PREDICTION OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN A SIMULATION MODE VIA PERSONALITY CONSTRUCTS New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 223 PREDICTION OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN A SIMULATION MODE VIA PERSONALITY CONSTRUCTS Daniel C. Brenenstuhl Northern Illinois University Tommy F. Badgett Memphis State University ABSTRACT Locus of Control (Rotter, 1966) and Interpersonal Trust (Rotter, 1967) were used as predictors of academic achievement in a college level simulation course. Multiple criterion measures (including team performance, peer ratings, announced exams and unannounced quizzes) were used to assess the predictive accuracy of Locus of Control and Interpersonal Trust. Neither construction successfully discriminated between high and low performances on any of the multiple criterion. The findings of this research call to question the usage of either construct in an attempt to predict college level academic performance. INTRODUCTION Effective predictors of academic achievement have been sought by academicians for many years. Much of this effort has focused on Rotter’s concept of Locus of Reinforcement Control (1966). Rotter gave definitions to two conflicting orientations: Internal Control of Reinforcement and External Control of Reinforcement. Definitions Follow “A perception of causal relationship need not be all or none, but can vary in degree. When reinforcement is perceived by the subject as following some action of his own, but not being entirely contingent upon his action; then, in our culture it is typically perceived as the result of luck, chance, or fate, as under the control of others or as unpredictable because of the great complexity of the forces surrounding him. When the event is interpreted in this way by an individual, we have labeled this a belief in external control. If the person perceives that the event is contingent upon his own behavior or his own relatively permanent characteristics, we have termed this a belief in internal control.” Thus, Internal Control refers to the perception that there is a relationship between what one does and what happens to him while External Control essentially refers to the perception that there is no such relationship. Many researchers have used the difference in perception between Internals and Externals as a basis for predicting differences in academic achievement (Brockhaus, 1975; Crandall, Katkovsky and Crandall, 1965; Eisenman and Platt, 1968; Hjelle, 1970; Massari and Rosenblum, 1972; McGhee and Crandall, 1968 and Reimanis, 1973 to cite a few examples). Massari and Rosenblum (1972) have New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 224 studied the relationship between Locus of Control and Interpersonal Trust in an academic environment using college students. Imber (1973) investigated the relationship of trust to academic performance in grade school children. Other studies have suggested the role that Interpersonal Trust plays in the retention of information (Gibb, 1961; Kelley and Ring, 1961; Loomis, 1959; and Mellinger, 1956). Massari and Rosenblum (1972) established that the relationship between expectancies of Locus of Control, Interpersonal Trust, and academic achievement is rather complex. The current study was designed to extend the work of Massari and Rosenblum in an attempt to resolve a portion of the complexity. It was felt that academic achievement was a multidimensional concept and earlier studies tended to measure it unidimensionally. The present study attempts to relate multiple criterion measures of academic achievement to Locus of Control and Interpersonal Trust in college students. Previous research suggested the following hypotheses: 1) Neither Internal-External Locus of Control (I-E) as measured by Rotter (1966), nor Interpersonal Trust, (ITS) as measured by Rotter (1967) would be significantly related to intelligence test scores. 2) I-E control would yield no significant differences or structured criteria, such as, announced course exams or announced quizzes. 3) Internals would outperform Externals on unannounced pop quizzes. 4) Internals would have a higher socio-economic status than Externals (Externals feel that they have little control over their reinforcements, a condition that frequently accompanies low socio-economic status). 5) Internals expect higher grades than Externals, are older than Externals and have lower ITS scores than Externals. 6) Individuals high in Interpersonal Trust will expect higher grades than individuals low in Interpersonal Trust. METHOD Subjects Subjects were 104 college juniors and seniors from a large midwestern university. They constituted the total population of two classes within the College of Business. The subjects were not aware that they were taking part in an experiment. All of the variables were compiled or measured unobtrusively as a part of the regular regiment of the course. The classes that the subjects were enrolled in were 6 credit hour courses that consisted of a regular 3 hr. lecture-discussion organizational behavior segment and an innovative 3 hr. management simulation course. The subjects used INTOP as the vehicle for the simulation game. New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 225 Measures Rotter’s Internal-External Locus of Reinforcement Scale (I-E) was used to evaluate the I-E Dimension (Rotter, 1966). Rotter’s Interpersonal Trust Scale (ITS) was used to measure the Trust Dimension (Rotter, 1967). Both of Rotter’s scales are widely used and accepted as having construct validity. Academic Achievement Academic achievement was evaluated by a number of separate measures. These included two 100 point objective exams over text content from the lecture-discussion, 100 points in unannounced quizzes, grade in the course, two 25 point announced quizzes over the simulation game structure and rules, total team points in the simulation game run in the class, final team