Dental Anthropology 2018 │ Volume 31 │ Issue 02

Deciduous Molar Morphology from the Neolithic Caves of the
Meuse River Basin, Belgium

Frank L’Engle Williams
1*

Rebecca L. George

2
, and Caroline Polet

1
Department of Anthropology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303 USA

2
Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557 USA

3
Directorate Earth & History of Life, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences,

1000 Brussels, Belgium

There are nearly 200 karstic caves of the Meuse
River Basin of Belgium that preserve collective bur-
ials dating to the late Neolithic (Semal et al., 1999;
Toussaint et al., 2001; Toussaint, 2007; Polet, 2011).
Since habitation sites are rare, these funerary caves
and rockshelters provide the principal source of
information about these prehistoric farmers of the
late Neolithic and the transition to the Bronze Age
(Toussaint, 2007; Polet, 2011). The mortuary prac-
tices of Neolithic peoples from this region vary
considerably. Some tombs contain a single burial,
whereas others include two or more individuals
(Toussaint et al., 2001), although the great majority
are collective burials (Polet, 2011). The bones of
multiple individuals are comingled in some caves.
Burials are rarely found in full articulation, except
in cases where single individuals are interred
(Toussaint, 2007). At some caves, there is regroup-
ing of bones into elements, such as circles of crania
and bundles of long bones (Toussaint, 2007). Some
individuals are completely macerated as evidenced
by flint tool use (Polet, 2011), whereas others are
cremated remains (Toussaint, 2007). At Bois Mad-
ame, a site in the Burnot Valley (Figure 1), it is un-
clear whether individuals were buried as the bones
are found in an unordered manner (Dumbruch,
2003).

There may be several explanations to account

for commingling within the collective burials, in-
cluding the actions of burrowing and scavenging
animals, geological or hydrological effects, recent
human activity from grave robbers and cave ex-
plorers, or the intentional manipulation of the re-
mains by those who deposited the deceased. Inten-
tional manipulation may have several motivations,
including burial rites, secondary reburial and cre-
ating space for additional bodies (Dumbruch, 2003;
Toussaint, 2007).

About 40% of nearly 600 individuals excavated
from 34 sites along the Meuse river system are
subadults (Toussaint et al., 2001; Toussaint, 2007).
At Bois Madame nearly a third of the individuals
(33%) are identified as children (Dumbruch, 2003,
2007). More recent excavations with improved
techniques are able to capture additional subadult
remains, raising the proportion of children to 50%
(Toussaint, 2007).

Four cave sites contain numerous subadult re-
mains, including Hastière Caverne M, Sclaigneaux,
Bois Madame and Maurenne Caverne de la Cave,

ABSTRACT The karstic caves of the Meuse River Basin in Belgium preserve nearly 200 collective burials
dating to the late Neolithic period. Among these, the cave burials of Hastière Caverne M, Sclaigneaux,
Bois Madame and Maurenne Caverne de la Cave are represented by numerous individuals and radio-
carbon dated to circa 4,635 to 3,830 years B.P. Dental casts from mandibular and maxillary deciduous
molars are scored using multiple methods to provide a regional overview of the prevalence and expres-
sion of deciduous molar crown traits, and to compare frequencies between cave burial sites with a focus
on temporal differentiation. Carabelli’s trait varies from a small pit to a full cusp, the largest of which
are found at Hastière Caverne M. The hypoconulid ranges from moderately large to very large. A meta-
conulid is absent or small. Although the results are contingent on idiosyncratic preservation, differences
in the frequencies of expression of Carabelli’s trait, a pronounced hypoconulid, and the presence of a
metaconule and protostylid separate the earlier cave burial at Hastière Caverne M from the final/late
Neolithic sites of Sclaigneaux and Bois Madame.

