EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING: TOWARD THE DEVELOPMENT OF A THEORETICAL BASE AND THE IDENTIFICATION OF VARIABLES AND HYPOTHESES TO GUIDE RESEARCH New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 166 EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING: TOWARD THE DEVELOPMENT OF A THEORETICAL BASE AND THE IDENTIFICATION OF VARIABLES AND HYPOTHESES TO GUIDE RESEARCH Craig Eric Schneier College of Business and Management University of Maryland Both in their attempts to develop students’ analytical, problem-solving, and conceptual skills which have been cited as necessary for successful managerial careers [6] and in their desire to improve the effectiveness of their instructional efforts, Business Schools have developed (and borrowed) a variety of innovative instructional methods. Generally, these modifications in teaching method fall into the category of learner-based, participative techniques [see e.g., 3, 7, 11, 13]. One group of such innovations includes computerized simulations and/or business games of various types meant to stimulate a specific aspect of organizational functioning. A second category, the one of primary interest in this paper, includes role-playing, case studies, internships, field experience, problem-solving laboratories, and other various forms of experiential learning activities [1]. While shifts in the roles of learner and instructor vary in degree within different instructional settings, they do represent a definite departure from the primary role of arbiter, evaluator, and information transmitter given to instructors and that of passive information receiver, retriever, and recaller given to learners in the more traditional instructional settings which rely so heavily on the cognitive aspect of learning (i.e., lecture). It is obvious that more and more business curricula, instructors, and students are beginning to adopt the roles these participative instructional methods bring, as evidenced, for example, by the sheer volume and increase in both these types of instructional materials available and in reports of their use appearing in the literature. What is not obvious, however, is whether or not these methods are, in general, more effective than the more traditional techniques for business education, what specific advantages they may have, and for what particular types of learners they are most beneficial. This is due in large part to inadequate research results regarding these methods. The broad deficiencies in research on experiential participative instructional techniques outlined below thus form the rationale for the objective of this paper, to develop a set of explanatory variables and operational hypotheses to guide research on experiential learning. Deficiencies in Experiential Learning Research First, research on the effectiveness of various experiential! participative techniques at all New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 167 educational levels and in various fields generally conflicts as to their effectiveness as teaching tools [see e.g., 4, 12, 14]. It is generally agreed, however, that these methods facilitate improved motivation and attitudes but not learning of content or concepts, as opposed to traditional instructional methods [see e.g., 4, 10, 14]. Yet claims made for these techniques’ effectiveness have been very high [12]. Further, they have several intuitively appealing features as learning techniques. They allow learners to participate in learning and to work the “real” problems; they facilitate social interaction amongst peers, and they are also based upon well-supported learning theory principles and research, such as the use of practice and the use of vicarious learning. Coupled with the evidence for improved attitudes and motivation of learners noted above, this intuitive appeal, sound developmental rationale, and likelihood of transfer of learning indicates that the potential of various participative educational techniques for management is noteworthy and should not be discounted on the basis of previous limited research. 2. Lack of a conceptual framework. There is also little or no conceptual framework which guides experiential learning research. No standard criterion for effectiveness of these methods has been decided upon and since the many measures of “learning” or “effectiveness” used tap different constructs, replication is difficult. Few variables have been delineated and, other than those concerning differential learner performance as a function of instructional method, few operational hypotheses have been generated. 3. Scarce research available on experiential learning. The third deficiency of current management-related research on these instructional techniques is that the research is almost exclusively dominated by studies assessing business games and! or computerized simulations [e.g., 2, 5, 9]. Very little research is available concerning the effectiveness of other popular participative techniques; such as role-playing, skill building "practice" exercises (e.g., for such courses as accounting, statistics, or personnel), or the many forms of the popular participative techniques falling under the broad category of experiential learning. Based upon the potential of experiential learning and the deficiencies in research on participative innovations noted above, the objective of the present paper has been developed-- to derive a set of variables and operational hypotheses from relevant theoretical and empirical literature in the behavioral sciences which would seem to have potential explanatory power in research assessing experiential learning and to develop a framework or conceptual scheme in which to categorize the variables. This type of activity would be necessary in order New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 168 to help guide future research efforts toward a more efficient use of resources and toward the generation of a systematic body of knowledge. TOWARD THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SET OF VARIABLES AND HYPOTHESES FOR USE IN RESEARCH ON EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING One source of conceptual framework for which to derive specific variables and operational hypotheses to guide experiential learning research is that body of