INDIVIDUAL ACHIEVEMENT DOES NOT GUARANTEE TEAM PERFORMANCE: AN EVIDENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING WITH BUSINESS GAMES Developments in Business Simulations and Experiential Learning, Volume 32, 2005 INDIVIDUAL ACHIEVEMENT DOES NOT GUARANTEE TEAM PERFORMANCE: AN EVIDENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING WITH BUSINESS GAMES Antonio Carlos Aidar Sauaia Universidade de São Paulo asauaia@usp.br Guilherme Mirage Umeda Universidade de São Paulo ABSTRACT Nowadays, teamwork emerges as a productive, competitive, and efficient organizational configuration. At the employee selection, it has been emphasized the need for professionals with social skills for team integration, as long as more integrated corporate models are coming out and being consolidated (Casado, 2002: 237). Under a company’s view based on resources (Fleury e Oliveira, 2002: 134) knowledge intangible assets are complemented with skills to be applied in collective contexts. By this way, purely cognitive knowledge does not guarantee excellence to the organization. Senge (1990:19) poses a question: “how is it possible that a group of managers with an individual IQ over 120 has a collective IQ of 63?” The author believes that coordinated actions development, dialogue-based, constitutes a key factor to the modern organization. Group learning skills can overcome the limits of the local team knowledge, deposited by each one of its individual participants. The premise here adopted was that students who obtained higher academic marks in business courses would perform better managing simulated companies. Two groups of Brazilian graduate students were ranked in descending order according to the average of their individual grades and arranged in teams to compete in a Total Enterprise business game. The results after running 8 quarters showed that teams formed by high achievers did not necessarily produce the best performance during the first 4 quarters, being possibly surpassed by low achiever teams that seem to learn faster the game rules. Surprisingly in the first replication there is significant evidence of individual knowledge producing superior performance in the second half of the experiment, as the trivial problems become more complex and demand long-term orientation instead of short- term focus. Results indicate that it is too naive for both, companies and business schools, to assess competencies based only on individual achievement. Organizational learning skills should be seriously taken into account as well. Identifying good managers is not a trivial task: plenty of methods and criteria show that there is not a completely safe way of carrying out a head hunting process. In general, companies have put constant and significant effort on recruiting and selecting talents recently graduated at good business schools. If higher academic achievers were a certain assurance for also higher results, it could be sufficient to examine the academic records and select talents based on purely academic performance. The academic institution has its own criteria to assess the students’ cognitive level and based on that, to approve and certify its students. INTRODUCTION The collective organization is an ancient institution of Business studies. By proposing the job division as a means to increase individual efforts efficiency, Adam Smith fundaments a company basis as a reunion of people that produce more together than separated. This idea gained new contours until flowing towards the organizational learning modern theories. At a time when Smith’s influence had already been assimilated by the majority organizations, Peter Senge (1990:73) affirmed that specialization could efficiently solve daily problems but would fail to deal with more complex issues. He proposed that teamwork synergistic gains could overcome scale economy, by affirming that: “a team that learns in group is more capable to deal with corporate systemic complexities”. Why do not companies use only the same traditionally adopted average marks as objective and universal ranking criteria, and base on that its selection? If, objective grades do not say all about an applicant, on the other hand there is some hope that the academic education aggregates differential value to form apt professionals by means of either knowledge, or skills, or attitudes. Because of that employees are stimulated to continue studying and sometimes negotiating at their job contracts some additional benefits, such as partial or full sponsorship for specialization 266 Developments in Business Simulations and Experiential Learning, Volume 32, 2005 courses, graduate programs that offer continuing education and, in many cases conditioning the career advancement. PREVIOUS STUDIES Large financial resources have been invested in talent formation and in professional updating via continuing education – MBA programs, corporate university, courses abroad, and so on. Are these funds being properly directed to the most efficient purposes? Does the essentially cognitive