COMPUTER GAME DESIGN: NEW DIRECTIONS FOR INTERCULTURAL SIMULATION GAME DESIGNERS Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Learning, Volume 24, 1997 COMPUTER GAME DESIGN: NEW DIRECTIONS FOR INTERCULTURAL SIMULATION GAME DESIGNERS Elaine M. Rayboum, University of New Mexico ABSTRACT Computer-based game environments offer a richer communication medium for facilitating exploration of prejudice-reduction than face-to-face interaction. Computer-based simulation games provide players the opportunity to explore potentially threatening topics in safe, player controlled environments. The key elements of computer game design that create a communication environment which rivals face-to-face communication are: 1) the presence of intrinsic motivation, 2) asynchronous time, 3) real-time interaction, 4) anonymity, 5) adaptation of challenge to players abilities, 6) variable number of players, 7) fantasy and open-ended outcomes, and 8) player-centered control. INTRODUCTION The simulated reality of a game, albeit in many ways a real experience, is a safer arena for many people to confront cultural differences. The simulation game experience is a model of reality in which the potential exists for players to test boundaries and discover facets of themselves they never knew before. Better game design enables players to better connect simulated actions and decisions to their everyday experiences and build a knowledge base of intercultural communication skills. Simulation games usually provide a nonthreatening environment to explore difficult questions, particularly when addressing some cross-cultural issues of potential controversy (Pedersen, 1995). However, prejudice-reduction remains very difficult to explore without introducing increased player risks such as coercion, threats to privacy, and emotional discomfort (Byrnes & Kiger, 1990; 1992). A computer-based game offers unique opportunities to explore difficult topics such as prejudice-reduction without increasing player risk. A virtual environment made possible with the aid of computer technologies may be much less threatening than face-to- face interaction. In other words, computer-based simulation games may provide an environment within which players take risks they may never have the courage to take during either play or the debriefing of a conventional simulation. Design Principles for Intercultural Simulation Games New technologies provide tools to extend the goals and outcomes of simulation games past a conventional perspective. Key to successful computer game design is a balance among challenge, fun, simplicity, plot, and technology. Computer games can bolster intelligence and build confidence. Players sense of mastery over an environment may increase self-esteem. Effective simulation games must be equally compelling and engaging, contain an interesting plot or purpose for playing the game, and promote simultaneous multi-level learning. Intercultural simulation games may benefit from the use of new technologies and the application of the following design principles: 1) Intrinsic Motivation: Csikszentmihalyi (1975) referred to the highly energized state of concentration and focus often achieved in play as “flow.” He defined “flow” as a psychological state, based on concrete experiences, which acts as a reward by producing intrinsic motivation and active engagement. “Flow” is achieved by increasing the level of challenge as the individual’s skill level increases so there is a dynamic tension between a state of boredom (i.e. a task is too easy) and frustration (i.e. a task is too difficult). This balance generates a highly focused stale of mind within individuals that allows them to concentrate on a single task, forget personal problems, lose their sense of time, feel competent and in control, and enjoy a sense of harmony with their environment (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). 2) Asynchronous Time and the Debriefing: a computer supported communication medium such as email provides a useful example of asynchronous time in interpersonal communication (Hollan & Stornetta, 1992). Through email players and facilitators do not have to be physically present to engage each other in meaningful interactions. Simulation game debriefings may be extended to include email discussions and listserves. The electronic debriefings become mechanisms to continue discussing the learning outcomes of the simulation game in greater detail, over a longer period of time. Asynchronous time may also enhance communication outcomes by allowing players to think before communicating with others, reflect on each other’s messages, and focus on the content of the message instead of the style in which it is presented. The absence of nonverbal cues may facilitate greater attention and sensitivity to message content. 3) Game Playing on the Internet and Real-time Chats: Computer game playing on the internet now allows enthusiasts to “observe” an ongoing game’s actions and participate in online meta-analyses of the decisions made in the 144 Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Learning, Volume 24, 1997 game. Game play/meta-analysis enhances simulation game design in that two actions occur simultaneously and encourage multilevel learning. For example, players can observe and comment on the choices made by other players, whether actual or simulated, in role- play situations or when participating in discussions. Players learn from the context of the game, discussing the game’s process and the risks, outcomes, and rewards of alternative strategies that result from decision-making (Sisk, 1995). 