A MODEL FOR DEVELOPING STUDENT SKILLS AND ASSESSING MBA PROGRAM OUTCOMES THROUGH OUTDOOR TRAINING Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 17, 1990 25 A MODEL FOR DEVELOPING STUDENT SKILLS AND ASSESSING MBA PROGRAM OUTCOMES THROUGH OUTDOOR TRAINING Paul F. Buller, Gonzaga University Glenn M. McEvoy, Utah State University ABSTRACT The recent Porter and McKibbin (1988) report has given greater impetus to the concern that MBA students are not well prepared in behavioral skills such as leadership and interpersonal relations. This paper presents a model for assessing and developing the behavioral skills of MBA students through the application of assessment center and outdoor management training technologies. The benefits and limitations of the model are discussed. Ever since the publication of Mintzberg’s (1975) landmark study, which criticized management education for its lack of attention to behavioral skills, there has been a growing interest among business educators in developing effective interpersonal and leadership skills among students. Indeed, critics of higher education in general, and business education in particular, have argued for a greater emphasis on competency or outcome-based measures of the educational process (Grant et al, 1979). While there exists some agreement on the specific skills to be developed, there is still considerable debate on the appropriate methods for developing and measuring these skills. This paper presents a novel approach for developing and assessing behavioral skills among MBA students. The approach is based on the learning model proposed by Whetten and Cameron (1984) adapted to the outdoor environment. Identification of Skill Areas In 1976, the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) launched its Outcomes Measurement Project,’ which identified 90 skills and personal characteristics (SAPC’s) intended as outcomes of a sound business education. These 90 SAPC’s were later refined to include: information gathering and problem analysis, decision making, planning and organizing, leadership, delegation and control, written communication, oral communication and presentations, and disposition to lead (AACSB, 1984). To date, the AACSB has continued to refine an assessment center methodology for valid measurement of these skills, but has not focused on the methods for developing them (AACSB, 1987). Perhaps the greatest recent impetus for improving the behavioral skills of business students was provided by the Porter and McKibbin (1988) report. This report, the culmination of an intensive study of American business school education, concluded that “business schools, for all their changes in the last 25 years, have not made much progress in developing students leadership and interpersonal skills” (p. 65). Specifically with respect to the MBA curriculum, both academics and business executives who responded to the study, indicated that greater emphasis should be placed on developing the following skills: analytical, computer, decision making, initiative, leadership/ interpersonal, oral communication, planning/organizing, risk taking, and written communication. The Development of Behavioral Skills The methods by which behavioral skills can be developed in business students have received considerably less attention than skill assessment. The AACSB (1984) approach is based on assessment center technology. Presumably, skill acquisition will occur through the student’s course work (which will include more qualitative/behavioral skills Courses) and through feedback provided in the assessment center process. However, details of how this type of program would work have yet to be determined. One training technique that has proven successful in developing management skills in industry is behavior modeling training (BMT) (Burke & Day, 1986). Supporting evidence in academic settings has been provided by McEvoy (1989). BMT is based upon social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), and involves four steps: 1) presentation and discussion of learning points for dealing with a specific management situation, 2) observation of a “model correctly demonstrating the learning points, 3) role play of a similar situation with feedback on performance, and 4) provision for transfer of learning to the work setting. A popular approach for developing management skills in academia has been proposed by Whetten and Cameron (1984). Their model, based on social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), and incorporating some elements of BMT, identifies five components of the ‘earning process: 1) Skill pre-assessment -- to assess participants current level of knowledge and skill competence. 2) Skill learning --to teach correct principles and present the rationale for specific behavioral guidelines. 3) Skill analysis -- to provide examples of appropriate and inappropriate skill performance, and to analyze behavioral guidelines and why they work. 4) Skill practice -- to practice the behavioral guidelines and adapt general prescriptions to personal style; to receive feedback and support for trying new behaviors. 5) Skill application -- to transfer learning to real life situations and foster on-going personal development. Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 17, 1990 26 Another skills development approach that is gaining increased popularity in industry is outdoor management skills training (OMST). OMST consists of a series of sequenced structured activities conducted in an outdoor environment. These activities are designed to build trust, and develops skills in supportive communication, problem solving, decision making, team building, risk taking and planning (see Lang, 1984, for a good overview of these activities). Most OMST programs include a debriefing session immediately following a particular outdoor activity, which allows participants to reflect on their feelings, experiences, and learning’s from the activity. In addition, many programs combine conceptual material with the outdoor experiences in the form of lecturettes. There is some preliminary self-report evidence that OMST can improve participants’ behavioral skills (McEvoy & Buller, 1989). Assessment of Behavioral Skills With the increased attention to enhancing the behavioral skills of business students, educators have been experimenting with different methods for measuring skills. The AASCB (1984) has focused on measurement using a modified application of assessment center technology. Bigelow (1983) and McEvoy and Cragun (1986-1987) have also concentrated on skills measurement, using action skills testing procedures. These efforts suggest that reliable and valid measurement procedures can be established. A Model for Developing and Assessing Skills for MBAs We propose a novel approach to skill development and assessment based upon OMST and assessment center technologies. The proposed model will be applied to an MBA student population, but could be adapted to an undergraduate business student population as well. The conceptual framework of the program is based on Whetten and Cameron’s (1984) five stage learning model. Our proposed program consists of four phases incorporating each of the five stages of the Whetten and Cameron model. The program outline, shown in Figure 1, is described below. Phase I - Needs analysis The purpose of this phase is to obtain baseline data regarding the entering MBA students behavioral skills. Entering first year students would be required to attend a 5- day orientation and assessment session nor to the start of their course work. Students would be given behavioral skills tests upon their arrival at campus (for examples of behavioral skills exams, see AACSB, 1987; Bigelow, 1983; McEvoy & Cragun, 1986-87). Other competency tests could be given in technical or functional skill areas as well (e.g., computers, finance, marketing). In addition, students would be given conceptual information and behavioral guidelines for specific skills to be developed in the program. The behavioral skills testing and presentation of conceptual material, as well as the usual program orientation would cover a period of about 5 days. Phase II - Outdoor Phase Immediately following the needs analysis phase, students would participate in a 3-5 day outdoor management skills training program. The program would be a required, for- credit class for all entering students. The purpose of this phase is to continue the needs assessment and to provide a vehicle for students to practice and apply the conceptual material covered in the previous phase. The outdoor phase would consist of a series of structured activities or “initiatives” designed to develop the skills introduced in the needs assessment phase. Students would participate in these initiatives in groups of 6-10 people. We have found that some of the concepts or skills that lend themselves to outdoor training include: understanding self, risk taking, supportive communication, diagnosing and solving performance and interpersonal problems, decision making, planning and organizing, and building effective teams. Following each outdoor initiative, students would be asked to reflect and write in a “learnings log” on what happened, how they felt about it, what they learned, and what they intend to do differently based on the learning. Then a “debriefing” discussion would be held with the group to process key feelings, learnings, and applications. In addition, each participant would be observed throughout the outdoor program by a trained observer (second year MBA student or faculty). Observers would record observations on specifically designed behavioral skills checklists. They would then summarize the information and provide feedback to the student in a private session near the end of the outdoor phase. On the final day of the outdoor phase, students would develop a specific action plan to transfer the learning to their relevant environment (e.g., university and/or work). The action plan would include a personal development plan to be completed by the end of the MBA program. The basis for the action plan would be: 1) the results of the needs assessment completed in Phase I, 2) the learning logs completed by the student during the outdoor session, and 3) the observations of the outdoor assessors. Phase III - MBA Program The purpose of this phase is to provide an environment for skill practice and application, and to accomplish the students personal skill development plan. Each student would be assigned an advisor who would review the student’s personal development plan, and suggest course work and other