*Correspondence to:
Frank L’Engle Williams, PhD
Department of Anthropology
Georgia State University
Atlanta, GA 30303 USA
frankwilliams@gsu.edu

Keywords: Hastière Caverne M; Sclaigneaux; Bois Madame; Maurenne Caverne de la Cave

Dental Anthropology 2018 │ Volume 31 │ Issue 02

radiocarbon dated to circa 4,635 to 3,830 years B.P. Two of
the four burials are from Hastière rockshelter and include
Hastière Caverne M and Maurenne Caverne de la Cave
(see Figure 1). Hastière Caverne M has been radiocarbon
dated to 4,345 ± 60 (AMS OxA-6558; Bronk-Ramsey et al.,
2002) and can be considered early/late Neolithic.

Both Sclaigneaux and Bois Madame can be considered
final/late Neolithic. The collective burial at Sclaigneaux
cave is dated to 4,155 ± 35 (Paepe, 2007). Bois Madame is
one of the latest sites in the sample, and the two dates ob-
tained, 4,075 ± 38 (AMS OxA 10831) and 3,910 ± 40 (AMS
OxA 10830), suggest the cave was in use during a relative-
ly narrow time frame (Dumbruch, 2003, 2007; Toussaint,
2007).

Maurenne Caverne de la Cave from the Hastière rock-
shelter is associated with four dates spanning ~800 years,
including 4,635 ± 45 (AMS OxA-9025), which is consid-
ered middle Neolithic (Toussaint, 2007) 4,160 ± 45 (AMS
OxA-9026), 3,950 ± 70 (Lv-1483) and 3,830 ± 90 (Lv-1482),
all of which are final/late Neolithic (Bronk-Ramsey et al.,
2002; Toussaint, 2007). Since Maurenne Caverne de la
Cave includes such a wide range of radiocarbon dates, it
cannot necessarily be considered “early” or “final” late
Neolithic.

Given the disparate funerary contexts that exist at Ne-
olithic Belgian sites, the number of deciduous molars, and
the high heritability of dental morphology (Turner et al.,
1991; Scott and Irish, 1997, 2017; Irish, 2006; Pilloud and
Larsen, 2011; Paul and Stojanowski, 2015, 2017; Pilloud et
al., 2016; Scott et al., 2018), it is possible that differences in
dental remains from each cave burial will parallel the
chronological distinctions between sites (Bronk-Ramsey et
al., 2002; Paepe, 2007; Toussaint, 2007). Previous studies
of the osteological remains have concentrated on dental
microwear, isotopic signatures, stature estimation, patho-
logical conditions, and funerary ritual (Semal et al., 1999;
García-Martin, 2000; Orban et al., 2000; Toussaint et al.,
2001; Toussaint, 2007; Polet, 2011). The expression of non-
metric deciduous dental traits from these cave burials has
not been previously explored. The aim of the study is to
provide a regional review of the incidence and expression
of crown traits on the maxillary and mandibular decidu-
ous molars, and to examine the frequencies of traits across
cave burials with respect to temporal variation.
On the basis of chronology, we expect the early/late
Neolithic site of Hastière Caverne M to be distinct from
the final/late Neolithic sites of Sclaigneaux and Bois Mad-
ame. We anticipate Maurenne Caverne de la Cave to pre-
sent the most variation in dental morphology given its
relatively broad time frame. Ecogeography may also ex-
plain the results; the two cave burials from Hastière rock-
shelter (Hastière Carverne M and Maurenne Caverne de
la Cave) may resemble each other and differ from
Sclaigneaux and Bois Madame (Figure 1).

Materials
Deciduous molars were examined from Hastière Caverne
M, Sclaigneaux, Bois Madame and Maurenne Caverne de
la Cave for a total of 27 individuals (Table 1). These
gnathic remains are isolated such that each fragmentary
molar and adjoining alveolus can be considered the sole
remains from a given individual. Although there are hun-
dreds of isolated teeth, only in situ deciduous molars were
considered. The stages (1-8) created by Smith (1983, 1984)
were used to characterize the wear on the deciduous mo-
lars (Tables 2-5).

Figure 1. Map of Belgium shows the location of
Hastière rockshelter (Hastière Caverne M and Mau-
renne Caverne de la Cave), Bois Madame and
Sclaigneaux. Sclaigneaux is approximately 35 km
northeast whereas Bois Madame is circa 15 km north of
Hastière rockshelter (drawing: ADIA ©).

