ATTITUDES TOWARD AND EMOTIONS RELATED TO WOMEN AS MANAGERS: A REPLICATION AND BEYOND Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 19, 1992 86 ATTITUDES TOWARD AND EMOTIONS RELATED TO WOMEN AS MANAGERS: A REPLICATION AND BEYOND Dr. Ti Hsu, College of Staten Island, CUNY Dr. Nikolai Wasilewski, Pace University ABSTRACT This research replicates and extends the investigation of attitudes toward women as managers. The experimental group based upon a simulated business game environment and the control group based upon the real life experience were used to investigate three questions. How do male and female subjects perceive women as managers in the workplace? How do male and female subjects perceive the issue of women in management emotionally? How do male and female subjects view the paternity leave program? Results of the study indicate that perceptions about the first question are still widely apart between male and female subjects. Women, however, have stronger emotions attached to the underlying issue. Parental leave is hardly considered to be an issue at all. INTRODUCTION Gender and workplace equality have been closely interrelated, yet often controversial, issues in our society. In the 70s and early 80s, there was an increasing concern about women in management, both in the private and public sectors. This concern was primarily derived from the Civil Rights Acts of 1965 and the Women’s Liberation Movement as well as the proposed Equal Rights Amendment. As a result, a substantial number of research projects were undertaken to study this subject. In many studies, women were found to be discriminated against despite the fact that women were also found to be equipped with the same or similar qualifications required of men to occupy management level positions (Spence & Helmreich, 1983; Thomas, 1987). The inability of women to climb up the corporate ladder can be attributed to many factors. Some of those factors are closely related to how women are perceived. For example women generally have been perceived as too emotional to be fit for managerial positions (Nieva & Gutek, 1981; Nelson & Quick, 1985), too dependent, passive, and subjective and lacking skills in leadership, ambition and competitiveness (Nieva & Gutek, 1981; Kaufman & Richardson. 1982), being less assertiveness or less aggressiveness (Mathison, 1987; Frodi, Macaulay, and Thome, 1977). However, the attention paid to the underlying issue experienced a downward trend in the second half of the 80s, especially in the academic arena (Chusmir, Moore, & Adams, 1990). This downward trend is particularly significant in light of the fact that a number of developments were in the making. First, women have become a majority on our college and university campuses across the nation. Second, the number of female students majoring in business- related areas has reached more than 35% (see the U. S. Women’s Bureau, 1988, and the U. S. National Center for Educational Statistics, 1990, for more details). Third, on the business front, women comprise 40 percent of all executive, management, and administrative positions today as opposed to 26 percent in 1976 (New York Post, Aug. 26, 1991). Recently, the interest in the issue of women in management seems to have revived due to the release of a number of studies, which reexamined this subject. They include studies done by Murgai (3.991) on the promotion and evaluation process in the field of library and information science (LIS); by Frank (1988) to investigate perceptions of business major students toward women in management; by Bargain and Williams (1991) on sex stereotypes in the U. S. between 1972 and 1988; and by a researcher at the University of Southern California under the sponsorship of the Feminist Majority Foundation (New York Post, Aug. 26, 1991). The study funded by the Feminist Majority Foundation reveals that women only constitutes 2.6 percent of the top management positions among the Fortune 500 corporations in the U. S. “Women,” as the author indicates, “are still victims of an old-boy network and male ‘clubbiness’ that dominates corporate executive suites (New York Post, August 26, 1991: 7).” The findings of these studies are consistent with the findings of the majority of earlier studies in the 70s and early 80s. This consistency confirms the findings of a longitudinal study conducted by Dubno (1985), which relied on data collected in 1975, 1978, and 1983. Generally speaking, sex discrimination in today’s workplace is still pervasive despite the federal government’s effort to shatter the “glass ceiling” which blocks the advancement of women to management positions. Moreover, the issue of parental-leave seemed to have surfaced in the late 1980s. Four states including Rhode Island, Oregon, Minnesota, and Wisconsin enacted parental- leave laws during that period. On the national level, the Congress passed the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1990 but, later, failed to override it after a veto by the President. Several studies on parental-leave have been conducted. According to the preliminary results of a study (Wall Street Journal, August 9, 1990: B1), it uncovered that highly paid workers, who usually could afford to take unpaid time off, would be the principal beneficiaries from such a program. Lower income workers, on the other hand, normally would return to work as soon as situation allows them to do. Results of another study showed that the general public would turn their “back on men as principal parents” (Norman and Tedeschi, 1984: 39). Still Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 19, 1992 87 another study revealed that some companies expressed “outright hostility to the whole idea of paternity leave or benefit (Kreet, 1985: 218).t1 With the findings indicated in these studies, the parental- leave laws, like the issue of women in management, may become another controversial issue. It is the purpose of the present study to examine the issues of women in management and parental-leave. Specifically, the following research questions were investigated in this study. 