content of undergraduate and graduate education provide organizations with expected financial return, by means of activity results? Questions like these motivated the present study as a reflex of a growing concern about creating and sustaining competitive advantages based on intellectual capital, one of the major intangible resources of corporations. In addition to its potential as a systemic learning tool, Total Enterprise business games have also been used as a “laboratory” for developing academic-purpose researches. Some examined the relation between academic performance measures and corporate simulation play. Results, as showed hereunder by Wolfe (1978) were inconclusive (Exhibit 1): Similar conclusions were reached by Badgett, Brenenstuhl and Marshall (1978) affirming that the factors, which influence and condition the corporate simulation performance, are diverse and complementary to those that ensure success in other academic activities. Gosenpud and Washbush (1991) compared different antecedents and their relationship to simulation performance when a game was played in teams versus played by individuals. The results showed that university GPA and academic major predicted performance for individual players but not for teams. In a study presented by Sauaia (2004), using a Total Enterprise business game application as research universe, it is quite clear the gap between what is taught in Business schools – focus on achievement – and the performance resulting from managerial practice. Participated in the experiment 163 undergraduate students in Business and Accounting courses at University of São Paulo, Brazil. Results from 7 runs of 32 simulated companies (MMG – The Multinational Management Game) were compared to individual marks obtained at two instruments: one test about Business concepts, and one exam over a brochure about the business game. Students were ranked in descending order according to their exams marks and then arranged in groups of five or six components. Individual tests were considered here as predominantly cognitive evaluations. The findings demonstrated low and statistically non-significant correlations between achievement exams average marks and respective business game performances. The main conclusion of the study was that individual achievement and performance measures in simulated companies assess – and thus require – distinct competencies. These methods would be complementary to a proper evaluation of future managers. The business game, despite being a simplified reality model, is based on knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to succeed in the real world. It demonstrates that static knowledge contained in an excellent strategic plan depends on dynamic ability, skills and attitudes to be properly executed. Another recent article (Thavikulvat and Pillutla, 2004) reports on two studies that were conducted to determine whether (a) total enterprise simulations (CEO) are suitable for assessing business skills and (b) the tournament concept can be effectively applied to such simulations. The first study involved 141 senior business students; the second, 74. The results are consistently favorable on both questions for the particular simulation adopted. The studies also show that the free-rider problem that may have previously undermined the validity of simulation performance scores can be overcome by incorporating a system of individual performance scores, and that a progressively difficult simulation experience can keep participants challenged for 30 decision periods. Exhibit 1 Correlation between achievement and performance studies Author Year Study Measures Findings Average at ATGSB exam and accumulated profits. No correlation was found. Dill 1961 ATGSB exam and academic average mark Correlation between 0.4 and 0.5 ATGSB and ROI of simulated company Weak correlations (0.07 to –0.07) Potter 1965 GPA and ROI of simulated company Correlation –0.4 McKenney and Dill 1966 Students teams “upon average”, “average” or “under average” and profits. Correlation was found. None correlation with sales volume. Wolfe 1978 Academic evaluations, aptitudes and performance in simulation (individual companies). Correlation was found. All students considered the simulation as a learning tool. Source: Adapted from Wolfe, 1978. RESEARCH PROBLEM The following question proposed in this study is in part a replication and an advance of previous studies (Dill, 1961; Potter, 1965; McKenney & Dill, 1966; Nielsen, 1975; Badgett, 1978; Wolfe, 1978; Gosenpud, 1987, 1991; Gosenpud & Washbush, 1993-8; Sauaia, 2004). Even studying similar research problems, replications have been conducted with different business games at different schools 267 Developments in Business Simulations and Experiential Learning, Volume 32, 2005 and populations. Besides, researchers have adopted different individual measures to evaluate participants’ achievement. Each study has been designed differently in search of external validity – similar results in different experiments testing