THE CONCEPT OF FACE” AND THE APPLICATION OF EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES IN AN ORIENTAL CULTURE Developments In Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 17, 1990 233 THE CONCEPT OF FACE” AND THE APPLICATION OF EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES IN AN ORIENTAL CULTURE EDITH C. YUEN, NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE VIVIEN LIM, NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE ABSTRACT The experiential exercise is a learning tool developed in the west to facilitate learning by making learners responsible for the learning process. Effective experiential learning depends to a considerable extent on the willingness of the learners to engage in self-disclosure and the degree of openness and trust existing amongst group members. This paper examines participants’ willingness to engage in self-disclosure in an oriental culture where "face" and the fear of “loss of face” are important considerations. The study was conducted in Singapore. INTRODUCTION A review of the literature shows that there ate a neither of elements and conditions essential for the effectiveness of the experiential. learning method (Laird, 1986; Hanson, 1981; Thayer, 1976). among the elements identified, one which is of particular relevance to facilitators using experiential exercises in the oriental context is self disclosure. Self- disclosure is an integral part of experiential learning as it is a precondition for building a climate of trust and openness in the class. By disclosing himself, the learner is actually building a climate, which encourages others to follow suit. While openness and willingness to engage in self disclosure are, to a certain extent, personal characteristics affected by the disposition of an individual, research by social and cultural anthropologists has shown that such traits are also affected by the culture of a society. Prominent in many oriental cultures is the concept of face”. Inched in the concept of face” is the assumption of a distinction between the "self known only to oneself or to those whom one is closely acquainted with” and the ‘self as one presents to ‘outsiders’. The concern about face’ in oriental cultures raises the question of participants’ willingness to engage in self-disclosure in experiential exercises. METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN A questionnaire on willingness to engage in self disclosure and the effectiveness of experiential learning was administered to 85 final-year students who were undergoing a Human Resource Management (HRM) course at the National University of Singapore. In the instrument, “willingness to disclose oneself” was measured by three items arranged in increasing degree of specificity and personal risk. Two aspects of “learning effectiveness were included: effectiveness in helping participants develop self- awareness and acquire new skills. Each aspect was measured by a direct question asking the respondents to assess the degree of effectiveness on a Likert-type scale. The relationships between willingness to disclose oneself and four independent variables were also explored. The four independent variables were: i) individual commitment to develop self-awareness; ii) group members’ willingness to disclose themselves; iii) the existence of a climate of trust and openness; iv ) the existence of support, empathy and understanding among group members. FINDINGS 1. While generally the students were “neutral” about disclosing non-threatening information about themselves, they more reluctant when this involved personal information. However, when disclosure entailed the risk of “losing face, the level of willingness was significantly lower. 2. Participants who perceived group members as being unwilling to disclose themselves tended to find experiential exercises ineffective as a learning tool. The reverse was true when group members were perceived to be open. 3. As for the relationship between individual willingness to disclose, and learning effectiveness, the findings showed that disclosure at the general level was adequate to achieve effectiveness in skill development. However, effectiveness in the development of self-awareness was significantly associated with individual willingness to disclose at the specific and sensitive levels. 4. All four independent variables: the willingness of group members to disclose themselves, the existence of a climate of trust and openness, the existence of a supportive group environment and individual commitment to self discovery, were found to be significantly related to individual willingness to engage in disclosure of a general and specific nature. However the relationships between the four independent variables and disclosure at the sensitive level were mixed. Apparently, a participant may be committed to self discovery or may find group members supportive and empathetic, but remains unwilling to engage in sensitive disclosure. CONCLUSION The study confirms that local participants in experiential exercises are generally reluctant to disclose themselves to others. This is particularly so when disclosure becomes either more specific or when it entails the risk of a loss of ‘ face”. Hence in conducting experiential exercises in cultures where face” and the fear of a loss of “face” are important considerations, facilitators should pay special attention to this issue. Based on the findings of the study, the paper proposes a number of ways to overcome this problem. Jenster P and Duncan D, (1986), "Creating a Context of Commitment", OBTR, 3:60-71. Laird D, (1986), Approaches to Training and Development, Wesley, 113-128. Thayer L (1976), 50 Strategies for Experiential Learning, UA Press. Table of Contents Volume 17, 1990 The Impact of Decision Support Systems on the Effectiveness of Small Group Decisions - Revisited The Relationship Between Financial Performance and Other Measures of Learning on a Simulation Exercise Use and Effectiveness of an Analogy-Based Expert System Suggestions for Computerized Business Authors Dealing with Power: An Experiential Exercise Using Movie and Personal Diary Analysis Techniques A Model for Developing Student Skills and Assessing Outcomes Through Outdoor Training Computer-Aided Exercises Versus Workbook Exercises as Learning Facilitator in the Principles of Marketing Course An Exposition of Guilford's Si Model as a Means of Diagnosing and Generating Pedagogical Strategies in Collegiate Business Education