Student Preference to Mode of Learning in Hong Kong Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 33, 2006 STUDENT PREFERENCE TO MODE OF LEARNING IN HONG KONG Sek-foo Chan The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Karen Ka-leung Moon The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Jimmy Chang The Hong Kong Polytechnic University tcchangj@inet.polyu.edu.hk Bosco Yu The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Joyce Chan The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Lai-kuen Chan The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Chester KM To The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Ka-fai Choi The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Paulene Hsia The Hong Kong Polytechnic University INTRODUCTION ABSTRACT The authors identified seven factors in student’s preference to mode of learning in one of the Hong Kong universities. These factors are named as ‘Learning Atmosphere’, ‘Learning Autonomy’, ‘Motivation and Reward’, ‘Material and Answer’, ‘Direct Instruction’, and ‘Structure of Teaching’. The findings of this paper shed some light on the subject matter on the mode of learning for Hong Kong students and suggest that Hong Kong students are not just rote learner and their learning behavior can be more than one type. As students are getting exposed to the use of multimedia, their expectations of classroom teaching practices will tend to vary. Snyder and Vaughan (1998) in their previous study on student expectations on multimedia indicated that students that had used multimedia before would prefer to have such included in their ideals of the optimal classroom teaching practices. As discussed by other researchers (Kuehn, 1994, Ramarapu, Cites & Overby, 1996, Snyder & Vaughan 1998), programs based on computer-assisted instruction and multimedia are popular in education. The importance of multimedia is used in information presentation and the coordination of all these audio-visual technologies combined to apply in the medium Keywords: mode of learning, student ideal learning environment, Hong Kong student study behavior 315 mailto:tcchangj@inet.polyu.edu.hk Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 33, 2006 of multimedia (Bruder, 1991, Synder, 1996, Snyder & Vaughan, 1996, Snyder & Vaughan, 1998). In the Hong Kong study by Chang, et al (2004), ‘information technology factor’, ‘student activity/work factor’, and ‘traditional teaching factor’ were identified as principal dimensions of teaching methods perceived by Hong Kong students. In another study by Chang, et al (2005), three Clusters were identified within the respondents in the study and named as ‘Traditional Teaching Group’, ‘Student Activity Group’, and ‘All Low Group respectively’. Nonetheless, we have forgotten the fundamental issue and that is the student preference to mode of learning. According to Biggs (1987), student’s learning is complex. It all depends on the followings: 1. Individual characteristics of students and teachers 2. The method of instruction and the nature of the curriculum 3. How students and teachers perceive their interactions with each other 4. Family environment 5. Intricate and interrelated sets of factors: i. Background characteristics ii. Social status iii. Ethnic group membership iv. Social-psychological processes in family v. Impact on peers vi. Out-of-classroom factors Others see learning as an outcome in terms of a state of knowledge rather than as an outcome in terms of a process of constructing. To understand how learning may occur, Light and Cox (2001: 47) proposed a framework of five learning gaps. They can be described as gap between: recall and understanding; understanding and ability; ability and wanting to; wanting to and actually doing; and actually doing and ongoing change. There is no prescribed right way. Experience suggests that a balanced approach is appropriate. Balanced means different things to different professionals in different contexts. Tokoro and Steels (2003) identified five main themes of student learning. They must be learner- centred under an environment that favours discussion and exchange of ideas as a means of knowledge transfer. The importance of stimulation, self-activity, motivation, cognitive development and other aspects are relevant for developing the mind in learning. The last two themes are that learning must be social and fun. The arguments are supported by the widespread use of small-group tutorials, workshops and seminars in supplementing tradition class- room teaching. Thus, taking into account of all these ideas, the authors wish to conduct a preliminary study in Hong Kong to examine and understand the study behaviour (their preference to mode of learning) of the first year undergraduate Hong Kong students