points in the simulation game, and peer ratings for the simulation performance. Intelligence College accumulative grade point and SAT Verbal and SAT Math scores were used as approximations of intelligence. Demographic Data The subjects were required to fill-out a brief demographic questionnaire the first week of the semester in only one of the classes. The questionnaire measured age, socio-economic status, and expected grade in the course with a five point Likert format. Procedure The I-E and ITS scales were administered to the subjects during class time as part of the discussion of the respective topics of Locus of Control and Interpersonal Trust. The academic achievement measures were available from the recordkeeping, regularly associated with a college course. The intelligence data were gathered by special permission of the Dean from the students’ permanent files. The demographic data were collected at the first meeting of the class and were represented as providing general background data for the instructor. Analysis The analysis was performed in two independent phases. First, the subjects were dichotomized at the mean by their I-E scores with all subjects being included in the analysis. These two groups, one representing Internals and one representing Externals were then used in multiple Students’ T-Tests for differences between means. The analysis was similar for Interpersonal Trust. Two groups were created by a mean split and these groups were used in Students’ T-Tests for differences between means over the various dependent variables. Students’ T-Tests were utilized in preference to correlation analysis because it was felt that the T-Tests were less likely to lead to erroneous conclusions. New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 226 Results Table one gives summary statistics for each of the variables. The Students’ T-Tests will be discussed individually for each dependent variable beginning with Internals versus Externals as the main grouping and then proceeding to students who scored high or low on the Interpersonal Trust Scale. Internal-External Locus of Control Table two presents the summary statistics for the 16 T-Tests comparing Internals to Externals over each variable singly. Hypothesis one is strongly supported for Locus of Control as college accumulative GPA, SAT-Verbal and SAT-Math were all non-significant. Hypothesis two is strongly supported as none of the structured variables showed any significant differences between Internals and Externals. Hypothesis three receives no support as the Internals were not significantly different from the Externals over the unannounced quizzes. Hypothesis four was supported with Internals reporting higher socio-economic status. Hypothesis five received some support. Internals showed less trust than Externals (p=.O34) and Internals were not significantly different from Externals on age or expected grade. However, the means were in the appropriate direction on each of those variables. New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 227 New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 228 Interpersonal Trust Table three presents the summary statistics for the 4 T-Tests comparing high trusters with low trusters. Hypothesis one is also strongly supported for the Interpersonal Trust data as college accumulative GPA, SAT-Verbal, and SAT-Math were all non-significant. Hypothesis six presents a problem as our data reveals a strong significant difference (p=.009) between the high and low trusters but in the direction opposite to that predicted. The low trusters expected higher grades than the high trusters. CONCLUSION The results of this study lead to the conclusion that Internal- External Locus of Reinforcement Control does not discriminate for the concept of academic achievement at the college level. The strong support for hypothesis one indicates that Locus of Control and Interpersonal Trust are independent of intelligence. This would imply that any impact from I-E or ITS would be in the area of motivation. As a post- hoc test of motivation, the absence rate was investigated for I-E and ITS. The results of a median split T-Test for absences failed to show any significant difference between Internals and Externals (T=1.27; p=.208) or between high and low trusters (TO .89; p=.375). This finding tends to support the contention that I-E and ITS do not directly affect the academic achievement of college students. It is quite likely that any activity associated with the grading process at the collegiate level will be salient to both Internals and Externals. Thus the External may prepare equally diligently for both announced exams and for unannounced quizzes. It should be highlighted at this point New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 229 that all Students were aware that they would be having a fixed number of unannounced quizzes during the term. This awareness undoubtably had an impact upon the students during the term. It should be noted in table two that Internals had significantly less Interpersonal Trust than Externals. This finding is contrary to Massari and Rosenblum’s (1972) results. While no hypotheses were presented in this study relative to a relationship between Locus of Control and Interpersonal Trust, it was implicitly accepted from past research that a positive relationship existed (Rotter, 1971 and Massari and Rosenblum, 1972). This negative relationship between Internality and Interpersonal Trust might be an artifact of the times. The studies showing positive relationship were conducted prior to Watergate or the disclosure of widespread bribery of foreign officials by American companies. It is highly likely that these events had a differential effect upon Internals and Externals. Quite possibly the Internals in our society have become more skeptical as a result of our tarnished national image. This is an empirical question calling for more extensive investigation. New