ANTECEDENT BIASES OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNERS: TRAINEE OCCUPATION AND SUBGROUP DIVERSITY Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 20,1993 62 ANTECEDENT BIASES OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNERS: TRAINEE OCCUPATION AND SUBGROUP DIVERSITY Carroll C. Halterman & Nancy S. Sampson Both of the University of Denver ABSTRACT The occupational experience of group members (those who perform similar activities and functions as a way of life) influences their ideas about the workplace. Such antecedent biases are likely to affect subsequent experiential teaching and learning. For example, our assessments show that occupational females (as a whole) place more importance on clear Goals; on knowing one’s Job; on having a competent Leader; and on well-Designed work- groups, than do males. But we also find that males from different occupational groups vary widely, as do females front different occupational groups. Three diverse sources of bias are identified as attendant to occupation, occupational sub groups, and gender. EXPERIENCE IS A POWERFUL TEACHER. Trainers and educators increasingly rely on experiential methods to modify the perceptions and performances of participants. (Becker, 1992; Halterman and Sampson, 1992; Smolowe, 1992). Experiential learning is generally agreed to efficiently confront and challenge participants, and to reorient their beliefs, values, style and performance (cf. Bolt, 1990; Galagan, 1990; Petrini, 1990; Smolowe; Thompson, 1991; and Sims and Dennehy, 1992). In fact, the record of effectiveness of this type of training has been so impressive that it has overshadowed the need to better understand the relationship between knowing the trainee, and knowing the training approach. We must get back to the question: “Just who is this trainee we are we dealing with?” Better information about trainees is necessary in order to improve the effectiveness of experiential teaching. “Numerous and very complex" factors can attenuate or accelerate trainee change (Gosenpud, J. & Miesing, P. 1992). Do we really know what these factors are? This research attempts to identify antecedent trainee biases relating to trainee experiences in different occupations, which may aid or interfere with schooling and learning. Experiential Training At Work--at Work. Most experientially-based training programs attempt to challenge a trainee’s ingrained habits and perceptions with relatively short bursts of new and highly involved activities, after which the newly- modified individual returns to his or her regular occupational environment. Later, compelling questions are frequently raised: “Why did that training effect wear off so soon?” “Is it the way we work?” This last query is not too outlandish, since, as Katz and Kahn (1978) long ago pointed out, day-to-day occupational activity is a robust learning (or re-learning!) experience. Experiential Learning and Occupations, We are already aware of important differences between people involved in different operations--depending on their tasks, their backgrounds, and their objectives (of. Sundstrom, De Meuse, and Futrell, 1990; Coleman, 1991; Halterman & Sampson, 1992; and Patz, 1992). For example, some researchers have quietly explored the effects of (a) different experiential training methods (Sampson, Spagnola, and Halterman,1991; Becker; Specht and Sandlin, 1991); (b) the gender of participants (Halterman, Dutkiewicz, and Halterman,1991); (c) their nationality (Halterman and Sampson; and, (d) their personality (Patz). All of these investigators found significantly prominent relationships. This research looks for the effects of different occupational experiences on respondents’ work- related perceptions and preferences. Since people achieve self-identity with their occupation, organizational activities play a critical role in determining their norms, beliefs and values. Organized groups (e.g. occupations) differ in the types of tasks they perform; and a key determinant of characteristic organizational norms is the type of activity in which the organization is involved (Katz and Kahn, p.389, 394). It is reasonable to expect that occupational norms, beliefs and values which have developed over time during a person’s major work activity, are going to be difficult to change. There-for, a person’s subsequent learning is largely dependent on how well his or her teacher gets to know the student, and is able to tailor the teaching and learning effectively (cf. Gosenpud & Miesing). We agree with other investigators who believe that it is only through empirical studies of actual, intact work groups that we can expect to learn more about developing them (See Sundstrom, De Meuse and Futrell). An occupational group is a group of people performing similar activities and functions as a way of life. This research empirically assesses how experienced members from various occupational groups differ in the way they ascribe importance to critical workplace characteristics. It asks two questions: (1) “Do different occupational groups vary?”, and (2) “In what ways?” THE ASSESSMENT METHOD Management characteristics found to be critical to the performance of successful work-groups (Larson and LaFasto. 