1) How do male and female undergraduate business students perceive women as managers in workplace? 2) How do male and female undergraduate business students perceive the issue of women in management emotionally? 3) How do male and female undergraduate business students view the parental-leave laws? Answers to the above three questions are important because they should shed some light on the underlying issue for the decade of the 90s and beyond. METHODS Subjects The sample consisted of two subgroups for a total of 283 subjects (136 males and 147 females). Their age ranged from 18 to 45 with a mean of 22.67. The subjects of the experimental group were college seniors majoring in business and taking a capstone business policy course. There were 75 males and 77 females for a total of 152. The average age of this group was 22 years old ranging from 21 to 35. The second group, the control group, had 131 sophomores with 61 being males and 70 being females. They were randomly selected from those who were pre-business majors and who enrolled in an introductory course in accounting as one of their first business courses. The average age for this group was 18.76 years old with a high of 46 and a low of 17. There were several reasons to select business and pre- business majors as the subjects of this study. First, there are the first generation of college students born and raised in a period when attitudes and perceptions towards women were supposed to experience drastic changes in a more gender- equal society. Second, being business and pre-business majors, the majority of them would likely embark their career in the private industry, where the female employees have been discriminated the most. Third, today’s business major students will be tomorrow’s business managers. Hence, their attitudes and perceptions and the experience of the experimental group in the capstone business policy course would affect their behavior as well as the way they would think and treat the opposite sex. The results of this study using business undergraduates, as subjects should offer some foresights as to what direction the workplace equality may head into in 1990s. Instruments Women as Managers Scale (WAMS) is a seven-point Likert scale (1 being strongly disagree and 7 being strongly agree) instrument. It was developed by Peters, Terborg, and Taynor (1974) during the heydays of the women’s movement. They are a total of 21 items in the instrument to measure collectively the opinion and attitude of each subject toward women in management positions. Internal consistency for the 21-items of the WAMS instrument in this study was tested and found to be 0.92. They are four items pertinent to parental leave and were piggybacked toward the end of the WAMS instrument to form an expanded WAMS instrument. Like the WAMS instrument, a seven-point scale was used in those four items. They were designed to measure the attitudes and perceptions of each subject toward parental leave and their likelihood of taking advantage of such benefits. These four items are 1) Maternity leave is a good policy for women; 2) Paternity leave is lust as good a policy for men as maternity for women; 3) Companies should be encouraged to provide paternity leave for men; and 4) Picture yourself in a position, where you are a college graduate with a decent job and you are married with a newborn baby who will be coming home from the hospital. Will you definitely consider, or ask your “husband” to consider, taking a paternity leave, assuming such a leave is part of your company’s policy? The internal consistency test of the four items of the paternity care leave was found to be 0.82. Izard’s Differential Emotion Scale (DES) (9177) consists of 33 items scored on a five-point Likert scale. It postulates 11 fundamental human emotions: anger, contempt, disgust, fear, guilt, interest, joy, sadness, shyness, surprise, and doubt. This instrument was used in this research to measure a subject’s feeling and emotional state toward women in management and to check if there were any emotional differences between male and female subjects. Internal consistency for the 11 fundamental human emotions of the DES scale for this study was 0.94. Procedure At the outset of the semester, seniors in the business policy classes were teamed up with three- or four-person of mixed- sex per group. Each group acted as the top management level of a manufacturing company in a simulated business game environment. No members were assigned any designed roles within groups. The simulation lasted “three and a half years” or fifteen weeks-actual calendar time. As