Cave burial Maxillae Mandibles Individuals

Hastière
Caverne M

3 2 5

Sclaigneaux 8 1 9

Bois Madame 2 4 6

Maurenne
Caverne
de la Cave

5 2 7

Total 18 9 27

Table 1. Neolithic samples

Dental Anthropology 2018 │ Volume 31 │ Issue 02

Identifier Preservation Dental wear (Smith, 1984)

Hastière 38 Nearly complete maxilla extending from the left unerupted
crown of M1 to the empty M1 crypt on the right

dm1 = stage 4; dm2 = stage 3

Hastière 381 Right maxillary alveolar fragment with dm1 and dm2 dm1 = stage 4; dm2 = stage 3

Hastière 39 Small maxillary alveolar fragment with dm1 and dm2 dm1 = stage 3; dm2 = stage 2

Hastière 18 Mandibular corpus extending from the left ramus base to the
right dm1; only the left dm1 and dm2 are preserved

dm1 and dm2 = stage 2

Hastière 19 Partial mandibular corpus extending from the left dm2 to the
right damaged dm1

dm2 = stage 3

Table 2. Preservation and wear at Hastière Caverne M, an early/late Neolithic cave burial

Identifier Preservation Dental wear (Smith, 1984)

Sclaigneaux 115 Relatively complete lower maxilla and dental arcade holding dm1 and dm2 on
both sides

dm1 = stage 5; dm2 = stage 4

Sclaigneaux 116 Relatively complete lower maxilla with dm1 and dm2 preserved on both sides dm1 and dm2 = stage 3

Sclaigneaux 117 Left maxillary fragment with dm1 and dm2 dm1 and dm2 = stage 3

Sclaigneaux 118 Left maxillary fragment, preserving dm2 and M1 dm2 = stage 5

Sclaigneaux 119 Left maxillary fragment and palate, preserving dm1, dm2 and M1 dm1 = stage 6; dm2 = stage 4

Sclaigneaux 122 Left maxillary fragment with the deciduous molars preserved; dm1 is slightly
chipped

dm1 = stage 7; dm2 = stage 4

Sclaigneaux 124 Small right maxillary fragment holding dm1, dm2 and M1 dm1 = stage 5; dm2 = stage 3

Sclaigneaux 125 Well-preserved right maxilla, with dm1 and dm2 dm1 = stage 5; dm2 = stage 4

Sclaigneaux 82 Small left corpus fragment holding dm1 and dm2 dm1 = stage 5; dm2 = stage 4

Table 3. Preservation and wear at Sclaigneaux, a final/late Neolithic cave burial

Identifier Preservation Dental wear (Smith, 1984)

BM mx 26 Left fragmentary maxilla, preserving dm1 and dm2 dm1 and dm2 = stage 4

BM mx 27 Left partial maxilla including most of the palate and alveolus, along with dm1, dm2
and M1

dm1 = stage 5; dm2 = stage 4

BM Md 27 Right mandibular corpus fragment with a partial ramus including dm1, dm2 and M1 dm1 = stage 5; dm2 = stage 4

BM Md 28 Right mandibular fragment with a complete ramus, and dm1 and dm2 dm1 = stage 5; dm2 = stage 4

BM Md 32 Left corpus and ascending ramus holding dm2 and M1 dm2 = stage 4

BM Md 37 Right corpus fragment with dm1 and dm2 dm1 = stage 4; dm2 = stage 3

Table 4. Preservation and wear at Bois Madame, a final/late Neolithic cave burial

Table 5. Preservation and wear at Maurenne Caverne de la Cave, a cave burial with one middle and three final/late Neolithic dates

Identifier Preservation Dental wear (Smith, 1984)

Maurenne 22 Right maxillary fragment holding dm1, dm2 and the unerupted crown of M1 dm1 = stage 3; dm2 = stage 2

Maurenne 23 Right maxillary fragment from the mesial margin of the M1 crypt to di1 dm2 = stage 7; dm2 = stage 4

