ASSESSMENT OF SEX STEREOTYPES WITHIN TASK GROUP SIMULATION Exploring Experiential Learning: Simulations and Experiential Exercises, Volume 5, 1978 44 ASSESSMENT OF SEX STEREOTYPES WITHIN TASK GROUP SIMULATION Jerald R. Smith University of Louisville School of Business INTRODUCTION While considerable rhetoric and research continues on the relative merits of gaming and experiential learning, many academicians involved with these techniques have settled back into a comfortable daily use of a favorite game or experiential device. Only by chance did the writer overhear a remark between two students which lead to this paper. A female student remarked to a male student, “I’ll keep all the records and minutes for our team if you guys make all the decisions.” Is this type of behavior common? Do the males on a team expect the female(s) to be responsible for that part of the team’s duties that is perceived as “women’s work?” Do the females on a team succumb to sex stereotyping? If this phenomenon does exist, as educators we need to be aware of this if we ever expect to help eliminate sex stereotyping in business. LITERATURE REVIEW If advertising content is any indicator, the business world has not entirely met its responsibility in eliminating sex stereotyping. Courtney and Lockeretz (1971) analyzed commercial advertising for the portrayal of women’s roles and found that only 9% of the women were portrayed in working roles, compared to 45% for men. In a follow-up study by Wagner and Banos, they found that by 1973 the percentage of women portrayed in working roles had risen to 21%. In a very comprehensive study comparing magazine ad role portrayals over the period of 1959 to 1971, Venkatesan and Losco (1975) also found heavy sex stereotyping. These studies all seemed to suggest four major sexual stereotypes for women: 1. That a woman’s place is in the home 2. That women don’t make important decisions 3. That women are dependent on men 4. That men regard women primarily as sex objects Similar findings were made by Dominick and Rauch (1974) upon examining nearly 1,000 prime time commercials on television. How much influence advertising has on attitudes has not been determined but it would appear to be a contributing factor. Traditional male attitudes concerning female stereotypes has definitely affected the female in the work world. Studies Exploring Experiential Learning: Simulations and Experiential Exercises, Volume 5, 1978 45 by Athanassiades (1975) and Dipboye (1975) support the idea that females in business do suffer from prejudicial stereotyping. While stereotyping seems to help females obtain such jobs as sales clerks, it hinders them in such areas as industrial selling (Robertson and Hackett, 1977). A recent survey by the Research Institute of America showed that 81% of the companies surveyed have not hired any saleswomen. Some insight as to the problem of integrating women more fully into all levels of the workforce can be gleaned from a study of male managers’ attitudes toward working women (Bass, Krusell, and Alexander, 1977). The male managers did not feel that women would make good supervisors; this does not appear to be because females were perceived to be less capable than men but rather that the managers felt that other males and females would be uncomfortable with a female supervisor. Bass suggests that societal norms do not sanction the placement of women in dominant positions. Another factor influencing male managers which was brought out in the study was a perceived lack of dependability on the part of women. The respondents felt women were not as dependable as men because of the biological and personal characteristics of women. The data indicated that men who did not work with women had more positive regard for women than the men who did. In addition, managers who had women as peers had more negative reactions toward women working than managers who did not have women as peers. Bass speculates that managers may experience a loss of esteem when women are given positions comparable to their own (e.g., “if a woman can do the job it must not be very important”). Rosen and Jerdee (1974) studied discrimination in assessment of applicants for routine versus demanding jobs (the latter defined as those jobs requiring aggressive interpersonal behavior and decisive managerial action). They found there is much more discrimination against females when the job is perceived as demanding and challenging. A study by Orzeck (1972) concerning stereotypes and expectations showed that males will more often be expected to perform competitively and females will more often be expected to perform cooperatively. If the generalizations of these two studies carry over into role definition in business gaming, serious implications arise as to the assignment of tasks within teams. What we have at this juncture is a mixture of attitudes and practices concerning stereotypes. The key questions naturally