members of their top executive teams, they had to make business decisions involving the major functional areas of accounting, Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 19, 1992 88 finance, management, marketing, and production. To make the simulated environment reflect reality as much as possible, group discussions, group presentations, and peer evaluations among members of the same companies were an integral part of the course. In order that the data collected would reflect their honest opinion and/or true feeling about what was going on in their respective teams during the fifteen-week sessions, students were asked for their cooperation to candidly complete an instrument. Toward the end of the semester, a peer evaluation was conducted and included in the computation of the final grade. As part of this evaluation, but on separate sheets, the expanded version of WAMS and Izard’s DES scales were also administered to each subject. In addition, information on gender and age were also requested from each subject. Moreover, subjects were instructed that 1) they should base their responses upon their own experience in the simulation; 2) they were filling out the forms for future course improvements and group formations; 3) they should keep their responses anonymous; 4) responses to the DES instrument should be directed to the first 21 items of the expanded WAMS instrument; and 5) their responses to these two instruments were not part of their final grade. The same instruments, namely the expanded version of WAMS and DES, were also administered to participating sophomores under the control group in the last class of the same semester. To complete the instruments, they were instructed to use their own experience in the real world, or the experience of their relatives and/or friends. They were further told that their responses to the questionnaires were voluntarily and should be anonymous, since they had been selected to take part of a study. This may be the reason why only about 75% of the students in classes answered the questionnaires completely and the other 25% had either substantially incomplete items or elected not to respond at all. Analytical Techniques Aside from the general descriptive statistics, the BMDP’s discriminate analysis with its jackknifed procedure was employed to determine whether, and how, male and female subjects might have different attitudes towards and different feelings and emotions about women as managers in business. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was also utilized to detect main effects as well as interaction effects of sex (1: male; and 2: female) and of subsamples (1: experimental; and 2: control). RESULTS The basic descriptive statistics including means and standard deviations among the 25 items of the expanded version of WAMS for each of the two sampling subgroups and the pooled sample are displayed in Table 1. In reviewing Tables 1 and 2, one instantly notes that there is very little difference between the two sampling groups for both instruments. Knowing that data were collected for this study from two different Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 19, 1992 89 sampling groups, the results shown in above tables may be a little surprise and unexpected. Table 3 above presents the results of the expanded WAMS scale. It indicates that males and females indeed have different perceptions toward women as business managers. Their differences rest upon five variables. They are 1) the possibility of pregnancy does not make women less desirable employees than men (variable # 11); 2) problems associated with menstruation should not make women less desirable than men as employees (variable # 13); 3) women cannot be assertive in business situations that demand it (variable # 18); 4) women cannot be aggressive in business situations that demand it (variable # 21); and 5) maternity leave is a good policy for women (variable # 22). In addition, the model associated with the pooled sample identified one other variable (variable # 23), paternity leave is just as a good policy for men as maternity leave for women, as an important variable to separate male from female subjects. These five variables, namely, #11, #13, #18, #21, and #22, collectively were able to correctly classify 81.4% and 81.8% of the total subjects for the experimental and the control groups respectively into the groups where they actually belong. Those six variables identified by the model of the pooled sample rightfully discriminated 81.6% of all subjects into their respective groups. These correct classification rates are substantially higher than the probability associated with a random assignment, which would have been 0.48 and 0.52 for males and females for both sampling groups. Six DES variables, as shown in Table 4, were determined to be important variables in distinguishing male subjects from female subjects in terms of how they felt about the underlying issue regarding women. These six variables were joy, shame, anger, contempt, interest, and surprise. Again, the pooled sample model identified one additional variable, doubt, as an important variable between male and female subjects. A correct classification of 77.4% of the control group and 78.5% of the experimental group was achieved and attributed to these six DES variables. The pooled sample with