issues, and the use of 3D-printed materials to develop heat-resistant alloys for sustained hypersonic flight [1], [2]. 5. Ammunition Ammunition is a term that encompasses all spare parts and ammunition necessary for warfare that are not fixed assets. Ammunition, on the other hand, is any explosive or penetrating material prepared for firing from firearms. There are many different types of ammunition. This section will focus solely on green ammunition and smart ammunition. Green ammunition is used in environmentally friendly ballistics to reduce toxicity, pollution, and resource consumption in firearms and artillery. Green ammunition includes lead-free bullets, biodegradable cartridges, and clean propellants. Lead poisoning harms wildlife and contaminates shooting ranges. Non-toxic W-Cu alloys, lightweight polymer- composite bullets, and ammunition that fragments on impact and does not ricochet can be used as solutions. These are examples of lead-free ammunition. Brass/steel cartridges take decades to decompose. This creates environmental pollution. Biodegradable cartridges can be used as a solution to this problem. Examples of this include PHA-based polymers and seed- embedded hives. PHA-based polymers decompose within 1-2 years, and seed-embedded hives are destroyed and then planted. Nitrocellulose gunpowder emits carcinogenic substances. Alternatively, nitroamine-based propellants, which have lower toxicity and higher energy efficiency, are used, or electric ignition, which eliminates the chemical encapsulation. DSS Vol. 6, No. 2, 2025, pp.132-141 138 Smart and guided munitions can be divided into two categories: self-guided projectiles and AI-assisted targeting. Self-guided projectiles have demonstrated real-time course correction. Self-guided projectiles have demonstrated real-time course correction. Machine learning increases hit probability for snipers and artillery by taking into account wind, humidity, and target movement. Machine learning, used in AI-assisted targeting, increases hit probability for snipers and artillery by accounting for wind, humidity, and target movement. 6. Sustainability The field of ballistics is facing increasing scrutiny regarding environmental impact, resource efficiency, and ethical concerns, while also advancing with the latest technologies. Below is a breakdown of sustainability challenges [4], [5]. Sustainability challenges in ballistics can be divided into two categories: environmental impacts and resource efficiency. Environmental impacts include toxic propellants, heavy metals, and ammunition contamination. For example, traditional gunpowder (nitrocellulose) and lead-based bullets contaminate soil/water. Green ammunition, known as lead-free bullets (W or Cu composites), could be used as a solution. Biodegradable cartridges (plant-based polymer cartridges) could also be a potential solution. Ammunition pollution is another factor affecting the environment. Unexploded ordnance, such as landmines and artillery shells, damages ecosystems. Research is underway on self-degrading mines as a solution to this problem. Furthermore, AI-powered cleaning drones are being used to detect and destroy old ammunition. Another challenge in sustainability is resource efficiency. Resource efficiency can be explored in terms of rare earth material dependency and energy-intensive systems. Tungsten is a combat material used in armor-piercing projectiles. As an alternative to this heavy metal, some recycled composites, such as depleted uranium alternatives, can be used. Additive manufacturing (3D printing) can also be used to reduce waste in projectile production. Rail guns and hypersonic missiles also require tremendous power. Energy sources such as portable fusion reactors are being explored as alternative solutions [8], [9]. 7. Future perspectives Future perspectives and innovations can be briefly examined in four groups: military and defense, forensics and law enforcement, space and aviation, and civilian applications [6], [7]. Various trends, their application examples, and sustainability angles for military and defense are shown in Table 10. Table 10. Military & defense applications and sustainability Trend Example Sustainability Angle Hypersonic Swarms AI-coordinated micro-missiles Reduced collateral damage Energy Weapons Laser interceptors (e.g., HELIOS) No physical ammunition waste Bio-Inspired Design Shape-changing projectiles (DARPA) Improved aerodynamics = less fuel use Forensics and law enforcement, topics such as digital twins and non-lethal smart munitions can be discussed. In preparing digital twins for crime scene problems and supporting critical decision-making processes, 3D simulated bullet trajectories reduce laboratory waste. Furthermore, fatalities can be minimized by using electroshock bullets, a type of non-lethal smart munition. In space and aviation, research is underway for future use in self-orbiting satellites and planetary defenses [10], [11]. Finally, for civilian applications, sustainable hunting ammunition and sport shooting can be discussed. Regarding sustainable hunting ammunition, it can be noted that Federal's non-toxic shot (steel/bismuth shot) is gradually replacing lead. Furthermore, studies on the construction of solar-powered shooting ranges and the use of recycled brass materials in sport shooting can be reported. Various areas, including green ammunition, space