1989) are expressed as be- Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 20,1993 63 havioral aphorisms. The assumptions underlying this approach to capturing work-group members’ perceptions and beliefs have been strengthened by other investigators (Menzel, 1991; Neslund, 1991; and Halterman, et al., 1991). Importantly, it has also been found that dissimilar work-groups vary in how they place importance on different workplace characteristics (Halterman, 1992). The instrument itself proposes eight specific statements to be assessed (see Exhibit 1). Respondents are asked to indicate “the extent to which you believe (the particular statement] is necessary for an effective team.” They reply on a 5-point Likert scale, where “1” equals “applies well” and “5” equals “doesn’t apply.” THE SAMPLE ASSESSED From the four categories of team members sampled, 881 usable responses are obtained. To guide our analysis, three null hypotheses are tested: Hypothesis1 There are no differences in the way participants assess the importance of workplace characteristics, when responses from different occupational groups are compared. Hypothesis2 There are no differences in the way participants assess the importance of workplace characteristics, when responses from occupational sub-groups are compared. Hypothesis3 There are no differences in the way participants assess the importance of workplace characteristics, when responses from males and females are compared. The Four Occupational Types Examined. The four occupational types and their subgroups are shown in Exhibit 2. To preserve anonymity of the organizations, the sub-groups are described by their general areas of activity, instead of by their organization’s name. Each of the occupational categories is made up of respondents from both regional, state and local units. In aggregating these groups, we sought consistency of occupational type, balanced by a need for representative variety among a group’s membership. There are no individuals in any one category who are also classified in any other. Membership in-groups are mutually exclusive. Occupational Type 1: Project Team Members (N342) Respondents are experienced members of project teams, selected for advanced training. The subgroups represent attendees from different organizations. Team members represent multiple operations; all levels of project management; and diverse projects. Occupational Type 2: Production Team Members (N173) Respondents are members of manufacturing and assembly units, each with a team orientation. The two smaller subgroups are from well-established mid-sized businesses and the other is from the production division of a large, high tech corporation. Occupational TYPE 3: Public Agency Members (N=148). Respondents are largely team-workers (not political appointees) from a variety of political jurisdictions, and ranging from town officials to regional administrative units. They are typically career- oriented; mid-career; and varying in their educational background. The “service group” is a regional arm of a national (voluntary) service organization. Occupational Type 4: College University Students (N=218). Respondents are from four different schools, predominantly enrolled in business or engineering programs. All are upper- division or graduate students. Full-time and part-time attendees are represented. Evening students and daytime students are represented. Non US citizens are not identified, but their proportion is estimated at less than 20%. Each school is located in the Rocky Mountain region. THE STATISTICAL APPROACH AND RESULTS. Data are examined by analysis of variance Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 20,1993 64 techniques. Processing is by SPSS. Mean scores, deviations, and F scores are reported. Table 1 displays basic work-group statistics for the four groups. It is readily apparent that the four groups differ from each other (ANOVA) on six of the eight scales. The significant Pillais F of 5.54 (MANOVA) tells us that the four occupations are statistically different in the way they respond. MANOVA testing (for variation among the occupational subgroups in each type) indicates that the Project respondents are homogeneous, while other subgroups vary. Statistical Results. Hypothesis1 is rejected (See Table 1.). A multiple analysis of variance yields a Pillais F of 5.54 [p.