knowledge in the behavioral sciences concerned with individual behavior, small group behavior, and inter- personal relations. These broad topics are typically located within the disciplines of psychology and social psychology. Because experiential learning is basically a vehicle for experiencing and learning about phenomena in social settings (i.e., organizations) and because this instructional technique typically requires group participation, the literature dealing with group processes and dynamics, attitudes, interpersonal communication, leadership, and social influence is also a rich source of pertinent information. Another obviously useful body of research and theory which has potential for explaining and guiding empirical inquiry into experiential learning is that branch of psychology dealing with learning itself (i.e., educational psychology), as well as the more specific literature of learning theory. A review of several specific topics from the literature noted above suggests specific variables and hypotheses which may be found to influence the experiential learning process. The variables and hypotheses cited here were derived in a somewhat subjective manner (i.e., the criterion for their choice being only that research has found them important in understanding small group and learning phenomena which have obvious experiential learning analogues). Further, some previous research into participative learning techniques in management education has investigated a few of them [e.g., 2, 5, 7, 10, 15]. However, no comprehensive list of potentially relevant variables was uncovered which can facilitate inquiry into experiential learning. The variables and sample hypotheses developed here were meant to facilitate research which attempts to identify particular characteristics of the total learning setting (i.e., task, learner, instructor) which signal the conditions under which experiential learning might be most effective. This emphasis is in contrast to the bulk of past research [e.g., 7, 8, 9, 161 which has had as its primary objective the comparison of two or more instructional techniques as to their impact on a criterion variable (e.g., amount of learning). While the latter research is certainly valuable in order to build a rationale for the use of certain instructional techniques, the comparison between techniques cannot realistically be answered in such general terms. Rather New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 169 than universal statements of the relative effectiveness between techniques, research efforts may be more efficiently aimed at identifying those learners and task for which each technique may have merit. Toward this research objective Table 1 was developed. It contains variables gleaned from behavioral science theory and research in the areas mentioned above. The variables are grouped into the following four major categories: individual- level, group-level, environmental, and task variables. It is proposed that such a list can provide an initial overview of the basic phenomena involved in experiential learning. As each variable has been shown in previous research to help explain some aspect of individual, interpersonal, and/or group behavior and as each can be measured with a readily available validated instrument, they can become independent, dependent, and/or moderator variables in research. For example, as one’s intolerance for ambiguity has been shown to influence one’s behavior in a group this variable can be measured and related to a criterion measure or dependent variable (e.g., group performance or learning in an experiential task), perhaps through a regression analysis in order to ascertain its ability to predict group performance. Of course, more complex research designs, involving variables from all four categories in Table 1, as well as possible interactions, would typically be required in order to explain the complex phenomena of experiential learning. In addition, Table 1 is meant only as a first step. As empirical evidence accumulates, arguments for deleting certain variables and adding others not now present can be made. Table 2 presents a sample of operational research hypotheses which have been derived relating to experiential learning. A descriptive phrase which indicates the theoretical foundation or body of empirical data from which the hypothesis was derived also appears. Most hypotheses have already been tested in settings other than instructional ones (e.g., laboratories), but as a good deal of this research in social psychology has been conducted with students in laboratories performing “contrived” tasks, the setting of this social psychological research, and hence its results, may be closely related to research on experiential learning methods as it typically uses similar procedures and samples. The hypotheses are offered merely as examples. As with Table 1, Table 2 is therefore an initial attempt at developing a guide to further empirical inquiry and as such would be expanded based upon results of such inquiry, as well as upon further conceptualization of key issues. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the tables are meant to provide a conceptual framework for research on New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 170 New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 171 New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 172 experiential learning. If major theoretical positions (e.g., small group processes, leadership theories) can be analyzed and specific variables and hypotheses generated, these can in turn be operationalized and systematically investigated in experiential learning research. Such investigations would in turn provide new theory, variables, and relationships and amend and delete others. In this way a systematic body of data can be developed which is related by conceptual frameworks; existing gaps in research can be identified, and inquiry can proceed in a more related and sequential nature. Thus, some of the larger questions concerning experiential learning can be answered in light of evidence, as opposed to opinion and assumption. REFERENCES 1. ABSEL (Association of Business Simulation and Experiential Learning) Proceedings of Annual Meeting, 1976. 