seven important variables put 80.5% of the total subjects into their correct gender groups. Like the WAMS construct, the classification results are far better than results based upon a random sampling, which would have been 0.54 and 0.46 for male and female groups respectively. Results of MANOVA on WAMS and on DES are presented in Table 5. For main effects, gender was found to be statistically significant on each and every one of the expanded WAMS items (p<0.01) except item #25, whereas sampling, i. e., the two sampling groups, on WAMS was insignificant. Two- way interaction effects between sex and sampling were discovered not to be significant as well. The insignificance of the sampling on WAMS is in expected when we take into consideration of the similar results on means and standard deviations displayed in Table 1 pertinent to the two sampling groups. The results of the main effects of gender on WAMS from MANOVA as presented in Table 5 not only substantiate the results revealed by the discriminate analysis, but also furnish more insights of the differences between males and females. In other words, there were fundamentally different viewpoints between male and female subjects toward women as managers in business, with females holding more generally favorable opinions than their male counterparts. Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 19, 1992 90 The only surprise of Table 5 related to WAMS came from the last item, namely, item # 25. This is the only area where males and females agree upon each other by stating that they would not take, or encourage their spouse to take, the paternity leave to care for their newborn baby. The results of MANOVA on DES in Table 5 indicate that males and females differed with each other on four out of 11 emotional factors. They are interest, fear, joy, and doubt, and are statistically significant at 0.05 level. As expected, the individual effects of the sampling groups were detected to be insignificant. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS This study set out to investigate three major questions. The discussion to follow will cover each of the questions in its sequence presented earlier. Women’s positions in the workplace Results in general show that male subjects have different perceptions about women as business managers than female subjects. These different perceptions are strongly supported by the findings obtained from MANOVA, which reveals that gender is found to be statistically significant on all 21 items in WAMS. They are further reinforced by the findings from the discriminate analysis. In view of this finding and of the higher mean scores for female subjects as displayed in Table 1, it is fair to state that while females believe they can be good managers in the workplace, their male counterparts certainly do not believe so. Moreover, the discriminant analysis singled out four variables to separate males from females with regard to their perceptions about women as managers in business. Two of the variables including pregnancy and menstruation are related to physical and biological conditions of women. Two other variables covering one’s assertiveness and aggressiveness are associated with women’s leadership quality. More specifically, women are perceived by male subjects, regardless the sampling group they are associated with, to be less likely to take the leadership roles due to 1) their biological and physical conditions, and 2) a perception of their lack of leadership quality and/or sex role expectation. Women’s lack of leadership quality as perceived by male subjects in this study confirms many studies on female leadership, such as Frodi, Macaulay and Thome (1977), Nieva and Gutek (1981), Kaufman and Richardson (1982), and Forsyth and his associates (1985). With respect to sex role expectation, this findings here are consistent with findings of studies done by Kenady (1989), Spade and Reese (1991), and Mathison (1987). While there is no direct evidence to support a correlation between women’s biological and physical conditions and their ability to lead, Nelson and Quick (1985) found that women are in general viewed as too emotional to be in managerial positions. The findings related to the biological and physical conditions seem to support an indirect relationship between women’s emotions and their leadership role in the workplace. In short, women may still be the victims in today’s and tomorrow’s workplace and the road for women to shatter the “glass ceiling” and to reach corporate executive suites remains to be a tough one. Feelings and emotions The issue of feelings and emotions by males and females toward women as managers is perhaps the most confusing one and the most difficult one for which to draw conclusions. While there are some differences between male and female subjects in a number of emotional factors, the picture is by no means clear. This may certainly be an area for further research. Paternity leave Both male and female subjects have relatively favorable opinions and attitudes toward paternity leave. They also believe that companies should be encouraged to offer such a program. However, in both cases, female subjects tend to have stronger convictions than their male counterparts, as evidenced from the group means (5.56 v. 4.29 for item # 23, and 5.85 v. 4.19 for item # 24, for females and meals, respectively) displayed in Table 1 under the pooled sample. These favorable attitudes toward the paternity leave offer a clear signal to companies that, according to Kreett (1985), are less enthusiastic about the paternity leave, and may force them to reconsider their positions on this issue. When it comes to the question of whether they would actually take advantage of such a program for paternity care, the subjects, regardless of their sex, are much less sure about it. This is especially the case with male subjects than with female subjects (4.21 v. 4.92). In fact, this is the only item (item # 25), where MANOVA fails to show any main effect between male and female subjects. Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 19, 1992 91 This reluctance in general, and among male subjects in particular, supports the findings of Norman and Tedeschi (1984), who claimed the general public might turn their “back on men as principal parents (p.39).” Moreover, if we consider the experience in Sweden, where there exists a more liberal program on paternity care leave, we should not be surprised by the findings on this issue at all. This is simply because nearly all of those who take a baby care leave in Sweden are women (p. 18, Becker, 1991). It is interesting to note, however, that while female subjects would not encourage their (future) “husbands” to take advantage of the paternity leave, they do believe that paternity leave is a good policy lust as the maternity leave. They have a stronger conviction than their male counterparts about this paternity leave. This is why item # 23 of the expanded WAMS construct was found by MANOVA to be statistically significant at the 0.01 level in Table 5. Implications Like most of the studies in the 70s and early 80s and some of the more recent studies on women as managers in the workplace, such as Frank (1988), Chusmir, Moose and Adams (1990), Maugai (1990), Bargain and Williams (1991), and Spade and Reese (1991), this study uncovers similar findings. In other words, women are still not perceived to be strong business managers in the real world and will be a group likely subject to future discrimination. The importance of this study rests on probable future implications of the findings. First, undergraduate business majors were used as subjects of the study. They may be business major students of today, but will be business managers of tomorrow. Granted, their attitudes and perceptions about the business world in general may change as they become more mature. It is doubtful, however, that their attitudes and perceptions about women as managers in the workplace expressed in this study may go through a drastic change given the prevailing culture in the business world toward women does not appear to have changed much over the past 20 years. Second, data collected for this study came from two separate groups, one experimental and one control, of students, whose responses to the instruments were based upon two entirely different experiences. Yet, they both yielded almost identical results. The implication of the second point above is simple and straight forward: women may have come a long way to reach where they are today in the workplace, but they still have a long way to go before they can see the light at the end of the tunnel. Finally, as for the paternity leave, its time has yet to come. REFERENCES Becker, G. 5 (1991), “Working Women’s Staunchest Allies: Supply and Demand,” Business Weekly, December 12, 18 Bargain, D. J. & Williams, J. E. 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Table of Contents Volume 19, 1992 The Pedagogical Utility of a Management Simulation Game in a Business Policy Course Modeling Economic Environments in Business Simulations: Some Comparisons and Recommendations Experiential Learning and TQM Principles: Teaching Behavioral Science in a Business School The Use of Poster Presentations as a Final Project in the Business Policy Course The Device Business: A Management Simulation for Strategy Formulation The Advantages of Experiential learning in the Auditing curriculum A Framework for the Identification of Moderated and Mediated Performance consequences of Pedagogical Alternatives Simulating Qualitative Research Relating to Values and Lifestyle Segmentation A New Market Demand Model for Business Simulators Interactive Optimization Using the Method of Relative Improvement Preferences: Methodology and Empirical Evaluation The Service Trainer Simulation Benefits of Internet Computer Networks for ABSEL Members How Should We Measure Experiential Learning? An Assessment of Simulation Usage in Management Accounting Courses The Influence of Myers-Briggs Type and Group Dynamics on Simulation Performance Effective Leadership Behavior in the Desert Storm Arena: An Application of the Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model Installing and Consolidating Work-Team Values: The Effects of a Multicultural Outdoors Experiential Program Key Determinants and Decision performance in a Business Simulations and Experiential Learning environment Multi-Cultural Experiential Learning: A Computer Simulation in Indonesia Attitudes Toward and Emotions Related to Women as Managers: A Replication and Beyond Scenario Approach to Simulating Consumer Expenditures: A Cross-Cultural Analysis Insights into Ethical Decision making