LINKING COGNITIVE STYLES, TEACHING METHODS, EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND ASSESSMENT: A DECISION TREE APPROACH Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 20, 1993 93 LINKING COGNITIVE STYLES, TEACHING METHODS, EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND ASSESSMENT: A DECISION TREE APPROACH John R. Ronchetto, Jr., University of San Diego Wesley J. Johnston, Georgia State University ABSTRACT This paper examines the justifications for using experiential learning exercises in teaching critical thinking and interpersonal skills to business students. A decision tree framework is used to integrate and depict the relationships between cognitive style, teaching methods, educational objectives and learning measurement. Benefits for students, business managers, and educators are highlighted. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Increasingly, business school education is being evaluated on a variety of interrelated factors. Significant changes in organizations in recent years have made the development of interpersonal skills in business students more critical’ than ever before. These skills can be strengthened in a number of ways using experiential learning methods and other exercises which require student group interaction (Mason 1990). However, business schools do not effectively teach interpersonal, teamwork, and negotiating skills since their mastery requires practice and most schools are not equipped with practice fields (Leavitt 1991). Also, White (1 992) notes that MBA graduates typically do not learn operational effectiveness e.g., how to achieve world-class quality. In study of both west and east coast service and manufacturing firms, twenty-four percent of the employers indicated that interpersonal skills were most important for graduates. Whereas the lack of prior work experience is the most significant shortcoming in recently graduated business students (Raymond, McNabb, and Matthaei 1990). Another study found conflict resolution and negotiating skills were thought to be most important for business managers (Winer 1990). Carnevale, Gainer and Meltzer (1988) and Porter and McKibbin (1 988) also report similar results. They concluded that business students need to develop these critical skills and broaden their business perspective as well as acquiring knowledge in a specific functional area e.g., marketing or finance. Similarly, in a Business report on the best business school’s, recruiters rated graduates on their abilities to perform as analysts and team players, and to acquire a global’ perspective towards their role in the business community (Byrne 1 990). Interestingly, students have also realized both a requirement for and a deficiency in acquiring important managerial skills. Over a decade ago two separate yet related studies of recent business school graduates indicated that oral and written communication skills should be taught in more detail and emphasis since they were most important to success in their jobs (Hewing 1980; Reder and Wunsch 1980). More recently, students enrolled in a business policy class identified nine skills which they felt were insufficiently developed during their university educational experience. They included: influencing, negotiating, writing, presenting, and creative problem-solving (Winer 1990). It seems that a gap exists between the identified needs of business students and the ability of the current curriculum to deliver this education. This paper attempts to present a solution to the dilemma. The paper is developed in three parts. First, selected cognitive styles, management education, and learning objectives and assessment research are briefly reviewed. Second, a new integrated approach to teaching managerial concepts within a course context is then introduced. Last, implications for business students, practitioners, educators and researchers are provided. COGNITIVE STYLES, MANAGEMENT SKILLS, LEARNING GOALS AND MEASURES Cognitive styles refers to the preferred manner in which people deal with information about the world around them. Jung (1971) identified two dimensions of human cognition i.e., perception (information gathering) and judgment (information processing). During the information gathering or perceptual phase, humans are likely to utilize either sensing (5) or intuition (N). Whereas, either thinking (T) or feeling (F) judgments are emphasized during the information processing stage. Combinations of these two dimensions result in four basic cognitive styles-sensation/thinking (ST), intuition/thinking (NT), sensation/feeling (SF), and intuition/feeling (NF). Each of these cognitive styles have a different preferred approach to learning and problem solving: STs use a systematic approach to determining the pertinent facts in a problem. This style prefers impersonal, detached analysis of data in a logical process (Hirsh and Kummerow 1990; Taggart and Robey 1981). NTs consider longer-term perspective and more conceptual relationships among the issues. They prefer to weigh the possible outcomes in addition to the concrete facts. SFs take a more personal focus when dealing with concrete facts. Their approach is guided by a shorter term and interpersonal perspective. NFs tend to rely heavily on personal and nonrational feelings when judging and interpreting facts (McKee 1991). Interest in this dual cognitive/affective and analytical/intuitive view of human information processing by business managers can be traced to Barnard (1938). He noted that “mental’ processes consist of two groups which I shall call ‘nonlogical’ and ‘logical’ (p. 302). In his opinion, an effective manager has access to the appropriate approach as dictated by the situation at hand. Moreover, Myers (1976) argues that a successful organization needs a variety of types since each has a particular and unique strength. For example, a sensing type contributes practical realism whereas a feeling type is the most skillful at understanding and communicating with people. The most penetrating analysis is provided by a thinking style while the clearest view of the future and theoretical possibilities comes from an intuitive style approach (cf. Myers and McCaulley (1985). Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 20, 1993 94 Management researchers have discovered that different cognitive styles results in varying preferences for the type of organizations (Mitroff and Kilman 1975; Kilmann and Mitroff 1976) and organizational positions (Williams, Armstrong, and Malcolm 1 985) as well as for diverse ways of conflict resolution (Kilman and Thomas 1975). In addition, information is defined and processed in a distinctive fashion (Mason and Mitroff 1973; Smith and Urban 1 978) e.g., engineers with different cognitive styles focus on dissimilar facets of design (Lowen 1982). Not surprisingly, dissimilarities in decision-making, communicating, and learning processes have been linked to different cognitive styles (e.g., Carlson and Levy 1973; McCaulley and Natter 1974; Levin 1978; Thompson 1984). According to Leavitt (1991), the process of managing can be divided into three interrelated parts: (1) the inner directed, pathfinding part (i.e., needing intuitive skills), (2) the analytical, planning, problem-solving stage (i.e., using logical thinking), and (3) the active, persuasive, implementing stage (i.e., utilizing sensing and feeling abilities). The majority of MBA program curriculum emphasizes the middle, problem-solving stage, but an orientation towards action and implementation is and will continue to be required of managers. In addition to analytical skills effective implementation requires the ability to influence and collaborate with others. With respect to analytical problem-solving techniques business students are generally well prepared. They are also introduced to descriptive accounts of banking systems, financial markets, and organizational structures. However, American business students have not been typically taught to consider themselves global citizens, pursue lifelong learning, and develop an orientation towards social’ action i.e., interpersonal skills (Leavitt 1 989). Managers who are capable of "integrating wisdom and feeling with analysis... are worth a great deal to an organization” (Leavitt 1975, p. 20). Managers need to overcome a bias towards conscious analysis and cautiously distinguish between intuitive and logical activities in order to apply the appropriate information processing style (Mintzberg 1976). Gentry, Stoltman, and Mehlhoff (1992) observe that experiential approaches have typically concentrated on the process of teaching versus the process of learning. Consequently, little concern has been given to what is learned. Figure 1 depicts the still widely recognized taxonomy of six cognitive learning objectives along with selected assessment techniques and teaching methods (Bloom et al. 1956). Since this model allows for decision making i.e., logical activities learning, it is especially useful for business learning assessment (Gentry, Stoltman, and Mehlhoff 1992). In addition, the feeling or affective component of a related classification of educational goals can be used to measure the student’s attitudes, values, and emotional sets i.e., intuitive elements (Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia 1964). EXPERIENTIAL TEACHING METHODS FOR BUSINESS CLASSES Perhaps underdeveloped interpersonal skills can be attributed to the teaching methods that university teachers have typically utilized e.g., the lecture method as they were taught (Gottko and Osterman 1987). Some business school educators, however, have recognized the value of action- oriented teaching approaches. Malhotra, Tashchian, and Jam (1989) argue that a group project method encourages such managerial skills as communication, problem-solving, critical thinking, and interpersonal skills. Conant and Mokwa (1987) designed a course wherein students act as product managers and use an audit to link theory and practice when investigating market behavior. Moutinho (1988) found that the use of computer simulation games both promotes the student’s learning experience and involvement in the marketing educational process (cf. Berman and McNeeley 1 990; Perry and Euler 1989 for a comprehensive review of computer-based marketing simulations). Assessment centers require the development of both critical thinking and interpersonal skills e.g., task simulations, in-basket exercises, and oral presentations (Thornton and Byham 1982) and are utilized to evaluate employees for various purposes (Jaffee and Sefcik 1980). Indeed, assessment centers are currently utilized by 22% of Fortune 500 firms as either selection techniques or management development devices (Keel et al. 1989). The in-basket exercise developed by Castleberry (1990) is "interesting, versatile, and should enhance learning.. .for sales and sales management courses” (Ingram 1991, p. 89). These pedagogical