follows: Which perceptions are based on actual versus fictional differences in the sexes? What are the real intellectual and emotional differences between males and females? One of the most comprehensive literature reviews was conducted by Maccoby (1974). The study concluded there are four sex differences fairly well established by research and eight unfounded beliefs about sex differences. They are: Exploring Experiential Learning: Simulations and Experiential Exercises, Volume 5, 1978 46 Unfounded Beliefs About Sex Differences 1. Girls are more social than boys 2. Girls are more suggestible than boys 3. Girls have a lower self-esteem than boys 4. Girls are better at rote learning and boys are better at higher cognitive processes 5. Boys are more analytic than girls 6. Girls are more affected by heredity; boys are more affected by environment 7. Girls have less achievement motivation than boys 8. Girls are more auditory; boys are more visual Sex Differences That Are Fairly Well Established by Research 9. Girls have greater verbal ability than boys 10. Boys excel in visual-spatial ability 11. Boys excel in mathematical ability 12. Boys are more aggressive than girls (Maccoby, 1974, p. 349) A study by Croth (1976) of attitudes of college students indicates that seventy percent or more of the responses agreed with the research results reported by Maccoby. The statements which students correctly identified as being unfounded were number 3 (girls have lower self-esteem), 4 (girls are better at rote learning), 6 (girls are more affected by heredity, boys by environment) and 7 (girls have less motivation). The one statement which students correctly identified as true is number 12 (males are more aggressive). If unfounded beliefs about sex differences are prevalent in the classroom environment where small group (i.e., team) interaction occurs, certain sex role implications might logically follow. For example, if students felt males were more analytic than females, then males would be more prone to take over the decision-making duties and females would be more prone to allow this to happen. If students felt females were more suggestible, male team members might have the notion that they could “run the show” and female team members might feel they should be “followers.” Perhaps adding to this “male as leader” notion is the proven sex difference of male aggressiveness which the majority of students in the Croth study correctly identified as being true. If students relate the trait of aggressiveness with leadership or competitiveness, strong feelings concerning males in leadership roles might result.1 This attitude, combined with the results of the Bass 1 It should be noted that the sex difference of aggression appears to be in relation to physical and verbal aggression and it does not mean the same thing as assertion. Croth (1976, p. 333) correctly points out there is a difference. While aggression implies an intent to harm, assertion implies standing up for one’s rights or working toward one’s goals. Exploring Experiential Learning: Simulations and Experiential Exercises, Volume 5, 1978 47 study which suggested males do not feel females make good managers, would add to the pressure to select a male as president on a business game team. In tabulating my records for the past six years, I found that on coed teams, nine of ten teams selected a male president! Whether this is a function of sexism or merely the fact that males outnumber females three to one at my school is yet to be determined. Although sociologists have observed that males and females approach situations in which they have to work with people differently, current research has largely removed empirical support for this proposition. Although researchers continue to observe sex differences in behavior in task- oriented situations, Meeker and Weitzel feel that sex roles might be the result of status processes. “Since men have higher status than women, men are expected to be more competent than women, and it is expected that competitive or dominating behavior is legitimate for men but not for women.” (Meeker, p. 91). One of the problems in this area is that a lack of leadership experience by females perpetuates male dominance of managerial positions. Williams (1976) explains it well: “. . . they have not been given early “boot camp” training. Therefore, they may either lack the self-confidence to take on tough assignments, or they will not have had the chance to prove themselves to their compatriots. Perhaps, more importantly, they may not have had the chance to practice leadership skills in middle level jobs. This theory has direct implications in the classroom in which business gaming is used. If females are, in fact, given the more routine tasks (e.g., secretarial tasks), they will not be getting the “boot camp” training referred to by Williams and any attempt at more difficult assignments on the team could result in