Maurenne 24 Right maxillary fragment extending from the crypt of the M1 crown to di1
with only dm1 (obscured by matrix) and dm2

dm2 = stage 2

Maurenne 25

Maxillary alveolus extending from a fully formed M2 crown to the canine
crypt, with dm1, dm2 and M1

dm1 = stage 6; dm2 = stage 4

Maurenne 26

Maxillary alveolus, from the unerupted crown of M1 to di1, preserving dm1
and dm2

dm1 = stage 4; dm2 = stage 2

Maurenne 82 Nearly complete mandible holding dm1 and dm2 on both sides dm1 = stage 4; dm2 = stage 3

Maurenne 85 Corpus fragment extending from the base of the left ascending ramus to right
dm1 crypt holding the left dm1, dm2 and M1

dm1 and dm2 = stage 4

Dental Anthropology 2018 │ Volume 31 │ Issue 02

Methods
Dental impressions were created by the first author
using a thin layer of polyvinylsiloxane (President Jet
Plus Regular Body, Coltène-Whaledent) applied to the
occlusal surface of in situ molars curated at the Royal
Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. Dental casts were
created at Georgia State University using centrifuged
epoxy resin and hardener (Beuhler), which was poured
on the dental molds nestled within putty crucibles af-
fixed beforehand with hardener (Beuhler). The casts
dried for 24 hours before extraction.
Dental casts were scored by the second author using
Hanihara (1961) and supplemented with scores for the
hypoconulid (Cusp 5) on dm2 and the metaconule
(Cusp 5) on dm2 from the ASUDAS (Turner et al., 1991;
Scott and Irish, 2017), following Paul and Stojanowski
(2015). The maxillary deciduous molars were scored
for crown pattern of dm1 and dm2, Carabelli’s trait on
dm2, and the presence of a metaconule (Cusp 5) on
dm2. For the mandibular deciduous molars, only dm2

is considered following Hanihara (1961) and the traits
scored included the protostylid, hypoconulid (Cusp 5),
metaconulid (Cusp 7), the central ridge of the metaco-
nid (CRM), and the distal trigonid crest (DTC). To vali-
date the scores, photographs of the original material
were consulted.

Results
Maxillary Traits
Crown pattern for dm1 is noted in two individuals and
varies considerably (Table 6). Specifically, at

Sclaigneaux, one individual exhibits a large protocone
and paracone, and is classified as a score of 2. In con-
trast, an individual from Maurenne Caverne de la
Cave presents all four cusps but the hypocone and
metacone are relatively modest in size corresponding
to a score of 4- (Hanihara, 1961). The crown pattern for
dm2 is uniformly classified as a score of 4 (Hanihara,
1961). Carabelli’s trait varies from a small pit in some
individuals from Sclaigneaux to a large independent
cusp on the dm2 of Hastière Caverne M 39 (Figure 2). It
is present at all sites except Bois Madame. A metacon-

Neolithic time period Site

ID
No.

Crown
Pattern

dm1

Crown
Pattern

dm2

Carabelli's
trait
dm2

Metaconule
(Cusp 5) dm2

early/late Hastière 38 4 5 0

Hastière 381 4

Hastière 39 4 7 1

final/late Sclaigneaux 124 2 4 1 0

Sclaigneaux 115 4 1

Sclaigneaux 122 4

Sclaigneaux 118 4

Sclaigneaux 117 4 6 0

Sclaigneaux 116 4 3 0

Sclaigneaux 119 4

Sclaigneaux 125 4 1 0

Bois Madame 26 4

Bois Madame 27 4

middle and final/late Maurenne 24 4 2 0

Maurenne 25 4

Maurenne 23 4

Maurenne 22 4- 4 5 0

Maurenne 26 4 4

Table 6. Maxillary deciduous molar traits

Figure 2. The only metaconule observed is a small
cuspule on the right dm2 of Hastèire Caverne M 39
(a); this individual also exhibits a prominent Cara-
belli’s cusp (b). Scale bar = 1 cm.