techniques are clearly different than the lecture and discussion approach. Svinicki and Dixon (1987) discuss these behavioral based instructional activities suggesting they aid in experiential learning. Cohen (1988) defined experiential learning as “any technique ... whereby the student learns primarily from his or her own experience (p. 1). A MODEL FOR TEACHING MANAGERIAL SKILLS TO BUSINESS STUDENTS Based on the research reviewed above, Figure 2 provides a decision-tree perspective that considers the mix among managerial skills, cognitive styles, educational objectives and assessment techniques. Given the recent concerns expressed by educators of both undergraduate and MBA students as documented in the extant literature, managerial skills are divided into two categories i.e., critical thinking or logical thinking and interpersonal or intuitive, affective behaviors (Stage 1). The ranking of ST and SF as mid- level and NT and NF as high-level cognitive style strengths (Stage 2) are drawn from McKee’s (1991) taxonomy of skills, curricula, and evaluation. Basic knowledge, comprehension, and application along with the analysis, synthesis, and evaluation learning objectives are assumed to be subsets of respectively mid-level (SF/ST) and high-level (NF/NT) cognitive style strength (Stage 3). Only the higher order learning objectives are highlighted since the literature review demonstrates me need for more experiential or participative teaching methods. Last, choices for learning assessment and experiential teaching methods represent only one among several possibilities. Also, some teaching methods may in fact simultaneously involve several learning objectives or managerial skill. Interested readers should refer to Bloom et al. (1956) for a comprehensive treatment of learning objective and assessment methods. An integration of the taxonomy of educational objectives, learning assessments, and teaching methods (Figure 1) with managerial skill development and Jungian cognitive styles resulted in the decision tree approach to combining key educational process variables. Utilization of the decision tree model can be demonstrated through discussion of the three cornerstone elements of the marketing concept (required learning for all business school’ students) i.e., achieving customer satisfaction, encouraging inter-functional coordination, and accomplishing organization goals. One important caveat to be considered when using this taxonomy and decision tree model is that a certain amount of interaction among the variables is possible. For example, a computer simulation with student teams allows for simultaneous learning of interpersonal’ and analytical managerial skills. Also, numerous permutations and combinations of educational process variables are feasible or even desired in order to achieve specific learning objectives within a particular course. IMPLICATIONS FOR BUSINESS STUDENTS, PRACTITIONERS, AND EDUCATORS A number of benefits for students, business managers, and educators, can be realized when applying the decision tree framework in designing courses. First, students are provided an educational environment that explicitly considers the complex interaction among learning process variables. Specifically, cognitive styles are matched to the appropriate managerial skill, its level, and a learning objective. Not only are students made aware of their preferred cognitive style but they are afforded the chance to learn and apply different styles that are necessary to deal with interpersonal and/or analytical issues. Moreover, since actual business problems are complex and require both interpersonal and - Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 20, 1993 95 analytical managerial skills, students are acquiring the capability to be more effective employees upon their graduation. Next, prospective employers of business school graduates recognize the value of workers who can effectively and efficiently offer solutions to questions and challenges facing the organization. Seldom are problems facing the modern day firm simply answered by employees who have learned merely basic knowledge or comprehension of business concepts. Novel approaches to a constantly changing competitive environment require business school graduates to continually move beyond current ways of thinking and provide innovative solutions. Indeed, firms may find that training periods for new managerial hires can be shortened thus resulting in a financial savings to the organization. All too often, business professors have relied on teaching methods to measure the students' grasp of relatively lower level learning objectives e.g., multiple choice and essay questions to assess basic knowledge and comprehension. This traditional approach asks students to solve problems that are typically too clearly and precisely defined but not realistic. With the decision tree educational process model, instructors have a vehicle with which to meet both behavioral and cognitive learning objectives. 