2. Bass, B. M. “Business Gaming for Organizational Research,” Management Science, Vol. 10 (1964), 545-556. 3. Beatty, R. W., and C. E. Schneier. Personnel Administration: An Experiential/Skill Building Approach. (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1977). 4. Cherryholmes, C. “Some Current Research on Effectiveness of Educational Simulation: Implications for Alternative Strategies,” American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 10 (October, 1966), 4-7. 5. Dill, W. R., and N. Doppelt. “The Acquisition of Experience in a Complex Management Game,” Management Science, Vol. 10. (1963), 30-46. 6. Edge, M. G. and R. Greenwood. “How Managers Rank Knowledge, Skills, and Attributes Possessed by Business Administration Graduates.” Proceedings of the Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, New Orleans, 1975. 7. Gardiner, G. S. “Cognitive and Motivational Development in Two Experimental Undergraduate Programs in Business,” Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 17 (1974), 375-381. 8. Gray, C. F. “Expressed Student Attitude Toward Conventional Versus Computer Supplemented Instruction,” Decision Sciences, Vol. 4 (1973), 141-148. 9. Moore, L. F. “Business Games vs. Cases as Tools of Learning,” Training and Development Journal, Vol. 21 (October, 1967), 13-23. New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 173 10. Rowland, K. M., and D. M. Gardner. “The Uses of Business Gaming in Education and Laboratory Research,” Decision Sciences, Vol. 4 (1973), 268-281. 11. Schneier, C. E. “Resolving the Content Issue in the Introductory O.B. Course: A Problem-Centered Approach,” The Teaching of Organization Behavior, Vol. 1 (Sept. 1975), 12-18. 12. Schriesheim, C., and J. Schriesheim. “Divergence of Practitioner Opinion and Empirical Evidence: The Case of Business Simulation Games.” Proceedings of the Thirty- fourth Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Seattle, 1974. 13. Strother, G. B., A. C. Johnson, and H. E. Thompson (Eds.) Educational Applications of Management Games (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Educ., 1966). 14. Wentworth, D. R., and D. R. Lewis. “A Review of Research on Instructional Games and Simulations in Social Studies Education,” Social Education, Vol. 37 (1973), 432-440. 15. Wolf, C. “Some Research and Teaching with an On-Line Oligopoly Game Using an Artificial Player,” Decision Science, Vol. 3 (1972), 101-113. 16. Wolfe, J. “A Comparative Evaluation of the Experiential Approach as a Business Policy Learning Environment,” Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 18 (1975), 442-452. Table of Contents Volume 4, 1977 Double Play for Gaming Effectiveness Adaptive Rule Changes in Computer Simulation Gaming Œ A Means of Pedagogical Reactive Interchange Monte Carlo Simulation in Personnel Management Training Teaching About the Implementation of Job Redesign Using Simulation and Group Discussions An Interactive Simulation of Private Sector Collective Bargaining Leadership Evaluation and training through Behavioral Simulations: Method, Results and Future An assessment of the Effect of Experiential, Simulation and Discussion Pedagologies Used in Laboratory Sections of an Introductory Management Course An Experiential Understanding of the Trust Dimension Using Consulting Cases to teach Business Policy An Experimental Testing of Teaching Methodologies in Marketing Interpersonal Skill Development: The Experiential Training Unit (ETU) and Transfer of Training An Analysis of the Relationship between Personality characteristics and Preferred Styles of Learning Analysis of Effective Communication Skill Development in Graduate Business and Engineering Experiential Education Changing Perceptions of Learning in a Simulated Environment Student Perceptions: Simulation and the Corporate Policy Course Degree of Uniformity in Achievement Motivation Levels of Team Member: Its Effect on Team Performance in a Simulation Game Channel Conflict, Cooperation and Control: an Experiential Learning Exercise Differences in Experiential and Non-Experiential Learners' Reactions to Conflict between Individual and Organizations Behavior The Evolution and Evaluation of a Required, Senior-Level Course in Experiential Business Applications Building Management Skills through Problem Solving A Live-Case Approach to the Business and Society Course Experiential Learning: Toward the Development of a Theoretical Base and the Identification of Variables and the Hypotheses to Guide Research The Role of the Administrator in Experiential Learning and Simulations Some Thoughts on a Theory of the Use of Games and Experiential Exercises Three Applications of the Management of Learning Grid An Analysis of ABSEL: Its Past Achievements and Future Prospects New Horizons in Simulation Research Prediction of Academic Achievement in a Simulation Mode via Personality Constructs Sex Differences in a Bargaining Simulation COM-GAME: A Commodity Trading Game for Use in an Introductory Business Statistics Course A Financial Institution Management Game with Direct Participant Interactions A Non-Computerized Marketing Planning and Strategy Game Delphi in the Classroom: A Demonstration of Forecasting Economic Activity The Potential of Programmable Calculators for Processing Small Business Simulations Can a Small Predominantly Clack University Incorporate the Computer Simulation Gaming Teaching Methodology into it Curriculum Measuring the Effect of an Experiential Exercise Experiential Learning - Analysis of a Partial Success Predicting Participants' Performance and Reactions in an Experiential Learning Setting: An Empirical Investigation A Simplified, Non-Computerized Marketing Channels Game Manufacturers and Retailers: A Negotiation Game for Beginning Management Students Petroleum Management Game A Securities Dealer Simulator SIM ECO SOC with Business Curriculum Modules: A Simulation for Business Ethics and Morals The Picnic: A Perceptual Errors Exercise Salt III; an Experiential Exercise to Highlight the Interpersonal Dynamics Involved in the Negotiation Process Experiential Exercise on Values, Attitudes and Conflict Resolution in Organizational Behavior Kick'N Go: A Product Management and Social Responsibility Dilemma The Use of Self-Assessment Work-shops in a school of Business Administration The Dilemma of Self-Perception