4) Anonymity in Computer-Supported Communication: Face-to-face interaction does not provide anonymity. In some cases people are more truthful in a computer-supported context than in interpersonal communication. Anonymous communication encourages people to discuss difficult or controversial issues that they might be reluctant to discuss in face-to-face interactions. In a virtual environment where anonymity is preserved, there may be more opportunity for a player to ask risky questions and feel safer about truthfully sharing his or her feelings. 5) Adapting the Game to Increase the Level of Challenge: The unique ability of computer games to increase the level of challenge as play ensues is ultimately what engages players for hours. Adjusting the level of challenge in a simulation game may increase the length of time one can play the game without becoming bored, encourage one to play the game several times, and be one step closer to representing reality. 6) Number of Players and Type of Play: One of the benefits of a computer-based simulation game is that it does not require a group of players; nor is it dependent on a specific number of players for its success. In fact, the same game can be played individually or in- groups, on the internet, through a network, or via modem. A game environment that deals with difficult issues may initially be played best in a private setting. Later, when the player becomes more comfortable with the subject matter, the game can be played with others. 7) Fantasy Games with Unobtrusive Rules and Open-ended Outcomes: MUDs (multi-user domains) are text-based virtual worlds in which players interact with each other by creating the game environment and story line together. MUDs are generally fantasy-based chat rooms or fantasy adventure games in which imaginary characters are created by the player. In a MUD environment play is coconstructed by the players, outcomes left open-ended, and play proceeds according to subtle rules. Such an environment may be a particularly rich context to explore learning goals. This virtual environment may provide simulation game designers the mechanism to develop games with less explicit rules and more explicit character or role descriptions that challenge even the most sophisticated player. 8) Player-centered Control: Any task performed in a computer- based game environment is ultimately controlled by the player. Players proceed to more difficult levels as their abilities dictate. If players feel emotional discomfort, or become bored or frustrated they can start anew, save their play, or turn the computer off. Computer-based games are not bound by constraints of time and space as more conventional simulation games. CONCLUSION Innovations in computer gaming are likely to set the standard or serve as an example of excellence for computer-based simulation design. The infusion of computer gaming and other computer- supported technologies such as email, hypermedia, network communities, etc. into our everyday reality has implications for both culture and communication. This is not to say that face-to-face interaction will cease to be a preferred communication medium. However, computer-based environments may provide a richer communication medium in certain contexts than face-to-face interaction. The eight design principles discussed above enable effective communication in such an environment In intercultural contexts such as prejudice-reduction simulation gaining, computer- supported technologies better support the cask of facilitating more truthful communication while minimizing player risk and emotional discomfort.. REFERENCES Byrnes, D.A., & Kiger, 0. (1990). The effect of a prejudice- reduction simulation on attitude change. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20,4, 341-56. Byrnes, D.A., & Kiger, 0. (1992). Prejudice-reduction simulations: Ethics, evaluations, and theory into practice. Simulation & Gaming, 23.4,457-71. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975) Beyond boredom and anxiety: The experience of play in work and games. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Hollan, J., & Stornetta, S. (1992) Beyond being there. CHI ‘92, May 3-7. ACM Press, 119-25. Pedersen, P. (1995) Simulations: A safe place to take risks in discussing cultural differences. Simulation & Gaming, 26, 2, 201-6 Sisk, D. A. (1995) Simulation games as training tools. In Sandra M. Fowler and Monica 0 Mumford (Eds.) Intercultural sourcebook: Cross-cultural training methods. vol. 1. Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press. 81-92. Note: For more information and references on simulation games and computer game design visit the author’s web site at URL: http://www.unm.edul-raybourn/igames.html or email raybourn@unm.edu. 145 Table of Contents Volume 24, 1997 Incorporating Computer Telephony into the MIS Course A Learner Oriented Infrastructure for videoconferencing Based Distance Education Courses The Identification of Temporally Related Structural Elements of the Experiential Component of Electronic Spreadsheet Tasks Does Involvement Influence Learning from Simulation Participation? Some Relationships with Helpfulness and Performance Outcomes Musings on Business Garne Performance Evaluation Performance on a TE Simulation: What does it represent? The Business Policy Game: An International Simulation - An Assessment Tool Students in Free Enterprise as