less than desired performance. Based on the above sample of the literature, it would appear there is the very real possibility of sex stereotyping by students involved on business game teams. A preliminary study was undertaken by the writer and is described below. THE SURVEY A questionnaire was administered to ninety students in two sections of an undergraduate business policy course during the Fall 1977 semester at the University of Louisville School of Business. The major purpose of the inquiry was to determine the extent of sex stereotyping and a secondary objective was to determine the extent of other types of prejudice which may have been involved during the semester. Since 25 students were on all-male teams, these responses were not tabulated. Students were instructed not to sign the questionnaire to assure anonymity and it was administered after the final exam. The questionnaire was pre-tested and certain minor changes were made. The results which are presented on Table I are preliminary findings; however, the proportion of responses to certain statements does indicate a certain degree of sex Exploring Experiential Learning: Simulations and Experiential Exercises, Volume 5, 1978 48 stereotyping did occur in this particular instance. Table I lists the statements which students were asked to agree or disagree with along with the number and percentage of students who agreed with the statement. A five point Likert-type scale was used. DISCUSSION Not all questions asked were involved with stereotyping but should be of interest to gamers. For example, the responses to statement one indicate the president for a majority of teams was selected on the basis of verbal ability. Is this desirable? Is the best talker the best leader? There is evidence teams were not satisfied with the president they selected (see statement 4). In another area, some students felt it would be beneficial if they switched team duties sometime during the semester (see statement 11). Could a more complete learning experience result if this were the case? These are areas which require more experimentation and research. In the area of sex discrimination, there is prima facie evidence of sexism in this particular study even if the responses to the questionnaire were not considered. Although the classes consisted of 30% females, of the 24 teams only two (or 8%) had female presidents. However, there is even more solid evidence of sex role stereotyping indicated by the significant number of male responses which were in agreement with statements 2, 3, 7, 8, 9. Adding weight to the evidence of sexism is the fact that f e- males were carrying a proportionately heavier clerical load for their teams, and worse yet, some females volunteered to do so (see responses to statement 5 and 6). One interesting contradiction in the responses on the questionnaire is shown in statement 12. Although the other responses indicate the presence of sexist attitudes and practices, the vast majority of students did not feel as though sexual prejudice had occurred as only 6% reported sexual prejudice. However this is not surprising as the literature on attitude measurement consistently warns of respondents’ desire to make socially acceptable responses (Lemon, 1973). CONCLUSIONS It has been shown that in this preliminary study there was sex stereotyping occurring within the business game teams. Whether this is common among students involved in small group decision-making remains to be investigated. The literature in the field indicates the reasons for stereotyping are deeply rooted in the history of civilization. It is not something that can be solved quickly. However, as academicians we need to determine the extent of the problem in our classes and investigate means of eliminating stereotyping. Exploring Experiential Learning: Simulations and Experiential Exercises, Volume 5, 1978 49 Exploring Experiential Learning: Simulations and Experiential Exercises, Volume 5, 1978 50 REFERENCES 1. Alice Courtney and Sarah Wernick Lockeretz, “A Woman’s Place: An Analysis of Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine Advertisements,” Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 8, February 1971, pp. 92-95. 2. Louis Wagner and Janis B. Banos, “A Woman’s Place: A Follow-up Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine Advertisements,” Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 10, May 1,973, pp. 213-14. 3. M. Venkatesan and Jean Losco, “Women in Magazine Ads: 1959-71,” Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 15, October 1975, pp. 49-54. 4. Joseph P. Dominick and Gail E. Rauch, “The Image of Women in Network TV Commercials,” Journal of Broadcasting”, Summer 1974, pp. 259-65. 5. John Athanassiades, “Myths of Women in Management,” Atlanta Economic Review, May-June, 1975, pp. 4-9. 6. Robert Dipboye, “Women as Managers--Stereotypes and Realities,” Survey of Business, May-June, 1975, pp. 22-26. 