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Dunlap, ed., Cullowhee, NC: Academy of Marketing Science, 284-288 Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 20, 1993 97 Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 20, 1993 98 Table of Contents Volume 20, 1993 Dominant Personality Types and Total Enterprise Simulation Performance Shelf Wars: A Grocery Channel Simulation Shared Cultural Perspectives: An Experiential Exercise Utilizing International Students to Globalize the Classroom An Instrument for Investigating the Effectiveness of Teaching Methods in the Business Policy and Strategy Formulation Course Providing Better Trained Graduates for Accounting Employers The Ambition Gradient Approach to Evaluation of Computer Simulation Game Team Performance Alphatec: A Negotiation Exercise with Logrolling and Bridging Potential Using the Ideafisher Idea Generation System as a Decision Support System in Marketing Strategy Courses A Dynamic Market Share Allocation Model For Computerized Business Simulations Multi-Cultural Adaptability Using Experiential Learning in a Graduate Course Development of Experiential Applications in HRM: Practicing What Preach and Preaching for Practice Linking Students and Business Leaders Through Portfolios Debriefing International Experiential Learning Exercises: Road Signs for Effectiveness Sales Manager: A Simulation Modeling Interactive Effects in Mathematical Functions for Business Simulations: A Critique of Goosen's Interpolation Reducing the Complexity of Interactive Variable Modeling in Business Simulations Through Interpolation Antecedent Biases of Experiential Learners: Trainee Occupation and Subgroup Diversity Pax in Terra Sancta: Simulating the Middle East Peace Negotiations A Multiple Regression Case In Experiential Learning Changes in Ethnocentric/Geocentric Orientation by Business Students after Exposure to a One Summer Course in International Marketing's A Systematic Approach to the Development and Evaluation of Experiential Exercises Entrepreneurs Evaluate Experiential Education A Linear Programming Approach to Open System Total Enterprise Simulations Reflecting Leader Behavior from the Looking Glass, Inc. Simulation Linking Cognitive Styles, Teaching Methods, Educational Objectives and Assessment: A Decision Tree Approach Restructuring Management Education in Post-Communist Countries: How Western Experts Can Help Managerial and Cultural Pre-Conditions for Superior Performance in a Global Setting: An Experimental Study with the Aid of Business Games Multiple Industries in Computerized Business Gaming Simulations Content or Process? - Content and Process! Some Observations and Reflections About Management Education in Central Europe Out-of-Class Experiences to Promote Volunteerism Enacting the Linguistic Consciousness of the Modern Managerial Mind: Post-Modernism and Experiential Learning Intergrating Experiential Exercises into the College Curriculum: The Case of Internationalizing the Business Curriculum Simulation Marketing Oversights Incorporating Advertising Creative Strategy into Computer-Based Business Simulations The Dynamics of a Partnership Between Business and Education Collaborative Education Done Globally Experiential Systems Analysis CADPLAN: A Simulation for Comparative Advertising A Doctoral Symposium: Preparing Students for Conference Behavior Comparing the Simulation with the Case Approach: Again! Total Quality Management: A Model for Continuous Quality Improvement The Quality Audit: An Experiential Exercise for Business Students Extending the Reach of Simulations: DECIDE Heads for the Inner City Lessons Learned from a Customized Management Development Simulation The Foreign Exchange Spot Trading Simulation Using Lotus 1-2-3 to complete a Triple Play in a Simulated Competition International Business Education: Is Enough Being Done? Matching of Student-Teacher Cognitive Style as a Factor in Student Success in an Introduction to Information Systems Course Breathing (More) Life into the Case Approach Lord of the Flies: A Live Case Approach to Leadership Cooperative Case Studies: Experiential Tools for Teaching Business Problem Solving Tools Strategy Simulations in Context: An Evaluation of Key Dimensions The Distribution Channel Game Evaluation of a Simulation Game as an Education Tool for Utility Professionals The Relationship Between Total Enterprise Simulation Performance and Learning Total Quality Management does not Happen by Magic, but it can be Taught Using a Pedagogical Methodology that Utilizes Magic Effectively Preparing Students for Careers in a Global Environment by Integrating Total Quality Management Thoughout the Business Curriculum An Empirical Investigation of Cognitive and Performance Consistency in a Marketing Simulation Game Environment Using MARSGAP with LAPTOP: (A Marketing Simulation Game Analysis Program) with LAPTOP: A Marketing Simulation Adapting TQM Implementation to Organizational Level An MBA Business Simulation: Executive Interaction Experiential Exercises and Pedagogy Track Workshop: Experiencing Cultural Diversity in the Classroom (and the Hotel Meeting Room) Closing the Gap between Corporate and National Culture The Dynamic Manufacturing Company The Use of Experiential Techniques in Corporate Training The State of Simulation Gaming in Easter European Countries- Principally Russia An Experiential Exercise in Cross-Cultural Training Valuing Differences: A Conceptual Framework Demonstration of an Experiential Exercise Effectively Using Experiential Learning to Impart TQM Concepts in a High Technology Environment The Older Worker Questionnaire: An Exercise Concerning Older Worker Stereotypes and Behaviors The Crime Fighting Task Force: An Exercise in Organizational Politics Welcome to the Party! An Expression of Vocational Preference Experiential Exercise for Imparting Cross-Cultural Appreciation Six Swift Simulations on Globalization Overview of BASF Delegate Program