in one of the universities in Hong Kong. METHODOLOGY This research study examines the behavioral preferences of the Hong Kong undergraduates towards their ideal learning environment. The study started with a literature review on teaching and learning. Then, a one and half -page questionnaire with 34 Likert-type statements on a 5-point scale ranging from least preferred (0) to most preferred (4) were derived. The questionnaires were distributed to 108 Hong Kong students (who are of Chinese Origin) in a mass lecture of Principles of Management in Fashion Business. All these Chinese students were year one students enrolling in the course of BA (Hons) of Fashion and Textile in the Institute of Textiles and Clothing at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. With the aid of the SPSS statistical package, descriptive statistics and exploratory factor analysis were adopted to analyze the nature of the variables of learning preferences. Mean scores of the descriptive statistics analysis are used to express the central tendency of each item while exploratory factor analysis is generally used to define the underlying structure in a data matrix, i.e. interrelationships (correlations) among a large number of variables by defining a set of common underlying dimensions (Hair et al., 1998). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Descriptive Statistics of Respondents’ Characteristics Among the 108 responding students, nearly 90 percent of all (91, 89%) came directly from the local senior second schools. A few had completed Higher Diploma (4, 3.7%) and Ordinary Diploma (6, 5.6%), while two came from overseas (2, 1.8%) (see Table 1). Before enrolling in this course, they had taken subjects of Arts (48, 44.4%), Science (44, 40.7%) and Commerce (38, 35.2%). Overall, the distribution was rather even, indicating that the respondents had a diverse academic background. Moreover, they had different intentions in choosing their specialism in the second year. Forty-two students (38.9%) wanted to take Fashion Design as their specialism while twenty-two students (25%) preferred to take Retailing. Fourteen students (13%) chose Marketing stream while eight of them (7.4%) planned to enroll in the Technology stream. Preferential Ranking of Learning Environment In this study, the respondents had a positive attitude towards most of the items in the questionnaire. Table 2 shows the ranking of the 34 items according to their mean scores. Six items had a mean core over 3.0, 26 over 2.0, and 2 over 1.0. Nevertheless, none was below 1.0. Amongst all, questions of ‘would have a professor who was not just an instructor, but more an explainer, entertainer and friend’ and ‘would provide experiences and material that is relevant to 316 Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 33, 2006 Table 1. Summary of Respondents’ Academic Background Variables Frequency (n) Percentage (%) Academic background Secondary school Higher Diploma Diploma Others 91 4 6 2 89.0 3.7 5.6 1.9 Subjects taken in secondary school Arts Science Commerce Others 48 44 38 6 44.4 40.7 35.2 5.6 Specialism intended to be selected Fashion Design Fashion retailing Marketing & merchandising Fashion technology 42 27 14 8 38.9 25.0 13.0 7.4 Remark: n=108 what I need to know later’ received the highest mean scores of 3.22 and 3.20; while questions of ‘would have the focus on having the right answers rather than on discussing methods on how to solve problems’ and ‘would provide assignments with practical everyday applications’ had the lowest scores of 1.46 and 1.83. This indicated that most of these students highly valued the role of instructors as explainer, entertainer and friend. Also, they saw their importance of the subject knowledge to their future needs. However, they seemed not to prefer direct instruction and ‘spoon feed’ teaching style and their pursuance of knowledge was not confined to daily operational tasks. They were expecting for more knowledge at managerial or strategic levels. Factor Analysis of the Learning Environment Preferences To have a deeper understanding on the nature of the 34 items regarding students’ behavioral preferences towards different leaning modes, a principal component factor analysis was used for this research study. A cut-off point of factor loading of 0.40 was conducted to include items in the interpretation of a factor. An inspection of the factor loadings, 14 of the initial 34 items were found either loaded on several factors or had low loadings, reflecting the heterogeneity of items. After several runs, these problematic items were deleted from further analysis, and the resulting solutions were improved. Finally, 20 items were left and seven clean factors with Eigenvalue equal to or greater than one were yielded. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Index was 0.648 and the total variance in the original data explained was 64.682% (see Table 3). This confirmed that factor analysis was statistically viable to be run amongst the dataset and the resulting factors accounted for a large portion of the variance among the variables. Factor 1 was the main factor derived from the exploratory factor analysis which included items of ‘would provide a relaxed atmosphere where discussion is encouraged’, ‘would provide a workshop/seminar atmosphere so that we can exchange ideas & evaluate our own perspectives on subject matter’, and ‘would provide a classroom atmosphere of exploring and debating new ideas’. The Eigenvalue of this factor was 3.315 with a factor mean score of 2.85 and a Cronbach-alpha of 0.728. In light of the content of these three items, we renamed it as ‘Learning Atmosphere’. Its mean score was the second highest, indicating the respondents highly valued a relaxed learning atmosphere that would allow them to exchange as well as to explore new ideas. Factor 2 was the second derived factor including the items of ‘would be where the professor doesn't tell me the answers; rather s/he shows me how to find the answers for my self’, ‘would let me learn on my own because I hate being spoon-fed by professors/tutors’, and ‘would be where I have my own opinions and I think for myself.’ The Eigenvalue was 1.879 and the mean score was recorded as 2.475. The Cronbach-alpha is equal to 0.661. It was renamed as ‘Learning Autonomy’. The ranking of the mean score of this factor was in the middle, yet, still over the neutral point of 2.0. This indicated that the responding students had a rather positive attitude towards autonomy learning. Factor 3 had items of ‘would reward me with high grades for independent thought’, ‘would reward me with good grades when I worked hard to learn the material’ and‘would have a professor who was not just an instructor, but more an explainer, entertainer and friend’ (Eigenvalue = 1.673; mean score = 2.898; Cronbach-alpha = 0.618). We called this factor as ‘Motivation and Reward’. This factor has the highest mean score value. This strongly indicated that this group of students was mostly reward-oriented. They linked their learning to the rewards they can receive. Factor 4 also had three items, ‘would emphasize class discussion but I would expect the professor/tutor to tell us the right answer’ ‘would be where I take effective notes on 317 Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 33, 2006 Table 2. Mean Scores of Respondents’ Behavioral Preferences of Learning Modes Items Mean SD would have the focus on having the right answers rather than on discussing methods on how to solve problems. would provide assignments with practical everyday applications would be where I could listen intently to the professor/tutor and not to classmates and peers for answers to questions would include straightforward, not tricky tests, covering only what has been taught and nothing else would be lectures since I am get the information I need to know most efficiently would be where the professor doesn't tell me the answers; rather s/he shows me how to find the answers for myself would be where I would have a lot of control over the course content and class discussion would provide me with a professor/tutor who is a source of expertise only in a particular subject area would let me learn on my own because I hate being spoon-fed by professors/tutors would include exams and assessment as pan of the learning process would be a 'free-flowing' class that does not follow a said outline would value my classmates as sources of information, not only as companions include grading that is by a pre-arranged point system (for homework, tests, final) since I think that is most fair would emphasize class discussion but I would expect the professor/tutor to tell us the right answer would be where learning is a mutual experience where I contribute to the teaching and learning in class would reward me with high grades for independent thought would be where the professor/tutor is an expert who knows all the answers is where my opinion counts, but I have to support it with factual evidence would be where I can make connections among various subjects and am encouraged to construct an adequate arguments would provide a workshop or seminar atmosphere so that we can exchange ideas and evaluate our own perspectives on the subject matter would be where I take effective notes on what is presented in class and reproduce that information on tests. would provide a flexible class where I can explore independent learning options would reward me with good grades when I worked hard to learn me material would let me learn from my classmates and peers would provide