Dental Anthropology 2018 │ Volume 31 │ Issue 02

ule is expressed only on Hastière Caverne M 39
(Figure 2) and is absent at Sclaigneaux and Mau-
renne Caverne de la Cave. In the Bois Madame sam-
ple, it could not be observed (see Table 6).

Mandibular Traits
A protostylid is present only on the dm2 of a single
individual from Hastière Caverne M (Figure 3). The
metaconulid expression varies from a larger feature
in Sclaigneaux (Hanihara score 3) and Maurenne
Caverne de la Cave (Hanihara score 2) to its absence
or low expression at Hastière Caverne M and Bois
Madame (Table 7). A central ridge of the metaconid
(CRM), or Cusp 7, is noted at all cave burials except
Bois Madame, and a distal trigonid crest (DTC) is
absent at Hastière Caverne M and Maurenne
Caverne de la Cave, but present at Bois Madame
(Figure 4). Where it could be examined, the hy-
poconulid (Cusp 5) was scored as either prominent
(ASUDAS grade 5) such as at Hastière Caverne M
and Sclaigneaux, or large (ASUDAS grade 4) as at
Maurenne Caverne de la Cave, or both as is the case
at Bois Madame (Figure 5).

Figure 3. The expression of a protostylid (white
arrow) is visible on the left dm2 of Hastière
Caverne M 19. Scale bar = 1 cm.

Neolithic

time period

Site

ID
No.

Protostylid
dm2

Metaconulid
(Cusp 7)

dm2

CRM
dm2

DTC
dm2

Hypoconulid
(Cusp 5)

dm2

early/late Hastière 19 1 1 0

Hastière 18 0 2 0 5+

final/late Sclaigneaux 82 3 2 5

Bois Madame 37 0 5

Bois Madame 32 1

Bois Madame 28 4

Bois Madame 27 1

middle and
final/late

Maurenne 82 2 2 0 4

Maurenne 85 0

Table 7. Mandibular deciduous molar traits

Figure 4. A small meta-
conulid (a) and a large
hypoconulid (b) can be
observed on the right
dm2 of Maurenne 82.
Scale bar = 1 cm.

Figure 5. The largest and
most distinctive hy-
poconulid (cusp 5) is
visible on the right dm2
of Hastière Caverne M
18, identified by a white
arrow. Scale bar = 1 cm.

Dental Anthropology 2018 │ Volume 31 │ Issue 02

Frequencies of traits per Neolithic cave site
For dm2, the crown pattern of Hastière Caverne M did
not differ from the other collective burials. However,
Hastière Caverne M was partially distinct from the oth-
er sites for Carabelli’s trait, which was strongly ex-
pressed where it was demonstrably visible (Table 8).
Furthermore, there is more variation in the expression
of a metaconule on dm2 at Hastière Caverne M, and
this is the only site known to express a protostylid
(Figure 3). Hastière Caverne M also differs in the ex-
pression of the metaconulid (Figure 4) when compared
to the ones from the final/late collective burial of
Sclaigneaux, and to a lesser extent Maurenne Caverne
de la Cave (see Table 8). The final/late Neolithic cave
burial of Bois Madame differs from Hastière Caverne
M in exhibiting a distal trigonid crest (DTC), albeit of a
low expression. Bois Madame is also distinct from the

early/late Neolithic site of Hastière Caverne M for ex-
hibiting greater variation in the expression of the hy-
poconulid (Cusp 5) on dm2 (see Table 8).

Discussion
The morphology of the deciduous teeth has been exam-
ined in studies of modern humans (Hanihara, 1961;
Edgar and Lease, 2007; Pilloud and Larsen, 2011), Pleis-
tocene Homo (Smith and Tillier, 1989; Bailey and Hub-
lin, 2006; Martinón-Torres et al., 2012; Hershkovitz et
al., 2016; Zubova et al., 2016) and the African apes
(Hardin and Legge, 2013). Because primary crown for-
mation time is shorter, environmental pressures are
reduced, resulting in a tendency of the deciduous den-
tition to preserve the ancestral condition more often
than permanent successors (Paul and Stojanowski,
2017; Scott et al., 2018). Indeed, deciduous teeth have