analogous hypothesis. • Is that true that, besides the necessary knowledge to planning process, also the organizational learning skills and attitudes are essential to the new group of managers in order to guarantee superior performance to a company? It has been adopted, as null hypothesis, the premise that higher individual achievement (average marks) produces better team performance (simulation results). METHOD Despite the different treatment given to the students ranking process, now based on compound averages of all the remaining program disciplines, the research problem proposed hereby is directly related to the experiment carried out by Sauaia (2004). Exhibit 2 shows the differences between this study and the previous one. In this way, to examine the problem it was carried out a reprocessing of data used by the author, in addition to two replications of the same experiment, with different device and population. DATA REPROCESSING To reprocess a database created in a pedagogical context demands several actions that can affect the scientific strictness in the case of more rigorous analyses. However, it is possible to make some adaptations in order to reduce the risk, so that obtaining safer results from the study. A first review of Sauaia (2004) experiment is the one where accumulated score – performance measure employed in evaluating the companies´ results – works within a discrete and comparative scale in MMG business simulation. Seven group performance ratios were collected, comprising profitability, indebtedness and turnover. In each one, the score allocation is ordinal (in an industry of 8 participants, the company with the best ratio receives 80 points, the second 70, and so on, no matter the difference between the intervals). After that, ratio scores are added resulting in a performance measure. This number is no longer an ordinal but an interval, once the score modular distance is relevant. To convert scores into a scale from 0 to 10, comparable to the grades, the company that achieved the highest score was attributed a 10 and each company score was divided by the leader’s, so obtaining proportional and competitive grades. When game scores are correlated with average marks obtained in individual exams, part of the interval scale precision is lost. Other problem resulting from this score method is the unlikelihood of making comparisons among industries, since they are comparable within their own group only. With the purpose to refine the study the same database was reprocessed. Instead of accumulated score (discrete), it was adopted ROI (return on investments) measure, a continuing and interval variable. Doing so, the marks correlated with simulation performance could be carried out without the previous statistic restrictions. Exhibit 2 Different approaches of replications here studied Database Previous study: 2002 This study: 2003 Population 163 undergraduate students 70 (Finance); 40 (Accounting) graduate students Business School One public school; SP – Brazil (Southeast) Two private schools; Bahia – Brazil (Northeast) Business Game Multinational Management Game, 1992 Executive Game, 1972 Teams per industry 8 firms; 6 members firms in each team 7 firms; 5 members in each team Duration One semester One week Number of runs 7 rounds (years) 8 rounds (quarters) Individual achievement Grades from one quiz and one exam Grades gathered from all previous courses Team performance Accumulated points: 7 performance indicators Single performance indicator: ROE The new variable brought up the possibility to compare the companies’ performance in different industries. ROI is a standardized measure; it is not relevant to know in which specific industry it is being invested, but what is the related return (under the investor’s view). At the same way, knowledge evaluation criterion has a standardizing character, once marks from 0 to 10 are generally accepted for academic pedagogical assessment. In the search of validating the obtained findings of previous experiment, it was calculated the correlation between companies score and correspondent ROI. The use of ordinal ratios, in an interval scale could jeopardize measurement process. Nevertheless, Exhibit 3 results demonstrate that a strong correlation exists between both criteria, indicating that the produced error margin is smaller that one could suppose. 