a classroom atmosphere of exploring and debating new ideas would have die professor/tutor giving me all the theory and information I need to know would be where I have my own opinions and I think for myself would provide a relaxed atmosphere where discussion is encouraged. would take learning seriously and be where I feel personally motivated to learn the subject would encourage me to learn using lots of different learning methods would be where the professor provides me with clear directions and guidance for all course activities and assignments would allow peers the right to have their own opinions would provide experiences and material that is relevant to what I need to know later would have a professor who was not just an instructor, but more an explainer, entertainer and friend 1.46 1.83 2.08 2.09 2.15 2.21 2.23 2.24 2.27 2.28 2.38 2.44 2.45 2.56 2.57 2.59 2.60 2.61 2.67 2.69 2.71 2.87 2.88 2.89 2.90 2.93 2.94 2.94 3.03 3.04 3.08 3.14 3.20 3.22 0.891 1.037 0.918 1.019 0.925 1.024 0.816 0.852 0.953 0.926 1.011 0.835 0.847 0.899 0.751 0.821 0.875 0.807 0.820 0.803 0.786 0.821 0.782 0.740 0.831 0.828 0.863 0.783 0.814 0.784 0.738 0.690 0.638 0.753 318 Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 33, 2006 319 Table 3. Students’ Behavioral Preferences in Learning modes - Rotated Component Matrix Components Learning Mode Attributes Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5 Factor 6 Factor 7 would provide a relaxed atmosphere where discussion is encouraged would provide a workshop/seminar atmosphere so that we can exchange ideas & evaluate our own perspectives on the subject matter would provide a classroom atmosphere of exploring and debating new ideas would be where the professor doesn't tell me the answers; rather s/he shows me how to find the answers for my self would let me learn on my own because I hate being spoon-fed by professors/tutors would be where I have my own opinions and I think for myself would reward me with high grades for independent thought would reward me with good grades when I worked hard to learn me material would have a professor who was not just an instructor, but more an explainer, entertainer and friend would emphasize class discussion but I would expect the professor/tutor to tell us the right answer would be where I take effective notes on what is presented in class and reproduce that information on tests would be lectures since I am get the information I need to know most efficiently would be where I could listen intently to the professor/tutor and not to classmates and peers for answers to questions would have the focus on having the right answers rather than on discussing methods on how to solve problems include grading that is by a pre-arranged point system (for homework, tests, final) since I think that is most fair. would be where learning is a mutual experience where I contribute to the teaching and learning in class. would provide assignments with practical everyday applications would be a 'free-flowing' class that does not follow a said outline 0.824 0.748 0.743 0.828 0.763 0.621 0.830 0.741 0.602 0.702 0.681 0.656 0.778 0.620 0.873 0.626 0.833 -0.605 Eigenvalue: Factor mean Cronbach's alpha 3.315 2.8457 .728 1.879 2.4753 .661 1.673 2.8981 .618 1.516 2.4753 .466 1.1.92 1.7731 .354 1.066 2.513 .467 1.001 2.1065 -.412 Remark: Exaction method = Principal Component Analysis Rotation = Varimax with Kaiser Normalization; 7 iterations KMO = .648 Total variance explained = 64.682% Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 33, 2006 320 what is presented in class and reproduce that information on tests’ and ‘would be lectures since I am get the information I need to know most efficiently, (Eigenvalue = 1.516; mean score = 2.475; Cronbach-alpha = 0.466). This factor was renamed as ‘Teaching Material and Answer’. Its mean score was the same as Factor 2. The responding students considered the provision of teaching materials and solutions to a problem to be fairly useful. Factor 5 included items of ‘would be where I could listen intently to the professor/tutor and not to classmates and peers for answers to questions’ and ‘would have the focus on having the right answers rather than on discussing methods on how to solve problems’. Its Eigenvalue is 1.192 with a factor mean score of 1.773 and a Cronbach-alpha of 0.354. We renamed the factor as ‘Direct Instruction’. The mean score was the lowest, strongly indicating that the respondents had a negative attitude towards direct instruction given by the instructors. They preferred discussion with their peer students. Factor 6 was also comprised of two items of ‘include grading that is by a pre-arranged point system (for homework, tests, final) since I think that is most fair’ and ‘would be where learning is a mutual