experiences that would foster development of the particular skills. For example, if the plan involved a goal to become better at oral communication, the student would be encouraged to take a course in public speaking. and to seek opportunities in other classes, and outside the classroom, to develop that skill. Although the advisor would be available to the student for consultation throughout the year, a formal advising session would be held at the end of the first year to review progress on the personal development plan, to revise it if necessary, and to add additional goals if appropriate. Also, at the end of their first year, students would be trained to serve as assessors for the outdoor phase for incoming students. This would be a required, for-credit component of the MBA program. The training in effective observation would itself be an important skill component of the program. Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 17, 1990 27 Phase IV - Post-MBA Assessment At the end of the second year of the MBA program, students would again be given a series of behavioral skills tests, as well as a final assessment in the outdoor setting. This, session would be a for-credit requirement. The test results and the observations of the assessors would be used to measure behavioral skills outcomes. Differences between pre- and post-assessments would be used as a measure of the value added’ of the MBA program. DISCUSSION Potential Benefits The potential benefits of this proposed approach to skills development and measurement include the following: 1) The program is integrated into the MBA curriculum. The needs analysis, outdoor program, and the post-MBA assessment are elements of a required course for all MBA students. In addition, the MBA (and university) curriculum, as well as the many extra curricular activities around the campus and community, serve as environments in which students can practice and apply skills toward the fulfillment of their personal development plan. 2) The program is individualized to a particular student’s needs. The needs assessment and outdoor phases help the student identify skills strengths and weaknesses. The student then constructs an action plan to build on strengths and to improve in weak areas. Since the plan is individualized and developed by the student, he/she is likely to have more ownership and, thus, more commitment to accomplishing the plan. 3) The program is based on Sound learning theory. The learning model of Whetten and Cameron (1984) is adapted from social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), which has been shown to be an effective model for developing behavioral skills in industrial settings. 4) The outdoor model is unique and apparently effective in developing skills. It provides a medium in which a) assessment of behavioral skills can occur, b) students can experiment with and practice new behaviors, and c) students can have an enjoyable learning experience. 5) The program allows for reliable and valid assessment of MBA program outcomes with respect to behavioral skills development. Limitations and Constraints As with any program, there are some potential limitations. These include the following: 1) The program assumes a flexible MBA curriculum. If the personal development plan is to be a useful vehicle for skill practice and acquisition, the MBA program must be flexible enough to allow the student to select thc courses and other experiences that will most benefit him or her. One way to overcome this limitation is to allow students to select course work outside the Business School. In addition, advisors must consider the entire campus and community for learning opportunities. For example, a particular student may accomplish his or her personal development plan by joining clubs, participating in civic organizations, volunteer work, or other non-academic activities. 2) The program cannot assess all behavioral skills. In this regard it would be important for the program designers to identify those skills that appear to be critical (see, AACSB, 1984, or Porter & McKibbin, 1988, for useful lists). Next, the methodology used for developing skills (e.g., experiential, outdoor, lecture) may determine which skills can reasonably be developed. Some methods are better suited for teaching some skills than others. 3) The costs of the program and the resources of the business school are also limiting factors. However, some of the costs could be absorbed through a creative revision of the curriculum. For example, most MBA programs offer a course in organizational behavior. This course could be adapted to fit the program outlined in this paper. Instead of one course covering a quarter or semester, the course would simply be divided into three parts covering 1) the initial outdoor training session, 2) the observer training and observation of entering students at the end of the first year, and 3) the post-MBA assessment in the outdoor environment. Faculty interest and skill in this area is also a key limiting factor. There needs to be sufficient administrative and faculty support as well as a critical mass of faculty whose expertise is behavioral skill building, and the use of the outdoor environment as a training medium. However, the broader campus and community may have ample untapped resources. There are many educational opportunities for students outside the business school, and for that matter, outside the classroom. 