ballistics, and sustainability, are shown in Table 11 between 2025 and 2030 as well as beyond 2030 [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [12], [13]. Table 11. Future outlook for different areas between 2025 and 2030. Area 2025–2030 Beyond 2030 Green Ammo Mandatory lead bans (EU/NATO) Bio-fabricated "living bullets" Space Ballistics Hypersonic missile treaties Lunar railgun launches pads Sustainability Range cleanup drones Closed-loop ammo recycling DSS Vol. 6, No. 2, 2025, pp.132-141 139 Recently, experimental and numerical investigations have been done about the ballistic impact on polymer- based composite materials as well as metallic systems [14], [15], [16], [17], [18]. In polymeric-based composite metals [14], [15], various guns were used from a certain distance to the target, and their impact performance was determined (Figure 1). Also, various design in metallic systems (Figure 2) was employed and their impact performance was investigated via experimental as well as numerical systems [16], [17]. It is predicted that some more investigations can be done about the ballistic impacts of different materials and composites to better understand of the ballistic performance via experimental as well as numerical studies. Fig. 1 An illustration of deformed bullets following a firearm test [15] Fig. 2 CAD model of the armor system designed using CREO Parametric software [16] DSS Vol. 6, No. 2, 2025, pp.132-141 140 8. Conclusions The following conclusions can be drawn from the previous investigation for ballistic perspectives:  Ballistics is the science of projectile motion, encompassing the behavior of objects such as bullets, missiles, and rockets from the moment of launch to the moment of impact. Ballistics studies are used in military, forensic science, aviation and space, and counterterrorism. The use of self-guided sniper rounds in the military and the controlled descent of a spacecraft under changing aerodynamic forces in aviation are examples of ballistics.  To extend the lifespan of ballistics, self-healing materials are needed. These materials can be divided into four categories: microcapsule-based healing, bio-inspired healing, intrinsic self-healing polymers, and metallic self-healing.  Both experimental and numerical simulation methods are used in ballistic research. The experimental methods used in ballistic research are very informative, but they require a long time to prepare the materials, and these materials are quite expensive. Therefore, it is recommended to model the study in a virtual environment before the experiment and solve it in a simulation environment using various methods such as FEM.  In ballistics, high-velocity projectiles refer to objects launched at speeds significantly higher than conventional ammunition, typically exceeding 1,700 m/s (Mach 5). These projectiles are analyzed for internal ballistics (inside the weapon), external ballistics (flight dynamics), and terminal ballistics (impact effects). High-velocity projectiles can be classified as hypersonic projectiles, kinetic energy penetrator projectiles, and hypervelocity impactor projectiles.  Ammunition is any explosive or penetrating substance designed to be fired from a firearm. Green ammunition is used in environmentally friendly ballistics to reduce toxicity, pollution, and resource consumption in firearms and artillery. Green ammunition includes lead-free bullets, biodegradable cartridges, and clean propellants. Smart and guided munitions can be divided into two categories: self- guided projectiles and AI-assisted targeting. Self-guided projectiles have demonstrated real-time course correction.  Sustainability challenges in ballistics can be divided into two categories: environmental impacts and resource efficiency. Environmental impacts include toxic propellants, heavy metals, and ammunition contamination. Green ammunition, also known as lead-free ammunition (W or Cu composites), can be used as a solution. Ammunition contamination is another factor affecting the environment. Unexploded ordnance, such as landmines and artillery shells, damages ecosystems. Research is ongoing on self- destructing mines as a solution to this problem.  In forensics, preparing digital twins for crime scene problems and supporting critical decision-making processes, 3D-simulated bullet trajectories reduce laboratory waste. Furthermore, fatalities can be minimized by using electroshock bullets, a type of non-lethal smart ammunition. Examples include sustainable hunting ammunition for civilian applications and sport shooting. It's worth noting that non- toxic shot (steel/bismuth shot) is increasingly replacing lead when it comes to sustainable hunting ammunition. Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known financial or non-financial competing interests in any material discussed in this paper. Funding information No funding was received from any financial organization to conduct this research. DSS Vol. 6, No. 2, 2025, pp.132-141 141 References [1] Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), “HAWC: Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept,” 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.darpa.mil/research/programs/hypersonic-air-breathing- weapon-concept. [2] NASA, Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) Final Technical Report, 2023. [Online]. 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