268 Developments in Business Simulations and Experiential Learning, Volume 32, 2005 Exhibit 3 Correlation between ROI and accumulated scores (database 2002) ROI PONT_ACU ROI 1,000 0,779** Accumulated Scores (PONT_ACU) 0,779** 1,000 ** Correlation is significant at 0,01 level (2-tailed) A second review was obtained as concerning to data analysis. Instead of using the student as a study unit, the whole group was used in this reprocessing. That happened because of two reasons. First, because the simulation performance grades for each student suffers from the interferences of his or her own presence in the classroom. When the student was absent, the part related to the points produced by his/her absence was discounted from the mark. However, it cannot be affirmed that one absence had prevented from contributing to the result, because each decision received the corporate history effects, in which the absentee did participate. Second, because the simulation did not evaluate each student individually as happened with knowledge marks. One can only conclude that participation of each member was proportional (Exhibit 4). The results shown in Exhibit 5 used as knowledge factor the average exams marks of all group participants. Team performance the simulated company was measured at the end of the game. One can observe from the correlation and significance ratio that there is no duplicity between achievement and performance measures. The strategy implementation in organizations, process in which the teacher-centered dominant education has little efficiency to deal with, has proven to be a distinct ability from acquired knowledge and demonstrated via exams. Sauaia´s (2004) conclusions can be supported by these results. FIRST REPLICATION The first replica was carried out in post-graduate program in Finance with a time schedule of 24 hours, concentrated on one-week period (evening classes, 4 hours each). A list with all general average marks of each student in all previous disciplines of the program (one year long) was used to arrange the groups. The purpose of applying this criterion was to eliminate result distortions of using a single exam, subject to many circumstantial variations. The experiment comprised 69 students of two different classes, gathered at an oral presentation and general directions at the beginning of the course. Seven groups were formed in one out of two industries with an average of 5 participants. The software used in this experiment, a version of the Executive Game (EG), presents lower difficulty level comparing to MMG, which is more adequate in case of short duration courses (one week). Its single performance measure is the Return on Equity (ROE) ratio. Seven or eight decision rounds were performed (in quarterly basis, run up to 2 years of the simulated time). At the end of year one the best performing firm got a grant in money credited as extra gains. From the fifth round on, it was adopted a new decision form, a decision support instrument formatted as a cash flow forecast. Besides, critical incidents that altered the companies’ scenario were adopted every quarter demanding extra attention of teams and better planning (for example: at the fifth quarter, the raw material supplier faced problems and had to sale (in auction) the few loads it had in stock, provoking additional charges and asymmetry of production factors). No incident was completely unanticipated; all of them were preceded by signs, in articles inserted into the quarterly bulletin available to the groups through purchase. Exhibit 4 Changes in the original processing Element Sauaia (2004) Reprocessing Sample unit Individual student Group Performance Measure Score (interval-scale marks in industries) ROI (interval-scale comparable among industries) Knowledge Measure Individual students marks Average of each participant mark of each group Exhibit 5 Reprocessing of correlations (database 2002) MED_CONH ROI Average (MED) Knowledge (CONH) 1,000 0,124 ROI 0,124 1,000 Significance 0,499 269 Developments in Business Simulations and Experiential Learning, Volume 32, 2005 First replicate correla Correlations (2 Classes) MED CONH ROE1 RO Average knowledge (MED_CONH) 1 0,383 0,4 ROE1 0,383 1 0,5 ROE2 0,407 0,500 1 ROE3 0,260 0,006 0,67 ROE4 0,291 0,111 0,69 ROE5 0,696** 0,388 0,1 ROE6 0,700** 0,333 0,1 ROE7 0,629* 0,329 0,1 ROE8 0,728 0,428 -0,0 Major changes during the two years in the business game First simulated Learning th Decision ** Significance > 0.01 (2-tailed). DATA ANALYSIS OF THE FIRST REPLICATI The results of Exhibit 6 indicate low significance le and low correlations between individual achievement team performance in the first four simulation cycles ( 1). Low achievers seem to have reached better perform than high achievers. At this point of the game (periods 4), the challenges were team integration (cohesion), control and understanding of the relations among competitive environment variables. Considering thes “daily problems”, results show that low achievers more effective than high achievers to produce sup results in the short run, demonstrating to learn faster. In periods 5 to 8, second year of simulation, seasonality of demand observed in the first year coul predicted, increasing the predictive ability of the mana To reduce the predictability effect, critical incidents brought in during Year 2 at each quarter, making companies´ environment more turbulent. In spite of achievement and performance showed a signif correlation in the fifth (0,696**) and sixth (0,70 quarters. The significance level declined in the sev (0,629*) and disappeared in the eighth quarter (0,728). event suggests that in Year 2, once all teams overc learning of the rules, short term