4) A particular limitation may be the lack of expertise or facilities for outdoor training. Although this may seem to be a formidable obstacle, there are a number of schools and organizations involved in OMST that could provide consultation. Faculty with group facilitation skills would find that their skills would transfer quite readily to the outdoor environment. In our experience, many useful outdoor initiatives can be structured (even on campus) at relatively little cost. DISCUSSION In summary, there has been much criticism over the past two decades regarding the lack of attention paid by business educators to the behavioral skills of students. While there has been some progress in identifying critical behavioral skills and developing methods to measure the outcomes of business school programs, relatively little progress Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 17, 1990 28 has been made on the methods for developing these skills in the curriculum. This paper has presented a model that incorporates assessment center and outdoor management training approaches to skill development and assessment in MBA programs. Although the model remains to be tested empirically, it clearly is consistent with the mandate of the Porter and McKibbin (1988) report - to improve students’ behavioral skills. REFERENCES American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business. (1984), Outcome Measurement Project: Phase II Interim Report. St. Louis: AACSB. American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business. (1987), Outcome Measurement Project: Phase III Report. St. Louis. Bandura, A. (1977), Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bigelow, J. (1983), “Teaching Action Skills: A Report from the Classroom, Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal, 8(2), 28-34. Burke, M., and Day, R. (1986), A Cumulative Study of the Effectiveness of Management Training,” The Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 232-245. Grant, G., Elbow, P., Ewens, T., Gamson, 1., Kohli, W., Newmann, W., Olesen, V., & Riesman, D. (1979), On Competence: A Critical Analysis of Competency-based Reforms in Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass. Kolb, D., Rubin, U, & McIntyre, J. (1971), Organizational Psychology: An Experiential Approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Lang, J. (1984), “The Wilderness Lab, Training and Development Journal, 38(5), 58-68. McEvoy, G. (1989) An Experimental Comparison of Two Approaches to the Development of Management Skills”, In Hoy. F. (Ed.) academy of Management Best Papers Proceedings, 127-131. McEvoy, G., & Buller, P. (1989), “Evaluation of an Outdoor Management Skills Training Program,” Working paper. McEvoy, G., & Cragun, J. (1986-87), Management Skill Building in an Organizational Behavior Course,’ The Organizational Behavior Teaching Review, 11(4), 60-73. Mintzberg. H. (1975), The Managers Job: Folklore or Fact,” Harvard Business Review, 53(4), 49-61. Porter, L., & McKibbin, L. (1988), Management Education and Development: Drift or Thrust into the 21st Century? New York: McGraw-Hill. Whetten, D., & Cameron, K. (1984), Developing Management Skills, Glenview, 11: Scott, Foresman, and Company. Table of Contents Volume 17, 1990 The Impact of Decision Support Systems on the Effectiveness of Small Group Decisions - Revisited The Relationship Between Financial Performance and Other Measures of Learning on a Simulation Exercise Use and Effectiveness of an Analogy-Based Expert System Suggestions for Computerized Business Authors Dealing with Power: An Experiential Exercise Using Movie and Personal Diary Analysis Techniques A Model for Developing Student Skills and Assessing Outcomes Through Outdoor Training Computer-Aided Exercises Versus Workbook Exercises as Learning Facilitator in the Principles of Marketing Course An Exposition of Guilford's Si Model as a Means of Diagnosing and Generating Pedagogical Strategies in Collegiate Business Education Formal Planning and Simulation Team Performance: A Cross Sectional Approach Cases: Real Organizations in Real Time in the Classroom An Empirical Investigation of the Internal Validity of Marketing Simulation Game An Empirical Evaluation of the Pedagogical Value of Playing a Simulation Game in a Principles of Marketing Course Factors Affecting Effective Teaching of Strategic Planning: Some Preliminary Evidence An Experiential Exercise for Learning About the Relationship Between Organizational Form & the Project Management Process Accounting Communication Skills can be Taught in the Auditing Course Modeling Cost Functions in Computerized Business Simulation: An Application of Duality Theory and Sheppard's Lemma A Life Cycle Analysis of Decision Making for a Strategic Management Team What's the Problem? A Dynamic Model for Teaching Problem Solving Skills Experientially International Currency Fluctuations: Money$im, A Simulation Superstores: A Specialized Retailing Simulation Within a Specialized Marketing Curriculum Factors Affecting Student Perceptions of Learning in a Business Policy Game VC + EL = VL The Name Game: An Experiential Exercise in Intergroup Relations The Effects