=.000]. The four occupations are found dissimilar based on the way they respond. Hypothesis2 is rejected. A univariate analysis of variance yields significant F’s for three of the four occupational groups. Only the Project occupational group (F1.23; p.=. 103) is determined to have similar subgroups. Hypothesis3 is rejected. ANOVA (Sex) for Production yields an F of 3.47, [p.=.001). Separate sex differences cannot be established for Project, Agency, or Student respondents. However, further analysis (See Table 2) indicates that for the entire sample, males and females differ [F=1.65: p.=.000]. Males and females for the entire sample are shown to differ in their responses to four of the eight scales. This additional information supports rejecting Hypothesis3. DISCUSSION It comes as no surprise that the four occupational groups differ on six of the eight scales. After all, the “occupational groups” were carefully constructed by the researchers, so that their subgroups were collectively “consistent” in terms of a rudimentary “job analysis” by the researchers--not simply on the basis of occupational “titles.” This is important, because when inadvertent variance is introduced (e.g., via some-one else’s “titles”) it cannot be explained. The occupations differ most on how they see the importance of SUPPORT, of DOING what is necessary, of the LEADER, and of understanding the GOAL. They also differ on the importance of performance EXPECTATION, and liking and TRUSTING each other. The degree of dispersion of these differences can be seen in Figure 1. (Original data have been transformed so that the highest values in the figures are furthest from the 1-origin.] This figure reflects data in Table 1. Please note that these differences do not imply the importance of the variables they simply show how each category sees them, possibly as a result of their occupational experiences. Figure 2 shows how the total sample responses are distributed by gender, or (in this case) sex. This relationship, you will notice from Table 1., appears deceptively concordant, despite the fact that male/female differences are significant. However, Figures 3 & 4 suggest a much more complex variation for females (of the entire sample); as well as for males (of the entire sample). Incidentally, males (for the four occupations) are significantly different; and females (for the four occupations) are significantly different as well. CONCLUSIONS Respondents from different occupational groups differ in how they see the impor- Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 20,1993 65 tance of workplace characteristics They differ or six of the eight scales. Also, within occupational groups, there is significant diversity, among the subgroups of occupations, in the way the subgroups perceive the importance of workplace characteristics. Occupational males and females differ in how they see the importance of workplace characteristics. Specif ically, females (on the whole) place more importance on clear GOALS, knowing one’s JOB, having a competent and respected LEADER and having workgroups DESIGNED for results than do males. Males from different occupations are dissimilar in how they see the importance of workplace characteristics; and females from different occupations are also dissimilar in how they see the importance of workplace characteristics. The student category is treated as an occupation to demonstrate the broad applicability of this approach. However, other research indicates to us that the norms and values of students--like this sample--are usually very close to those of the general population. Of course, dissimilarities are found among student subgroups, among US and Non-US students, and between male and female students (Halterman 1992). It is important to remember that every student is a part of a larger community; -of a work experience; of an age cohort; and of some nationality and gender (just as are other “occupational groups”). Biases stem from such associations. This study confirms that antecedent biases attendant to occupations; to occupational subgroups; and to gender; probably exist. These effects should be carefully considered by those developing, managing, and facilitating educational and training activities. REFERENCES Becker, S. W. (1992) Experiential learning and TQM principles: Teaching behavioral science in a business school. in Jerry Gosenpud and Steven Gold (Eds.) Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises. [Proceedings, 1992 ABSEL Conference Las Vegas, Nev.), 19 11-16. Bolt J. F. (1990). How executives learn: The move from glitz to guts. Training and Development Journal .44 (5), 88-87 Bruton, C.M, & Bradley, M. P. (1992) The advantages of experiential learning in the auditing curriculum. In Jerry Gosenpud and Steven Gold (Eds.) Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises. [Proceedings, 1992 ABSEL Conference. Las Vegas, Nev.], 19 26-29. Coleman, R. W. (1991) Law Enforcement Tactical Teams: A Substantive Theory. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Department of Communication, University of Denver, p.158. Galagan, P. A. (1990) Execs go global, literally. Training & Development Journal 44(6), 58-63. Gosenpud, J., & Miesing, P. (1992) The relative influence of several factors on simulation performance Simulation & Gaming, 23 3 (Sept) 311-325. Halterman, C.C., Dutkiewicz, and Halterman, E. (1991). Men and women on the job: Gender bias in work teams. Journal of Business and Technical Communication 5(4):(Oct) 469-481. Halterman, C.C. & Sampson, N.S. (1992) Installing and consolidating work-team values: The effects of a multicultural outdoor program.” in Jerry Gosenpud and Steven Gold (Eds.) Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises. [Proceedings, 1992 ABSEL Conference. Las Vegas, Nev.] 19. 73-75. Halterman, C.C. (1992) Reducing diversity among graduate business students.” The Journal of the Colorado-Wyoming Academy of Science XXIV 1, (24 April 1992), 24. Katz, D & Kahn, R.L. (1978) The social psychology of organizations (2nd ed.) New York: John Wiley & Sons. 397- 398; 597-609 Larson, C.E. & Lafasto, F.M.J. (1989) m (Newbury Park California: Sage Publications, 26. Menzel, K. E. (1991) Teams and organizational. communication Unpublished manuscript, University of Denver, Dept. of Communication. Neslund, R. E. (1991) Team excellence on large teams unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Denver, Colorado. Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 20,1993 66 Patz, A., (1992). Personality bias in total enterprise situations. Simulation & Gaming, 23 1 (March), 45-76. Petrini, C. M. (1990) Over the river and through the woods. Training & Development Journal, jj(5), 25-36. Sampson, N. S, Spagnola, R. D. & Halterman, C.C., (1991) Techniques and technologies for building creative teams. Proceedings, 33rd Mountain Plains Management Conference Colorado State University Oct. (unnumb) Sims, R., & Dennehy, R. (1992) Power and ethnicity: An experiential learning exercise (How to sensitize students to diversity). In Jerry and Gosenpud and Steven Gold (Eds.) Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises. (Proceedings, 1992 ABSEL Conference Las Vegas, Nev.] 19, 155-158 Smolowe, J. (1992, April 13). The pursuit of Excellence 59-67 Specht, L., & Sandlin, P.K. (1991) The differential effects of experiential learning activities and traditional lectures in accounting Simulation & Gaming, 22 2 (June), 196-210. Sundstrom, E., De Meuse, K.P. & Futrell, D. (1990) Work teams application and effectiveness. American Psychologist 45.2, 120-33. Thompson, B. L. (1991) Training in the great outdoors. Training, 28(5), 46-52 Table of Contents Volume 20, 1993 Dominant Personality Types and Total Enterprise Simulation Performance Shelf Wars: A Grocery Channel Simulation Shared Cultural Perspectives: An Experiential Exercise Utilizing International Students to Globalize the Classroom An Instrument for Investigating the Effectiveness of Teaching Methods in the Business Policy and Strategy Formulation Course Providing Better Trained Graduates for Accounting Employers The Ambition Gradient Approach to Evaluation of Computer Simulation Game Team Performance Alphatec: A Negotiation Exercise with Logrolling and Bridging Potential Using the Ideafisher Idea Generation System as a Decision Support System in Marketing Strategy Courses A Dynamic Market Share Allocation Model For Computerized Business Simulations Multi-Cultural Adaptability Using Experiential Learning in a Graduate Course Development of Experiential Applications in HRM: Practicing What Preach and Preaching for Practice Linking Students and Business Leaders Through Portfolios Debriefing International Experiential Learning Exercises: Road Signs for Effectiveness Sales