Grade

Site N Trait 0 1 2 3 4 4- 5 6 7

Sclaigneauxb 1 Crown Pat-
tern (dm1)

1.00

Maurennec 1 1.00

Hastièrea 3

Crown Pat-
tern (dm2)

1.00

Sclaigneauxb 8 1.00

Bois Madameb 2 1.00

Maurennec 5 1.00

Hastièrea 2
Carabelli's

(dm2)

0.50 0.50

Sclaigneauxb 5 0.60 0.20 0.20

Maurennec 3 0.33 0.33 0.33

Hastièrea 2
Metaconule

Cusp 5 (dm2)

0.50 0.50

Sclaigneauxb 4 1.00

Maurennec 2 1.00

Hastièrea 1
Protostylid

(dm2)
1.00

Hastièrea 2

Metaconulid
Cusp 7 (dm2)

0.50 0.50
Sclaigneauxb 1 1.00

Bois Madameb 2 0.50 0.50
Maurennec 2 0.50 0.50

Hastièrea 1

CRM (dm2)

1.00
Sclaigneauxb 1 1.00
Maurennec 1 1.00

Hastièrea 2

DTC (dm2)

1.00
Bois Madameb 1 1.00

Maurennec 1 1.00

Hastièrea 1

Hypoconulid
Cusp 5 (dm2)

1.00
Sclaigneauxb 1 1.00

Bois Madameb 2 0.50 0.50
Maurennec 1 1.00

Table 8. Pooled frequencies

a early/late Neolithic; b final/late Neolithic; c middle and final/late Neolithic

Dental Anthropology 2018 │ Volume 31 │ Issue 02

been shown to exhibit greater efficacy in indicating
relatedness than the permanent dentition (Kitagawa
et al., 1995; Paul and Stojanowski, 2017), and are bet-
ter at distinguishing groups than metric traits
(Sciulli, 1977). Although deciduous and permanent
teeth may not differ in proxies of environmental sta-
bility, such as fluctuating asymmetry (Guatelli-
Steinberg et al., 2006), the primary dentition has few-
er cases of agenesis or supernumerary teeth com-
pared to adult successors (Scott et al., 2018).

The entire primary molar row (including the de-
ciduous and permanent teeth) may reflect an under-
lying unified mechanism of expression. At the same
time, the deciduous dentition appears to be gov-
erned by partially distinct genetic and developmen-
tal processes than the permanent teeth, such that the
presence of a protostylid on dm2 (see Figure 4) does
not necessarily imply that this trait will appear on
any of the permanent molars (Scott et al., 2018). Fur-
thermore, Carabelli’s trait tends to be more preva-
lent and more strongly expressed in dm2 compared
to M1 (Kaul and Prakash, 1981; Bermúdez de Castro,
1989; Edgar and Lease, 2007; Scott et al., 2018). To
the degree to which Carabelli’s trait and the proto-
stylid are informative about biological relationships,
it would suggest that Hastière Caverne M does in-
deed differ from the other cave burials. In a study of
early Neolithic Çatalhöyük, Pilloud (2009) found
that for the deciduous dentition, Carabelli’s trait of
dm2 and the presence of a protostylid on dm2 signifi-
cantly separated groups, and this appears to be true
among the late Neolithic cave burials from Belgium.
Prehistoric deciduous teeth have been scarcely
examined given a historical preference for the per-
manent dentition (Scott et al., 2018). An informative
study by Scuilli (1977) described the deciduous den-
tal morphology of prehistoric Amerindian hunter/
gatherer/fishers and early Mississippian cultivators
of the Ohio Valley. The crown form on dm1 in the
prehistoric Amerindian remains is most frequently
four cusps (paracone, protocone, metacone and hy-
pocone) like at Maurenne Caverne de la Cave (see
Table 6). The crown form on dm1 of an individual
from Sclaigneaux including only the two mesial
cusps was rarely found in 58 individuals from 12
sites (Sciulli, 1997). The dm2 presents four cusps in
both prehistoric Amerindian and Neolithic Belgian
cave sites (Sciulli, 1977; see Table 8). However, Cara-
belli’s trait is extremely rare among prehistoric Am-
erindians, whereas it is present and expressed
strongly in three of the four Neolithic cave sites from
Belgium, only being absent from Bois Madame (see
Table 6). In comparison to Sciulli (1977) a metacon-
ulid (Cusp 7) on dm2 was found at lower frequencies