Horizons in Simulation Games and Experiential Learning, Volume 4, 1977 230 REFERENCES Brockhaus, R. H., “I-E Locus of Control Scores as Predictors of Entrepreneurial Intentions,” Proceedings of the 1975 Academy of Management National Conference; pp. 433-435. Crandall, V. C., Katkovsky, W. and Crandall, V. J., “Children’s Beliefs in Their Own Control of Reinforcements in Intellectual-Academic Achievement Situations,” Child Development, 36, 1965, pp. 91-109. Eisenman, R. and Platt, J. J., “Birth Order and Sex Differences in Academic Achievement and Internal- External Control,” Journal of General Psychology, 1968, 78, pp. 279-285. Gibb, J. R., “Defensive Communication,” Journal of Communication, 1961, 11, pp. 141-148. Hjelle, L.A., “Internal-External Control as a Determinant of Academic Achievement,” Psychological Reports, 1970, 26, p. 326. Imber, S., “Relationship of Trust to Academic Performance,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1973, 28, pp. 145-150. Kelley, H. and Ring, K., “The Effects of ‘Suspicious Versus Trusting’ Training Schedules,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1961, 63, pp. 294-301. Loomis, J., “Communication, The Development of Trust, and Cooperative Behavior,” Human Relations, 1959, 12, pp. 305-315. Massari, D. J. and Rosenblum, D.C., “Locus of Control, Interpersonal Trust and Academic Achievement,” Psychological Reports, 1972, 31, pp. 355-360. McGhee, P.E. and Crandall, V. C., “Beliefs in Internal-External Control of Reinforcement and Academic Performance,” Child Development, 1968, pp. 91-102. Mellinger, G. D., “Interpersonal Trust as a Factor in Communication,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1956, 52, pp. 304-309. Reimanis, G., “School Performance, Intelligence, and Locus of Reinforcement Control Scales,” Psychology in the Schools, 1973, 10, pp. 207-211. Rotter, J. B., “Generalized Expectancies for Interpersonal Trust,” American Psychologist, 1971, 26, pp. 443-452. Rotter, J. B., “A New Scale for the Measurement of Interpersonal Trust,” Journal of Personality, 1967, 35, pp. 651-665. Rotter, J. B., “Generalized Expectancies for Internal versus External Control of Reinforcement,” Psychological Monographs, 1966, 80, no. 1 (whole no. 609). Table of Contents Volume 4, 1977 Double Play for Gaming Effectiveness Adaptive Rule Changes in Computer Simulation Gaming Œ A Means of Pedagogical Reactive Interchange Monte Carlo Simulation in Personnel Management Training Teaching About the Implementation of Job Redesign Using Simulation and Group Discussions An Interactive Simulation of Private Sector Collective Bargaining Leadership Evaluation and training through Behavioral Simulations: Method, Results and Future An assessment of the Effect of Experiential, Simulation and Discussion Pedagologies Used in Laboratory Sections of an Introductory Management Course An Experiential Understanding of the Trust Dimension Using Consulting Cases to teach Business Policy An Experimental Testing of Teaching Methodologies in Marketing Interpersonal Skill Development: The Experiential Training Unit (ETU) and Transfer of Training An Analysis of the Relationship between Personality characteristics and Preferred Styles of Learning Analysis of Effective Communication Skill Development in Graduate Business and Engineering Experiential Education Changing Perceptions of Learning in a Simulated Environment Student Perceptions: Simulation and the Corporate Policy Course Degree of Uniformity in Achievement Motivation Levels of Team Member: Its Effect on Team Performance in a Simulation Game Channel Conflict, Cooperation and Control: an Experiential Learning Exercise Differences in Experiential and Non-Experiential Learners' Reactions to Conflict between Individual and Organizations Behavior The Evolution and Evaluation of a Required, Senior-Level Course in Experiential Business Applications Building Management Skills through Problem Solving A Live-Case Approach to the Business and Society Course Experiential Learning: Toward the Development of a Theoretical Base and the Identification of Variables and the Hypotheses to Guide Research The Role of the Administrator in Experiential Learning and Simulations Some Thoughts on a Theory of the Use of Games and Experiential Exercises Three Applications of the Management of Learning Grid An Analysis of ABSEL: Its Past Achievements and Future Prospects New Horizons in Simulation Research Prediction of Academic Achievement in a Simulation Mode via Personality Constructs Sex Differences in a Bargaining Simulation COM-GAME: A Commodity Trading Game for Use in an Introductory Business Statistics Course A Financial Institution Management Game with Direct Participant Interactions A Non-Computerized Marketing Planning and Strategy Game Delphi in the Classroom: A Demonstration of Forecasting Economic Activity The Potential of Programmable Calculators for Processing Small Business Simulations Can a Small Predominantly Clack University Incorporate the Computer Simulation Gaming Teaching Methodology into it Curriculum Measuring the Effect of an Experiential Exercise Experiential Learning - Analysis of a Partial Success Predicting Participants' Performance and Reactions in an Experiential Learning Setting: An Empirical Investigation A Simplified, Non-Computerized Marketing Channels Game Manufacturers and Retailers: A Negotiation Game for Beginning Management Students Petroleum Management Game A Securities Dealer Simulator SIM ECO SOC with Business Curriculum Modules: A Simulation for Business Ethics and Morals The Picnic: A Perceptual Errors Exercise Salt III; an Experiential Exercise to Highlight the Interpersonal Dynamics Involved in the Negotiation Process Experiential Exercise on Values, Attitudes and Conflict Resolution in Organizational Behavior Kick'N Go: A Product Management and Social Responsibility Dilemma The Use of Self-Assessment Work-shops in a school of Business Administration The Dilemma of Self-Perception