USING PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPE TO ENHANCE NEGOTIATION SKILLS Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 13, 1986 39 USING PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPE TO ENHANCE NEGOTIATION SKILLS Alan R. Brown, Arizona State University Gail S. Chadwick, Arizona State University ABSTRACT The focus of this paper and the learning experience it describes is to teach skills necessary to engage in more effective negotiation using an alternative process to traditional positional bargaining. The process involves a basic methodology consisting of four major steps and guidelines for dealing with a number of difficult conditions. These methods are then integrated with the concept of psychological type. Through this experience participants focus on whether basic differences in the way individuals prefer to use mental processes, specifically the way they perceive and the way they make judgments, have a unique effect on their ability to learn and utilize effective negotiating skills. INTRODUCTION The most common form of negotiation, whether it concerns a contract, a business dispute, a family quarrel or settlements among nations, depends upon successively taking and then giving up a sequence of positions until a compromise is reached. This is referred to as positional bargaining - and while it serves some useful purposes, it fails to meet the basic criteria of producing agreements which are wise and durable. It further endangers an ongoing relationship and does not allow for efficiency in time and energy.(1) Given the above, the Negotiation Project at Harvard University has developed and continues to refine an alternative to positional bargaining which they refer to as principled negotiation. This process attempts to alter the typical dilemma that most parties in negotiation experience - - that of having to decide on which “game to play”, being “hard or soft”. It is also designed to result In wise, durable agreements which are arrived at efficiently and which do not endanger an ongoing relationship. The process involves a basic methodology consisting of four major steps and guidelines for dealing with a number of difficult conditions, i.e., when one side is more powerful, when one side won’t cooperate in the process, etc. Anecdotal literature abounds on the effectiveness of this process, however, it seems clearly evident that different attitudes and skills are called for here which would not be readily acceptable nor as easily learned by all those involved in conflict resolution. All too often, others with whom we come in contact do not reason as we reason, or do not value the things we value, or are not interested in what interests us. Many of these differences in behavior can be attributed to the logical result of a few basic differences in mental functioning.(2) These basic differences concern the way people prefer to use mental processes, specifically the way they perceive and the way they make judgments. Together, perception and judgment, which make up a large portion of people’s total mental activity, govern much of their outer behavior. Perception determines what people see in a situation and includes the processes of becoming aware of things, people, occurrences, and ideas. Judgment determines what they decide to do about it. It includes the processes of coming to conclusions about what has been perceived. Thus, it is reasonable that basic differences in perception or judgment should result in corresponding differences in behavior. Principled negotiation is a process which requires that participants do each of the following: .Separate the people from the problem .Focus on interests, not positions .Invent options for mutual gain .Insist on using objective criteria If people differ systematically in what they perceive and in how they reach conclusions, then it is to be expected that they will differ in their ability and willingness to learn this methodology.(3) Thus, the focus of this paper is to highlight an approach toward teaching the process based upon an awareness of the uniqueness of people and one which should result in more effective utilization of the technique. TRAINING DESIGN The approach consists of the steps which are listed below, followed by an elaboration on each: .Administration of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) to all participants. .An explanation of the concepts, goals, methodology and guidelines of the principled negotiation approach. .The presentation and processing of a small group exercise designed to highlight facilitating and inhibiting characteristics to this process. .An explanation of psychological types, Including theory and characteristics of each type. .The scoring, interpreting and processing of each participant’s MBTI. .The presentation and processing of a second small group exercise. MBTI The purpose of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is to make the theory of psychological types described by Carl G. Jung (1921/1971) understandable and useful in people’s lives. The essence of the theory is that much seemingly random variation in behavior is actually quite orderly and consistent, being due to basic differences in the way individuals prefer to use their perception and judgment. Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 13, 1986 40 The MBTI is based on Jung’s ideas about perception and judgment, and the attitudes in which these are used in different types of people. The aim of the MBTI is to identify, from self-report of easily recognized reactions, the basic preferences of people in regard to perception and judgment, so that the effects of each preference, singly and in combination, can be established and put to practical use. (4) The MBTI differs from many other personality instruments in these ways: .It is designed to implement a theory; therefore the theory must be understood to understand the MBTI. .The theory postulates dichotomies; there-. fore some of the psychometric properties are unusual. .Based on the theory, there are specific dynamic relationships between the scales, which lead to the descriptions and characteristics of sixteen “types”. .The type descriptions and the theory include a model of development that continues throughout life. .The scales are concerned with basic functions of perception and judgment that enter into almost every behavior; therefore, the scope of practical applications is very wide. Principled Negotiation It is beyond the scope of this paper to comprehensively review the goals and methods of this negotiation approach. Briefly, it involves the following: .A focus on collaboration rather than competition and/or compromise as a conflict resolving strategy. .A focus on the search for underlying interests, mutual benefits, numerous options, and the utilization of objective criteria. .Time, patience, rational skills, and people skills on the part of the participants. Small Group Exercises The small group exercise selected is the “Michael Anthony Game”, a simulation focusing on the effective exercise of power and influence.(5) This particular exercise was selected because it met the following criterion: .it can be utilized with a variable number of people .it can be completed in an appropriate length of time (30 minutes) .it didn’t require extensive background knowledge .it was highly motivational .it didn’t teach other concepts which would dilute its effect. The simulation involves an unstructured problem-solving exercise with specific guidelines. Groups are made up of five participants and an observer. At the end of the thirty minutes individuals are asked to fill out a questionnaire evaluating their group’s functioning and effectiveness. Observers do a similar task. Psychological Types The next activity is to present a lecturette on psychological types, including theory and characteristics of each type. Table 1 presents a model of the four preferences as postulated by Jung.(6) Table 2 elaborates on the affects of the four preferences. (6) According to theory, by definition, one pole of each of the four preferences is preferred over the other pole for each of the sixteen MBTI types. The preference on each Index is independent of preferences for the other three indices, so that the four indices yield sixteen possible combinations called “types”, denoted by the four letters of the preferences (e.g., ESTJ, INFP). In terms of the theory, people may reasonably be expected to develop greater skill with the processes they prefer to use than those they don’t prefer. If they prefer the extraverted attitude (E), they are likely to be more mature and effective in dealing with the world around them than with the introverted world of concepts and ideas. If they prefer the perceptive process of sensing (5), they are likely to be more effective in perceiving facts and realities than theories and possibilities, which are in the sphere Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 13, 1986 41 of intuition. If they prefer the judgment process of thinking (T), they are likely to have better developed thinking judgments than feeling judgments. And if they prefer to use judgment (J) rather than perception (P) in their attitude to the world around them, they are likely to be better at organizing the events of their lives than they are in experiencing and adapting to them. On the other hand, if a person prefers introversion, intuition, feeling, and the perceptive attitude (INFP), then the converse of the description above is likely to be true. Table 3 summarizes type and creative problem solving while Table 4 looks at the effects of the combination of perception and judgment. (4) Scoring, Analysis and Discussion Scoring of the MBTI takes place followed by a discussion of each person’s contributions and lack of same in the small group exercise. Observers also provide feedback. Part of the discussion is directed toward understanding how to maximize differences in preparation for the final part of the design, a second small group exercise. The clearest vision of the future comes only from an intuitive, the most practical realism only from a sensing type, the most incisive analysis only from a thinker, and the most skillful handling of people only from a feeling type. Success for any enterprise demands a variety of types, each in the right place. Opposite types can supplement each other in any joint