compared to the results from this study, although
the constraints of the small sample sizes must be
taken into consideration (see Table 8). Each of the
Neolithic cave burials exhibits a hypoconulid (Cusp
5) which compares to 97% of the prehistoric Amerin-
dians who exhibit five or more cusps on dm2
(Sciulli, 1977).

Conclusions
The deciduous molars from the Neolithic caves of
Belgium present considerable variation in the ex-
pression of traits. Crown pattern varies where it can
be observed. Carabelli’s trait is found at Hastière
Caverne M, as well as the final/late Neolithic cave
site of Sclaigneaux and at Maurenne Caverne de la
Cave, although its expression varies. The individuals
preserving dm2 generally exhibit a large or very
large hypoconulid (Cusp 5).

Given the wide range of radiometric dates from
Maurenne Caverne de la Cave, it was expected to
exhibit the greatest variability. Like Sclaigneaux,
Maurenne Caverne de la Cave does present substan-
tial variation in the expression of Carabelli’s cusp
and in the metaconulid (Cusp 7) compared to
Hastière Caverne M. The resemblance of the two
collective burials from Hastière rockshelter (Hastière
Caverne M and Maurenne Caverne de la Cave) is
not particularly strong although the number of indi-
viduals involved is severely constrained.

We expected to observe differences between the
early/late collective burial of Hastière Caverne M
and the final/late Neolithic sites of Sclaigneaux and
Bois Madame. Hastière Caverne M does exhibit the
most pronounced expression of Carabelli’s cusp on
dm2, and this trait is found nearly universally in the
sample (see Figure 2). Hastière Caverne M also has
the largest hypoconulid (see Figure 5), and this cave
burial is the only assemblage to express a protostylid
on dm2 (see Figure 3) and a metaconule on dm2 (see
Figure 2). Since no other site presents these distinc-
tions, it appears that the deciduous dental morphol-
ogy of the early/late Neolithic cave assemblage of
Hastière Caverne M does indeed differ from the fi-
nal/late Neolithic collective burials of Sclaigneaux
and Bois Madame.
Population movement or displacement and/or
secular changes may explain some of the differences
in the frequencies of traits if the cave burials repre-
sent a single group of closely related peoples. Alter-
natively, these populations may have had only a
limited amount of regional gene flow during the late
Neolithic period. Previous studies indicate that de-
ciduous dental morphology approximates, to a
greater extent than the secondary dentition, the ge-

Dental Anthropology 2018 │ Volume 31 │ Issue 02

netic relationships among individuals (Kitagawa et
al., 1995; Paul and Stojanowski, 2017). To the degree
to which this is also true of these Neolithic cave buri-
als, it can be assumed the people represented at
Hastière Caverne M were relatively isolated several
centuries prior to a partial restructuring of the re-
gional population associated with the Bronze Age.

Acknowledgments
Permission to examine the Neolithic remains from
Belgium and to conduct this study of the deciduous
dentition was kindly provided by Patrick Semal,
Chief of the Scientific Heritage Service, Royal Bel-
gian Institute of Natural Sciences. We are indebted
to Laurence Cammaert from the ADIA (Association
pour la Diffusion de l'Information Archéologique)
who created Figure 1 which we utilize with permis-
sion. We are grateful to two anonymous reviewers
who significantly improved the manuscript, and to
attendees of the 2017 annual meeting of WeBig
(Western Bioarchaeology Group) for their helpful
insights. Funding for this research was awarded to
FLW by Fulbright-Belgium and the Commission for
Educational Exchange between the USA, Belgium,
and Luxembourg.

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