Activities and Organizational Performance: A Management Simulation Analysis of College Students and Managers Evaluating a Business Simulation Program for Joint Venture Negotiation and Management Teaching Business Interviewing Strategies with an Experiential Approach Cooperative Learning Across the Business Curriculum Modeling Total Quality Elements into a Strategy-Oriented Simulation Teaching Business Decision making using a Simulator Extending the Educational Utility of a Simulated Competition within the Confines of an Established Undergraduate Marketing Curriculum Expert Systems Versus Traditional Methods for Teaching Accounting Issues Confidence Extremes Diminish Quality Performance in a Total Enterprise Simulation Can Ethics Be Taught? A Simulation Tests a Traditional Ethics Pedagogy Through The Looking Glass, Inc.: Organizational Climate Research as Experiential Pedagogy The use of Cluster Analysis for Business Game Performance Analysis Power and Ethnicity: An Experiential Learning Exercise (How to Sensitize Students to Diversity) Directed Development of Critical and Creative Thinking Skills for Case Analysis Implementing Total Quality Management in a Computerized Business Simulation Product Quality in Business Simulations Use of Simulation for Ethics Education in Management Satisfying the University's Customers through Total Quality Management Instruction: A Case Study Personality Characteristics and Group Performance in Total Enterprise Simulations Concepts of Interval Estimation and Quality Control Charts via Computer Simulated Sampling An Examination of the Effect of Team Cohesion, Player Attitude, and Performance Expectations on Simulation Performance Results The Effectiveness of Inventory Management and Production Scheduling Training in a Total Quality Management Environment Peer Group Indicators of the External Validity of Business Games: A five-year Longitudinal Study Political Strategies and Personal Actions Does Practice make Perfect? Observations on Simulation Trial The Use of A Non-Business Computer Simulation to Teach Marketing Management BankPro Commercial Bank Simulation The Production Game Pursuing Excellence: Work Strengths, Assets and relevant Values (An Exercise) Test of a Short Outward Bound Experience for College Students What is it that we want Student To Learn? Using Two TQM Philosophies when Playing Blackjack The Lagged Effects of Decision Variables on Financial Performance Measures Used in Two business Simulations The Development of an Experiential Exercise for Career Planning and Effective Job search Performance Measuring Quality in Management of Business Pedagogy Exploring Quality and Productivity Improvement: Using and Experiential Process Toward a Generalized Architecture for Intelligent Reactive Management Systems The Quality Game TQX: Using Expert Systems to Improve Training in Total Quality Management A Simulation of the Effect of the Medicaid Payment Lag on the Financial Position of Community Pharmacies The Use of a Board of Directors to Evaluate and Validate Decisions in a Competitive Graduate Management Simulation Course The Impact of Academic Dishonesty on Business Simulations and Experiential Learning Activities Picture Project: An Experience of Icebreaking and/or Decision-Making An Effective Role-playing Exercise for Teaching Requisite TQM Supervisory Attitudes/Behavior Computerized Management Simulations and Some Correlates of Students' Satisfaction The Timing and Stability of Reactions to Market Structure in a Single Player Simulation Environment A Graphics Application Extension for a Simulated Decision Support System Environment Aspects of a Group Project Utilizing Actual Business data and a Computerized Accounting System The Role of Universities' Extended Learning Department in Assisting Organizations Implement Total Quality Management A three-dimensional Learning Experience to Develop Total Quality Management Skills Estimating Quality Costs by Computer Simulation Applications and Examples of Quality Control Software Assessing Business Pedagogy A Demonstration of an Experiential Process for Exploring Quality and Productivity Improvement Processes An Action-Ethics Dilemma: A Demonstration Org Sim Jr.: A 2-3 Hour Version of the 2-Day Blanchard/Murrell Organization Simulation Building Buildings: An Experiential Exercise in Organizational Structure, Communication, Leadership and Group Dynamics Expert Systems for Organization Design: A Demonstration A Demonstration of Product Quality in a Business Simulation: Version 2 of CEO Two Revolutions, Total Quality Leadership, and the Baldy: The Story of Milliken Total Quality after the Award - The Xerox Story Building a Competitive Advantage through Customer Satisfaction and Reengineering Human Resource Planning: Managing the Only Renewable Resource for a Competitive Advantage Using Simulations to Teach International Issues: An analysis of the Multinational Management Game's Learning Environment Quality Function Deployment: A Tutorial Care and Nurturing of Teams Making a Good Thing Better: Adding TQM to Participative management Empowering Organizations to Redesign and Transform Themselves - Eastman Chemical Using Simulations in Field Management Development of an International Life Insurance Company Reinforcing the TQ Environment via Simulation Transforming a Business College into a Total Quality College