of Experiential Accounting Work Experience on Student Performance in Intermediate Accounting Courses The Results of Using the Experiential Activity Group Performance Evaluation in a Business Policy Setting Using a Legal Database to Describe the Legal Environment of Marketing (and Business) Matching Environmental Uncertainty and Organizational Configuration An Instructional Computer Simulation of Tampering in QC Executive Evaluation of Student Learning in the Looking Glass Simulation Group Personality Composition and Total Enterprise Simulation Performance An Expert System for Selecting Analytical Techniques for Analyzing Marketing Research Data Effects of Cognitive Styles on Responses in an In-Basket Simulation A Psychometric Analysis of Kolb's Revised Learning Style-Inventory Selecting and Developing Experiential Exercises Using Movies Application of a Real-World Strategic Management Model in the Classroom Demand Equations which Include Product Attributes Consumption as the Objective in Computer-Scored Total Enterprise Simulations The Effects of Decision Format and Evaluation on Simulation Performance, Decision Time, and Team Cohesion The Effects of Computer Related Assignments on Student Performance in Business Administration The Money Game: A Dynamic Simulation Including Random Shocks for Money and Banking Courses Methods for Evaluating Performance on Business Simulations: A Survey The Effects of Synergogy on the Policy Course: Significant Improvements in Student Learning and Teacher Evaluation Conditions and Outcomes of Trust in a Two-Person Bargaining Exercise Bankgame Enhancing Computer Business Simulation with the Use of VGA Graphics An Experiential Approach to Entrepreneurship An Advanced Simulation Method (ASM) for Multiple Objective Problems The Influence of Experiential learning Techniques on Student Recognition of Non-Primary Learning Styles Negotiating Mergers and Acquisitions: A Cocktail Napkin Approach Identification of Unintended Effects in Experiential Laboratory Exercises An Experimental Comparison of Paper and Pencil and Computer Aided Decision Support Tools Porting a Simulation from the IBM World to the Macintosh World A Transaction Cost Analysis of Experiential Learning The Development of Experiential Exercises for Courses in Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management The Assessment Center as and Experiential Classroom Exercise Pricing Strategy Algorithms for Playing Business Simulations Organizational Structures for International Operations: An Experiential Activity Simulation Emphasis in the Business School Capstone Course An Integrated Approach to Computerizing the Business Curriculum Cross-Cultural Business Negotiations Exercise Organizational Socialization and Gender Differences in Students at Work Understanding Student Work Experience: A Content-Analytic Approach Introducing Executive MBA Programs with Management Games An Analysis of Improvement in Business Decision Outcome with Sequential Use of Two Simulation Games Teaching Business Policy Utilizing Mass Lecture and Individual Case Labs Potholes Along the Road to Evaluating Learning Outcomes: The Case of Outdoor Management Training Experiential Learning for Interior Design Students: Using CADD, Lotus 1-2-3, and Wordperfect Cognitive Learning Using a Computer-Based, Qualitative Interactive Business Simulation Sex Discrimination: Does the Woman get the Job or Does the Best Man Win? A Search for Visual Aids to Support Experiential Learning Through the 1990's An Experimental Analysis fo the Effectiveness of Student Role-Playing in Sales Training How to Have Students Learn from their Term Projects Self-Evaluation Exercise (SEE): An Assessment of Class Contribution A Study of the Influence of Team Formation on Attitudes and Performance in Management Games A Hardware Based CIM Simulation Laboratory Model Test Substance Abuse in Organizations Micro Computer Training Models Teaching Forecasting, Cash Budgeting and Inventory Model Building Using SBTools A Comparison of the Effects of Experiential Learning Activities and Traditional Lecture Classes An Adjunct Writing Instruction Assistant, The Computer; With an Illustration Classroom Software for ABC Analysis Utilizing Information Processing Technology to Enhance the Business Policy Simulation Experience Progressive Cases Realistic Job Previews Vs. Traditional Job Previews: Experiencing the Differences and Understanding the Consequences Investment Analysis Using the Pragmatic Multiplier Approach A Computer Simulation Interface for Competitive and Firm Analysis Self-Assessment of Ethical Decision Making Predispositions Preparing Managers for Overseas Assignments An Inquiry into Japanese Marketing: Workshop on Teaching Japanese Marketing The Performance Appraisal Feedback Interview: A Role Play for Human Resources Management Teaching Counselor Selling techniques Using Experiential Techniques to Teach International Topics International Management Simulation Gaming: Current Status and Future Developments A Realism Comparison of Simulation Technologies/Methodologies A Time-Efficient Game to Illustrate Concepts Taught in Management Courses and Management Development Programs Teaching the Management of Technology The Concept of Face and the Applicability of Experiential Exercises in an Oriental Culture's