7. Dam H. Robertson and Donald W. Hackett, “Saleswomen: Perceptions, Problems and Prospects,” Journal of Marketing, July 1977, pp. 66. 8. “RIA-SECNY Study Finds 81% of U. S. Businesses Employ No Saleswomen,” Marketing News, July 15, 1974, pp. 1. 9. Bernard Bass, J. Krussell and R. N. Alexander, “Male Managers’ Attitudes Toward Working Women,” American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 15 (1971), pp. 77-83. 10. B. Rosen and T. H. Jerdee, “Effects of Applicant’s Sex and Difficulty of Job on Evaluations of Candidates for Managerial Positions,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 1974, 59(4), pp. 511-512. 11. L. A. Orzeck, “Stereotypes and Expectations: How People React to Female and Male Cooperators and Competitors,” Ph. D. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1972. 12. E. Maccoby and C. Jacklin, The Psychology of Sex Differences, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1974. 13, N. J. Groth, “College Student Perception of Sex-Role Stereotypes Ramifications for Female Creativity,” The Gifted Child Quarterly, Fall, 1976, pp. 327. 14. B. F. Meeker and P. A. Weitzel-O’Neill, “Sex Roles and Interpersonal Behavior in Task-Oriented Groups,” American Sociological Review, February 1977, pp. 91. 15. M. Williams, “Women and Success in Organizations,” in Women in Management, edited by M. Gerrard. Austin, Texas: University of Texas, 1976, pp. 52. 16. N. Lemon, Attitudes and Their Measurement. New York: Wiley, 1973. Table of Contents Volume 5, 1978 Debriefing: The Key to Effective Experiential Learning A Kiss Before Debriefing Debriefing with Serialized Theory Development for TaskTeam Learning Insights Into Debriefing Experiential Learning Exercises The Two-Step Flow of Experiential Learning: A Preliminary Investigation Programmatic Experienced-Based Learning in an MBA Program The New Research Focus: An Analysis of the Simulation Game User An Analysis of Performance in Simulation Games Compared to Performance on Structured Course Criteria: A Case Study Le's Simplify the Administrative Requirements of Computerized Educational Simulations Assessment of Sex Stereotypes Within Task Group Simulation The Use of Program BAYAUD in the Teaching of Audit Sampling The Effectiveness of Progressively Complex Accounting Simulations in Increasing Decision-Making Performance The Natural Learning Project The Application of a US-USSR Trade Simulation to the Reaching of Business Russian The Use of Semi-Autonomous Work Group in Graduate Management Education: An Australian Experience Evaluation of an Experimental Course in Organizational Behavior for Managers of Japanese Banks Berkshire II: An Experiential Decision Making Exercise: An Exercise in Hegelian Inquiry Creating a Responsible Managerial Experience A Framework for Determining the Pedagogical Value of Simulation Gaming: Implications for Future Simulation Gamin Research Emergent Simulations in Administration Courses Measurement of Administrator Role for Feedback on Structure and Goals An Experiment in Assessing the Theoretical Recognition and Application Leaning Skills of Student Case Writers Some Game Information Systems Experience Using Job Control Language (JCL) for Group and Individual Simulation Considerations for the Use of Computerized Business Simulations Assessing the Effectiveness of Learning Styles as Predictors of Performance within Three Distinct Pedogogic Methodologies Learning Style and Performance A Psychometric Analysis of Kolb's Learning Styles Inventory Learning to Identify and Satisfy consumer Wants: A Classroom Game An Experiential Exercise in Product Benefit Segmentation Sales and Sales Management: A Case/Simulation Approach The SBI Case as Experiential Learning The Use of a Live Case in Teaching Organization Theory and management Principles to Graduate Students The Residency in Hospital and health Administration as Experiential Learning The Extended Live Case Approach to Teaching Marketing Research Experiential Learning in Marketing: Student Consultants The Brazil-Columbia Coffee Marketing Negotiations: An Experiential Exercise Aimed at Highlighting the Dynamics Involved in the International Business Negotiation Process Educational Values of Simulation Gaming Business Simulation Re-Revisited Simulation and Experiential Learning as Human Subject Research An Experiential Evaluation of a Didactic - Experiential Apporach for Teaching personnel Management Experiential Learning in Wage and Salary Administration Integrating Structured Experiences into Personnel Simulation Locus of Control and Performance in a Management Simulation Correlations Between Academic Achievement, Aptitude, and Business Game Performance Suggestions for Student Input of Decisions in General Management Simulations An Exploratory Investigation of Student Perceptions of Computer Simulation as an Educational Tool Time to Sell?: An Experiential Learning Approach to Stock Market Decisions through Interactive Gaming