undertaking. When two people approach a problem from opposite sides, each sees things not visible to the other. Unfortunately, they seldom see each other’s point of view. Too much oppositeness makes it hard for people to work well together. The best teamwork is usually done by people who differ on one or two preferences only. This much difference is useful, and the two or three preferences they have in common help them to understand each other and communicate. When extreme opposites must work or live together, an understanding of type does much to lessen the friction. Disagreement is less irritating when Smith recognizes that it would hardly be normal for Jones to agree. Jones is not being willfully contrary. He is simply being an opposite type, and opposite types can be tremendously useful to each other when given the chance. The lists below show some of the specific ways: Intuitives Need Sensing Types: To bring up pertinent facts To apply experience to problems To read the fine print in a contract To notice what needs attention now To have patience To keep track of essential details To face difficulties with realism To remind that the joys of the present are important Sensing Types Need Intuitives: To bring up new possibilities To supply ingenuity on problems To read the signs of coming change To see how to prepare for the future To have enthusiasm To watch for new essentials To tackle difficulties with zest To show that the joys of the future are worth looking for Feeling Types Need Thinkers: To analyze To organize To find the flaws in advance To reform what needs reforming To hold consistently to a policy To weigh ‘the law and the evidence’ To fire people when necessary To stand firm against opposition Thinkers Need Feeling Types: To persuade To conciliate To forecast how others will feel To arouse enthusiasm To teach To sell To advertise Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Exercises, Volume 13, 1986 42 CONCLUSION Almost every human experience involves either perception or judgment or both and is played out in the world of action or of ideas. Certainly this is even more true of negotiations. Given this an understanding of psychological type can help individuals: .To create a climate where differences are seen as interesting and valuable, rather than as problematic. .To learn the approaches that are most likely to earn agreement and cooperation from each type. .To select groups with sufficient diversity to solve group problems. .To resolve problems in a mutually beneficial way that previously would have been unresolvable. APPENDIX A THE MICHAEL ANTHONY GAME For this exercise, the large group should split into groups of five or six persons. One group will do the Michael Anthony Game while another group acts as observers -- in a fishbowl arrangement. The observers should use the Observer Rating Form and should, in addition to observing the total group, be responsible for observing one particular member of the inner group. Step 1. Each person playing the Michael Anthony Came ‘should take out $1 find place it In the center of the group. Step 2. Your group will have 30 minutes to decide by group consensus which two of your members are to receive this money. The following conditions must be adhered to: No more than two persons can receive this money. . One of these two persons must receive at least 75 percent of the total, the other person can receive no more than 25 percent of the total. . These persons must use the money for their own individual and personal satisfaction. They cannot, for example, offer to buy everyone drinks, or offer to split it up/return it to the group in any other form in the future. . The group must be able to state an agreed-upon set of criteria and rationale for their choice within the allotted time. Failure to adhere to these conditions will result in the forfeiture of all the money to the instructor/ session coordinator. This is a real exercise, not a game. Step 3. Observer’s feedback to partners (time: 10 minutes). Observers should meet with their partners and share their observations. The following guidelines will help to focus this feedback. . What styles did your partner use most often? Least often? Most effectively? Least effectively? . How did your partner react to styles used by others? How did others react to the styles used by your partner? Step 4. Inner group discussion (time: 20 minutes). After the individual feedback has been given, the inner group which played the game should reconvene and share their own impressions. Note: It is important that this discussion not become a rehashing of the group’s decision or lack of decision. The objective is to sharpen everyone’s understanding of how the various styles can be used effectively/ineffectively in an essentially win-lose situation. REFERENCES (1) Fisher, Roger and Ury, William, Getting To Yes, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1981). (2) Myers, Isabel B. and Myers, Peter B., Gifts Differing, (Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc., 1980). (3) Keirsey, David and Bates, Marilyn, Please Understand Me, (Del Mar: Gnosology Books LTD., 1984). (4) Myers, Isabel B. and McCaulley, Mary H., Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator, (Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc., 1985). (5) Kolb, David A., Rubin, Irwin M. and McIntyre, James M., Organizational Psychology: An Experiential Approach, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1979). (6) Hirsh, Sandra Krebs, Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in Organizations, (Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc., 1985). Table of Contents Volume 13, 1986 How to Use Microcomputers in Human Resource Management Courses What's My Line? An Exercise in Job Analysis, Description and Classification Relationships Between Team Cohesion Dimensions and Business Game Performance Four Factors Affecting Group Performance in Business Policy Simulations Enhancing Strategic Management Goal-Setting Skills in the Business Policy Course Using a Business Simulation in the Principles of Management Course - Learning Outcomes and Perceptions Personal Computers: Drexel's Experience Using Psychological Type to Enhance Negotiation Skills The Effects of Conflict Handling Styles on Negotiation Behavior: An Analysis of an Experiential Exercise An Experiential Test of Bargaining Decisions and Representation Self-Grading of Examination by Students, A Viable Alternative to Traditional Procedures Perceived Instructor Enthusiasm and Student Achievement An Experiential Approach to Teaching Subordinate-Oriented Communication Assessing the Effects of a Computerized Study Guide in Macroeconomic Principles: A Statistical Analysis A Sales Management Simulation for the PC an Integrative Tool for the Sales Management Course Teaching Re-evaluation of Salespersons Through the Use of a Simulation Game A Test of Student Performance and Attitudes and Performance Under Varying Game Conditions Developing and Testing Airways: A Marketing Simulation Experiential Learning Revisited: Some Thoughts on Designing More Adaptive Management Education Programs Developing the Competencies of Creativity and Accurate Self-Assessment Self-View and Norms: Some Longitudinal Laboratory Results Strategic Planning with an Experiential Case The ABSEL Research Consortium: Preliminary Steps and Position Papers An Analysis of ABSEL Conference papers (1974-1985) The Creation and Operation of a Data-base System for ABSEL Research Funding for a Research Consortium on Simulation and Experiential Learning Simulation - Indoctrination or Learning The Dilemma In Evaluating Classroom Innovations Personality Variables on Group Cohesion, Team Participation and Total Learning Justifications for and Problems in Developing and Using Computerized Experiential Activities Management Competency Models and the Life-Long Learning Project: What Role for ABSEL External Validity of Business Games Restructuring the University - An Experiential Exercise The Surrogate Class Exercise Images of Effectiveness: A Classroom Exercise The Algebran Industry: A Tutorial Framework Another Chance: A Multi-Leveled, Macro Business Game for Micro-Computers A Water Quality Management Simulation Game Acquisitions? Divestitures? Progress Report on a Conglomerate Game Enterprise: A Multi-Purpose Management Development Simulation Marketer: A Microcomputer Simulation in a High Tech Industry A Pedagogical Analysis of Alternative Tax Elections for Exploration Costs in the Mining Industry Using of Multiple Microcomputers Application Programs to Teach Fundamental Business Concepts and Practices Demonstrating the Role of Simulation in Strategic Operations Planning: A Case Study in Bank Check Processing Location Analysis The Subjective Side of the Decision Support System: A Pitfall for the Panacea A Group-Based Procedure for Revealing Judgmental Heuristics and Biases An Experiential Exercise in Bayesian Decision-Making Values for Selected Parameters in Physical Distribution Simulation and Games Computerized Business Management Simulations for Tyros The Management Decision Laboratory at New York University An Example: The Use of Management Games on Microcomputers by Computer Novices Enhancing Mainframe Simulation Via Microcomputers: Designing Decision Support Systems Integrating Personal Computers Into a Course as a Decision Support Tool A Decision Support System for Capital Funds Forecasting Performance and Attitudinal Affects of a Decision Support Package in a Business Game Using the Real World: Interviews with Woman Mangers The Cooperatively-Authored Student Handbook International Buying: An Experiential Exercise The Research/Teaching Interface: Turning a Pretest into an Experiential Exercise Building Microcomputer Business Simulations Simulation with Discrete and Continuous Mathematical Modeling An Interpolation Approach to Developing mathematical Functions for Business Simulations The Design of Simulation Models Using Thought Organizers The Assessment Center as a Teaching/Learning Device An Approach to Meeting the AACSB Guidelines for Introducing Skills and Personal Characteristics (SACs) Using an Interclass Simulating and Role-Playing Pedagogy Experiential Learning about the World of Work: A Program for Primary and Secondary School Educators Assessment of Relevant Personal Characteristics of Potential Entrepreneurs