experience where I contribute to the teaching and learning in class’ (Eigenvalue = 1.066; mean score = 2.513; Cronbach-alpha = 0.467). It was called ‘Evaluation of Learning’. It had a third highest mean score. Students regarded proper evaluation to be important to their learning process. Factor 7 was the last factor derived from the factor analysis and it also consisted of two items: ‘would provide assignments with practical everyday applications’ and ‘would be a 'free-flowing' class that does not follow a said outline’ (Eigenvalue = 1.001; mean score = 2.107; Cronbach-alpha = - 0.412). It was called ‘Structure of Teaching’. It had a mean value just above 2.0, indicating that the attitude towards structured teaching method was rather neutral. CONCLUSION Much of the research in the Chinese learners was based on the theoretical stance that has become known as the Student Approaches to Learning (SAL) paradigm (Biggs, 1987, 1993). It was argued that the Western misperceived the Chinese learner as rote learner. Marton, Dall’Alba and Tse (1996) suggested that Chinese students learn repetitively in the belief that memorisation can lead to understanding. It was found that Hong Kong students (Chinese students) tend to have good receptive skills, listening and reading, but they have poor expressive skills both in speaking and writing in English as a second language (Biggs & Wakins, 1996; Wakins & Biggs, 2001). In fact Chinese learners use repetition strategically more often than Westerners do in their attempts to understand their world. They aim to understand and therefore choosing to memorise would allow them to be more effective to achieve their goal. In this study, seven factors in student’s learning behaviour were recorded in this Hong Kong study and they were ‘Learning Atmosphere’, ‘Learning Autonomy’, ‘Motivation and Reward’, ‘Material and Answer’, ‘Direct Instruction’, and ‘Structure of Teaching’. The findings of this paper shed some light on the subject matter on the mode of learning for Chinese students and suggest that Chinese students are not just rote learner and their learning behavior can be more than one type. As a matter of fact, the continuation of this preliminary study is to explore more in depth on the issues on these seven factors to fit in today’s multimedia teaching and learning in the classroom setting in Hong Kong educational institution just as Townsend & Townsend opted for the benefits of adopting multimedia in teaching in 1992. REFERENCE Biggs, J.B. (1987) Student Approaches to Learning and Studying, Australian Council for Education Research. Biggs, J.B. (1993) “What do Inventories of Students’ Learning Processes Really Measure? A Theoretical Review and Clarification”, British Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 63, 3-19. Biggs, John B. & Watkins, D.A. (1996) The Chinese Learner in Retrospect, in (Ed.) Wakins, David A. & Biggs, J.B., The Chinese Learners: Cultural, Psychological and Contextual Influence, CERC & ACER, 269-285. Bruder, I. (1991) “Guide to Multimedia: How It Changes the Way We Teach and Learn?” Electronic Learning, September 22-26. Chang, J., Choi, K.F., Moon, K.L., Chan, P., & Chan, L.K. (2004) “Student Expectations of Classroom Teaching Practices in Developing and Presenting Course Information in Hong Kong.” Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Learning, Vol. 31, 233-241. Chang, J., Choi, K.F., Moon, K.L., Chan, P., Chan, L.K, and To, C.K.M, (2005) “Teaching Practices: A Cluster Analysis of Students in Hong Kong”, Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Vol. 32, pp. 373-380. Light, Greg & Cox, R. (2001) Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: The Reflective Professional, PCP Publishing. Marton, F., Dall’Alba, G. and Tse, L.K.(1996) Memorizing and Understand: The Keys to the Paradox?, in (Ed.) Wakins, David A. & Biggs, J.B., The Chinese Learners: Cultural, Psychological and Contextual Influence, CERC & ACER, 69-83. Ramarapu, N., Cites, T., & Overby, J. (1996) “Multimedia in the Year 2000: How Will It Affect Our Life?” Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Learning, Vol. 23, 175-176. Snyder, S.J. & Vaugher, M.J. (1996) “Multimedia & Learning: Where is the connection?” Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Learning, Vol. 23, 179-180. Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 33, 2006 Snyder, S.J. & Vaugher, M.J. (1998) “Multimedia and Student Expectation.” Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Learning, Vol. 25, 179-186. Snyder, S.J. (1996) “Multimedia in the Workplace: Who is Really Using it and Where is it Headed?” Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Learning, Vol. 23, 152-156. Townsend, Frank C. & Townsend, Catherine M., (1992), Meeting Learning Needs through Multimedia: A Look at the Way Modern Technology Can Help Classroom Teachers Meet the Varied Instructional Needs of Students., Learning Style Inventory, ERIC, Resources in Education (RIE). Tokoro, M. and Steels, L. (Ed.) (2003) The future of learning, Ohmsha, IOS Press. Wakins, David A. & Biggs, J.B. (2001) The Paradox of the Chinese Learners and Beyond, in (Ed.) Teaching the Chinese Learners: Psychological and Pedagogical Perspectives, Comparative Education Research Centre, HKU, 3-23. 321 Table of Contents Volume 33, 2006 Learning Assurance Using Business Simulations Applications To Executive Management Education Team Teaching In An Integrated Business Course Using Critical Problem Based Learning Factors In An Integrated Undergraduate Business Curriculum: A Business Course Success Personality Type And Strategic Planning Business Games As Strategic Management Laboratories The Relationship Between Students' Success On A Simulation Exercise And Their Perception Of Its Effectiveness As A PBL Problem Forecasting Accuracy And Learning: The Key To Measuring Simulation Performance The Business Strategy Game: A Performance Review Of The New Online Edition Using The Socratic Method And Bloom's Taxonomy Of The Cognitive Domain To Enhance Online Discussion, Critical Thinking, And Student Learning Using Negotiation Exercises To Promote Critical Thinking Skills Effective Leadership Experiences For Management Majors In A Futures Class The Role Of Learning Versus Performance Orientations When Reacting To Negative Outcomes In Simulation Games Is Pay Inversion Ethical? A Three-Part Exercise Simulations And Experiential Exercises - Do They Result In Learning? Have We Figured It Out Yet? Examining Program Management In Business Simulations: Student And Faculty Views Validating Business Simulations: Do Simulations Exhibit Natural Market Structures? Characterizing Business Games Used In Distance Education Utilizing Games In A Graduate Level Instructional Game Course Employment Interview Preparation: Assessing The Writing-To-Learn Approach Simulations - Bridging From Thwarted Innovation To Disruptive Technology Creating An Authentic Cultural Lens Using Case Dialogue Learning By Fire: Reflections Of A First Time Online Instructor An International Internship With A Service-Learning Focus Learner Participation In The Online Learning Experience: Help Or Hindrance? Any Given Sunday: Intervention In Pursuit Of Simulation Team Parity Beginning With The End: Creating An Experiential Exercise From Assessment Criteria Simulating Life Cycles: Life Span As The Measure Of Performance In Business Gaming Simulations It's Puzzling: Communications, Competition, And Cooperation Balanced Scorecard Implementation For Strategy Management: Variation Of Manager Opinion In Real And Simulated Companies Cases And Business Games: The Perfect Match! Three-Attribute Interrelationships For Industry-Level Demand Equations Using A Web-Based Module To Teach Information Literacy Decision Support System For Demand Forecasting In Business Games The Invalidity Of Profit=F(Market Share) PIMS Validation Of Marketing Games Online Market Test Laboratory With The MINSIM* Program The Gas Mileage Game - A Policy Simulation Delivered Cost And Differentiation Applied To Threshold 3rd Ed. The Effect Of Team-Leadership Modes On Team Performance: A Preliminary Study The Design And Use Of A Macroeconomics Simulation Using Maple Software: A Pilot Study The Instructor's Toolbox: A Meaning-Centered Framework For The Social Construction Of Experiential Learning Incorporating Strategic Product-Mix Decisions Into Simulation Games: Modeling The 'Profitable-Product Death Spiral' Group Composition And Groupthink In A Business Game A Direct Approach To Teaching Business Ethics A Decision Support System For Planning Sales, Production, And Plant Addition With Manager: A Computer Simulation Polish - American Entrepreneurial Business Cooperation Workshop Utilizing The Income/Outcome Simulation Student Leader Training Exercise Student Preference To Mode Of Learning In Hong Kong Experiential Learning For Technology-Based And Management Programme In Hong Kong: A China Study Tour A Price Game With Product Differentiation In The Classroom Discrete Event Modeling In A New Transportation Simulation Supply-Side Modeling In A Total Enterprise Simulation The Quality Game Towards A Massive Multiplayer Online Business Simulation Making The Connection: Improving Virtual Team Performance Through Behavioral Assessment Profiling And Behavioral Cues Individual Learning Producing A Learning Organization: 'Playing Dice With Polar Bears' Narratology and Ludology: Competing Paradigms or Complementary Theories in Simulation Framework For Evaluating Internet Research Using Children's Games To Illustrate Strategy Concepts: Is Less Better?