Manager: A Simulation Modeling Interactive Effects in Mathematical Functions for Business Simulations: A Critique of Goosen's Interpolation Reducing the Complexity of Interactive Variable Modeling in Business Simulations Through Interpolation Antecedent Biases of Experiential Learners: Trainee Occupation and Subgroup Diversity Pax in Terra Sancta: Simulating the Middle East Peace Negotiations A Multiple Regression Case In Experiential Learning Changes in Ethnocentric/Geocentric Orientation by Business Students after Exposure to a One Summer Course in International Marketing's A Systematic Approach to the Development and Evaluation of Experiential Exercises Entrepreneurs Evaluate Experiential Education A Linear Programming Approach to Open System Total Enterprise Simulations Reflecting Leader Behavior from the Looking Glass, Inc. Simulation Linking Cognitive Styles, Teaching Methods, Educational Objectives and Assessment: A Decision Tree Approach Restructuring Management Education in Post-Communist Countries: How Western Experts Can Help Managerial and Cultural Pre-Conditions for Superior Performance in a Global Setting: An Experimental Study with the Aid of Business Games Multiple Industries in Computerized Business Gaming Simulations Content or Process? - Content and Process! Some Observations and Reflections About Management Education in Central Europe Out-of-Class Experiences to Promote Volunteerism Enacting the Linguistic Consciousness of the Modern Managerial Mind: Post-Modernism and Experiential Learning Intergrating Experiential Exercises into the College Curriculum: The Case of Internationalizing the Business Curriculum Simulation Marketing Oversights Incorporating Advertising Creative Strategy into Computer-Based Business Simulations The Dynamics of a Partnership Between Business and Education Collaborative Education Done Globally Experiential Systems Analysis CADPLAN: A Simulation for Comparative Advertising A Doctoral Symposium: Preparing Students for Conference Behavior Comparing the Simulation with the Case Approach: Again! Total Quality Management: A Model for Continuous Quality Improvement The Quality Audit: An Experiential Exercise for Business Students Extending the Reach of Simulations: DECIDE Heads for the Inner City Lessons Learned from a Customized Management Development Simulation The Foreign Exchange Spot Trading Simulation Using Lotus 1-2-3 to complete a Triple Play in a Simulated Competition International Business Education: Is Enough Being Done? Matching of Student-Teacher Cognitive Style as a Factor in Student Success in an Introduction to Information Systems Course Breathing (More) Life into the Case Approach Lord of the Flies: A Live Case Approach to Leadership Cooperative Case Studies: Experiential Tools for Teaching Business Problem Solving Tools Strategy Simulations in Context: An Evaluation of Key Dimensions The Distribution Channel Game Evaluation of a Simulation Game as an Education Tool for Utility Professionals The Relationship Between Total Enterprise Simulation Performance and Learning Total Quality Management does not Happen by Magic, but it can be Taught Using a Pedagogical Methodology that Utilizes Magic Effectively Preparing Students for Careers in a Global Environment by Integrating Total Quality Management Thoughout the Business Curriculum An Empirical Investigation of Cognitive and Performance Consistency in a Marketing Simulation Game Environment Using MARSGAP with LAPTOP: (A Marketing Simulation Game Analysis Program) with LAPTOP: A Marketing Simulation Adapting TQM Implementation to Organizational Level An MBA Business Simulation: Executive Interaction Experiential Exercises and Pedagogy Track Workshop: Experiencing Cultural Diversity in the Classroom (and the Hotel Meeting Room) Closing the Gap between Corporate and National Culture The Dynamic Manufacturing Company The Use of Experiential Techniques in Corporate Training The State of Simulation Gaming in Easter European Countries- Principally Russia An Experiential Exercise in Cross-Cultural Training Valuing Differences: A Conceptual Framework Demonstration of an Experiential Exercise Effectively Using Experiential Learning to Impart TQM Concepts in a High Technology Environment The Older Worker Questionnaire: An Exercise Concerning Older Worker Stereotypes and Behaviors The Crime Fighting Task Force: An Exercise in Organizational Politics Welcome to the Party! An Expression of Vocational Preference Experiential Exercise for Imparting Cross-Cultural Appreciation Six Swift Simulations on Globalization Overview of BASF Delegate Program