Formal Planning and Simulation Team Performance: A Cross Sectional Approach Cases: Real Organizations in Real Time in the Classroom An Empirical Investigation of the Internal Validity of Marketing Simulation Game An Empirical Evaluation of the Pedagogical Value of Playing a Simulation Game in a Principles of Marketing Course Factors Affecting Effective Teaching of Strategic Planning: Some Preliminary Evidence An Experiential Exercise for Learning About the Relationship Between Organizational Form & the Project Management Process Accounting Communication Skills can be Taught in the Auditing Course Modeling Cost Functions in Computerized Business Simulation: An Application of Duality Theory and Sheppard's Lemma A Life Cycle Analysis of Decision Making for a Strategic Management Team What's the Problem? A Dynamic Model for Teaching Problem Solving Skills Experientially International Currency Fluctuations: Money$im, A Simulation Superstores: A Specialized Retailing Simulation Within a Specialized Marketing Curriculum Factors Affecting Student Perceptions of Learning in a Business Policy Game VC + EL = VL The Name Game: An Experiential Exercise in Intergroup Relations The Effects of Experiential Accounting Work Experience on Student Performance in Intermediate Accounting Courses The Results of Using the Experiential Activity Group Performance Evaluation in a Business Policy Setting Using a Legal Database to Describe the Legal Environment of Marketing (and Business) Matching Environmental Uncertainty and Organizational Configuration An Instructional Computer Simulation of Tampering in QC Executive Evaluation of Student Learning in the Looking Glass Simulation Group Personality Composition and Total Enterprise Simulation Performance An Expert System for Selecting Analytical Techniques for Analyzing Marketing Research Data Effects of Cognitive Styles on Responses in an In-Basket Simulation A Psychometric Analysis of Kolb's Revised Learning Style-Inventory Selecting and Developing Experiential Exercises Using Movies Application of a Real-World Strategic Management Model in the Classroom Demand Equations which Include Product Attributes Consumption as the Objective in Computer-Scored Total Enterprise Simulations The Effects of Decision Format and Evaluation on Simulation Performance, Decision Time, and Team Cohesion The Effects of Computer Related Assignments on Student Performance in Business Administration The Money Game: A Dynamic Simulation Including Random Shocks for Money and Banking Courses Methods for Evaluating Performance on Business Simulations: A Survey The Effects of Synergogy on the Policy Course: Significant Improvements in Student Learning and Teacher Evaluation Conditions and Outcomes of Trust in a Two-Person Bargaining Exercise Bankgame Enhancing Computer Business Simulation with the Use of VGA Graphics An Experiential Approach to Entrepreneurship An Advanced Simulation Method (ASM) for Multiple Objective Problems The Influence of Experiential learning Techniques on Student Recognition of Non-Primary Learning Styles Negotiating Mergers and Acquisitions: A Cocktail Napkin Approach Identification of Unintended Effects in Experiential Laboratory Exercises An Experimental Comparison of Paper and Pencil and Computer Aided Decision Support Tools Porting a Simulation from the IBM World to the Macintosh World A Transaction Cost Analysis of Experiential Learning The Development of Experiential Exercises for Courses in Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management The Assessment Center as and Experiential Classroom Exercise Pricing Strategy Algorithms for Playing Business Simulations Organizational Structures for International Operations: An Experiential Activity Simulation Emphasis in the Business School Capstone Course An Integrated Approach to Computerizing the Business Curriculum Cross-Cultural Business Negotiations Exercise Organizational Socialization and Gender Differences in Students at Work Understanding Student Work Experience: A Content-Analytic Approach Introducing Executive MBA Programs with Management Games An Analysis of Improvement in Business Decision Outcome with Sequential Use of Two Simulation Games Teaching Business Policy Utilizing Mass Lecture and Individual Case Labs Potholes Along the Road to Evaluating Learning Outcomes: The Case of Outdoor Management Training Experiential Learning for Interior Design Students: Using CADD, Lotus 1-2-3, and Wordperfect Cognitive Learning Using a Computer-Based, Qualitative Interactive Business Simulation Sex Discrimination: Does the Woman get the Job or Does the Best Man Win? A Search for Visual Aids to Support Experiential Learning Through the 1990's An Experimental Analysis fo the Effectiveness of Student Role-Playing in Sales Training How to Have Students Learn from their Term Projects Self-Evaluation Exercise (SEE): An Assessment of Class Contribution A Study of the Influence of Team Formation on Attitudes and Performance in Management Games A Hardware Based CIM Simulation Laboratory Model Test Substance Abuse in Organizations Micro Computer Training Models Teaching Forecasting, Cash Budgeting and Inventory Model Building Using SBTools A Comparison of the Effects of Experiential Learning Activities and Traditional Lecture Classes An Adjunct Writing Instruction Assistant, The Computer; With an Illustration Classroom Software for ABC Analysis Utilizing Information Processing Technology to Enhance the Business Policy Simulation Experience Progressive Cases Realistic Job Previews Vs. Traditional Job Previews: Experiencing the Differences and Understanding the Consequences Investment Analysis Using the Pragmatic Multiplier Approach A Computer Simulation Interface for Competitive and Firm Analysis Self-Assessment of Ethical Decision Making Predispositions Preparing Managers for Overseas Assignments An Inquiry into Japanese Marketing: Workshop on Teaching Japanese Marketing The Performance Appraisal Feedback Interview: A Role Play for Human Resources Management Teaching Counselor Selling techniques Using Experiential Techniques to Teach International Topics International Management Simulation Gaming: Current Status and Future Developments A Realism Comparison of Simulation Technologies/Methodologies A Time-Efficient Game to Illustrate Concepts Taught in Management Courses and Management Development Programs Teaching the Management of Technology The Concept of Face and the Applicability of Experiential Exercises in an Oriental Culture's