Experiential Learning The Role of Computer Models in Wargames: A Practitioner's view Using Focus Groups as a Tool to Research Learning: A Demonstration and a Discussion Using Medical Simulations to Teach Multi-Cultural Diversity Using the World Game to Internationalize International Exchange Game Community Services Needs Assessment: An Innovative Approach Introducing Students to Potential Total Quality Management Ethical Dilemmas Privacy in the Workplace: A Situational Analysis Antecedents of Learning in Simulations Demonstrating the Learning Effectiveness of Simulation: Where we are and Where we need to go The Use of Computer Simulations as a Pedagogical Aid in Teaching Management Information Systems Evaluating Simulation Learning in a Distant Learning Instructional Model Financial Engineering of Global Investments The Labor History Game: Playing with the Past Perks Participation Assessing Negotiator's Proficiency with a Negotiation role-play The Art of Negotiating Enhancing Learning and Employee Development through the Assessment of Learning Pedagogy Preferences across selected Dimensions of Culture: A Preliminary Investigation Cooperative Learning: What are we Learning? Effective Use of Mastery Based Experiential learning in a Project Course to improve skills in system analysis and Design Simulations and Learning: Can we prove a relationship? (Seminar) Predicting and Reviewing NYSE Stock Prices by use of Basic Statistical Analysis and Logic Toy Car Depreciation Exercise ABSEL as Home Community: An Interactive Exploration Service Learning: Linking Academic Study to Community Development and Business Enhancement Ability of Efficient Evaluation of Knowledge-Based Management Strategies Corporate Ethics Training Programs Modeling Attributes in Demand Functions of Computerized Business Simulations: An Extension of Teach's Gravity Flow Algorithm Expert Systems Combined with Neutral Networks: Tools to Benefit the Marketing Researcher Computer Game Design: New Directions for Intercultural Simulation Game Designers Consistency in Simulation Performance over Time and Across Simulation Games The Impact of an Artificial Market Leader on Simulation Competitor's Strategies Business Plans, Case Studies, and Total Enterprise Simulations: A Natural Co-existence An Exploration into the Non-Use of Business Simulations The Market Game: Interactive Learning Through Market Simulation Plotting Brand Trajectories with the COMPLETE PPM package: A Market Segmentation Analysis and Positioning Tool Me and Mine Inc: An Exercise in Management Theory Learning to Differentiate Leadership from Managerial Position Business Ethics Survey: A Perspective from the Retail Industry Experiential Learning in Demand Analysis for an Agricultural Commodity Marketing on the Internet: A Pedagogical Exercise College Students Need Simple Computer Simulations, Especially for International Business Courses An Analysis of Student Attitudes, Performance, and Strategies in a Simulation Competition Based on a Controlled Product-Market-Entry Game Structure The Crystal Enterprise: Application of a Non-Computerized Simulation Model in a Process of Organizational Change Threshold: A Windows-Based Behaviorally Oriented Total Enterprise Simulation Coaching Business Game Teams Using a Decision Variable Optimizer Rock and Roll is here to Stay: Enhancing Experiential Pedagogy with Musical Exercises An Example of Business Process Analysis Simulation for Customer Software Support The Use of Business Gaming in Hong Kong Academic Institutions Using the Integrative International Simulation INTOPIA Mark 2000 in a Concentrated MBA Curriculum A Group Experience as an Integrated Part of the Core Management Course Empowered Learning in the Classroom The Inter-Group Interaction: An Innovative Approach to Cooperative Learning Courses that Utilize Student Team: An Approach to enhancing their Effectiveness Thoughts about the Measurement of Learning: The Case for Guided Learning and Associated Measurement Issues Measuring Student Learning Using Business Simulations: A Theory Based Perspective On the Use of PC Fingame in an Undergraduate Finance Course How Managers get Things Done: A Virtual Soundbite Internet Experiential learning in the Principals of Marketing Classroom: A Pedagogical Approach Current Student Perceptions Relative to Business Simulations Beyond Capitalism: Designing Business Policy and Social Justice The Use of Boards of Directors to Evaluate Reports and Presentations in an Undergraduate Business Policy Course Beacon Lumber: An Experiential Introduction to Financial Accounting The Application of Organizational Motivation Principles: The Experiential Business Simulation Motus Manufacturing Avoiding a Bogey: Grading Case Discussions Scientifically Communicating Consumer Behavior II: A Modified Exercise Using Personal Consumption Journals in Condensed Courses Designing Instruments for Assessing the Effectiveness of Simulations, (Seminar) 360º Performance Feedback: Appraisal vs. Assessment The Cafeteria Approach to Managing an Academic Career: Remaining Non-Perishable while Doing Your Own Thing An Experiential Exercise Related to Person-Organization Fit and it's Consequences For Today's Dynamic and Changing World, Business Simulations need to be expanded to encompass Much Greater Complexity: A Demonstration The Incident Process: A Case in Reverse Contextually-Anchored Business Simulations The Energy Factor: Building Motivation in the Simulation Gaming Environment The Design of an Internet Game