orientation fail to pro superior results. Problems became more com demanding from successful teams orientation to the term. Initial performance based on memorized knowl and rapid responses were able to add value to compa until a new set of complex critical incidents make pr team-learning skills. The same memory effect observed in the prev experiment (Sauaia, 2004) could be noticed in correla between return rates of some consecutive quarters (2 an 3 and 4; 5 and 6; 6 and 7). Correlations are hi Exhibit 6 tions (Pearson) - database 2003 E2 ROE3 ROE4 ROE5 ROE6 ROE7 ROE8 07 0,260 0,291 0,696** 0,700** 0,629* 0,728 00 0,006 0,111 0,388 0,333 0,329 0,428 0,678* * 0,691** 0,174 0,175 0,173 -0,074 8** 1 0,937** 0,328 0,338 0,356 -0,178 1** 0,937* * 1 0,393 0,385 0,435 -0,202 74 0,328 0,393 1 0,984** 0,969** 0,806* 75 0,338 0,385 0,984** 1 0,967** 0,824* 73 0,356 0,435 0,969** 0,967** 1 0,696 74 -0,178 -0,202 0,806* 0,824* 0,696 1 Year: “daily problems” e rules of the game; form as data entry Second simulated year: “complex problems” Dealing with critical incidents; Decision form as a Cash Flow forecast * Significance > 0.05 (2-tailed). 270 ON vels and Year ance 1 to rules the e as were erior the d be gers. were the this, icant 0**) enth This ame duce plex long edge nies evail ious tions d 3; ghly significant and demonstrate that the reached performance in one period affects the subsequent period performance. The last year is an exception to this rule, indicating the possible presence of “end-of-the-game” strategies, despite the teacher’s efforts to inhibit such practice. DATA ANALYSIS OF THE SECOND REPLICATION The second experiment followed the same design of the first replica and was carried out at the same week with double time scheduled (40 hours, morning and afternoon classes). The 7 groups with 5 members each operated the EG for 8 quarters in an Accounting MsC. program. The same activities were adopted at each quarter of year 1.At the end of year 1 the best performance firm was granted a prize in cash. At this moment it was also announced a comprehensive job rotation exchanging managers among firms. This additional incident has distributed among teams the cognitive learning occurred during year 1and promoted sharing of best practices in the business games. Besides, critical incidents were the same adopted on first replica during year 2, including the adoption of a new decision form in a forecast cash flow format. Exhibit 7 shows that correlations between individual achievement and team performance are not statistically significant in all 8 quarters (years 1 and 2). There was no distinction between correlations in Year 1, learning rules phase, and Year 2, with a plenty of more complex problems. Perhaps the negative correlations at the first quarter could reinforce that low achievers were once more faster learners than high achievers considering “daily problems”. It can be noted that the memory effect is observed many times in correlations between consecutive quarterly results (2 and 3; 3 and 4; 4 and 5; 6 and 7; 7 and 8). Developments in Business Simulations and Experiential Learning, Volume 32, 2005 Exhibit 7 Correlations (Pearson) in the second replicate - database 2003 Correlations (2 Classes) MED CONH ROE1 ROE2 ROE3 ROE4 ROE5 ROE6 ROE7 ROE8 Average knowledge (MED_CONH) 1 -0,657 0,175 0,282 0,439 0,472 0,506 0,513 0,484 ROE1 -0,657 1 -0,042 -0,172 -0,299 -0,277 -0,635 -0,573 -0,542 ROE2 0,175 -0,042 1 0,896* * 0,521 0,519 -0,121 -0,082 -0,097 ROE3 0,282 -0,172 0,896** 1 0,746* 0,729* -0,009 0,021 0,014 ROE4 0,439 -0,299 0,521 0,746* 1 0,990** 0,435 0,267 0,254 ROE5 0,472 -0,277 0,519 0,729* 0,990** 1 0,426 0,249 0,233 ROE6 0,506 -0,635 -0,121 -0,009 0,435 0,426 1 0,911** 0,898** ROE7 0,513 -0,573 -0,082 0,021 0,267 0,249 0,911** 1 0,999** ROE8 0,484 -0,542 -0,097 0,014 0,254 0,233 0,898** 0,999** 1 Major changes during the two years in the business game First simulated Year: “daily problems” Learning the rules of the game; Decision form as data entry Second simulated year: “complex problems” Dealing with critical incidents; Job rotation; Decision form as a Cash Flow forecast ** Significance > 0.01 (2-tailed). * Significance > 0.05 (2-tailed). CONCLUSIONS The analysis of results give support to the idea that business games evaluated learning aspects not measured by individual assessment tools. Therefore, in all three studied samples there is a consistent gap between individual achievement and team performance, no matter what the business game is being used, what is the external environment designed in the simulation, or what is the criteria to allocate students in teams. Such gap is a consistent evidence of the organizational learning process observed differently in all groups derived from teamwork short term oriented and not correlated with the objective knowledge, existing a priori in individuals. In all three experiments, low or statistically non-significant correlations between individual students and team performances can be observed. Teamwork results did not represent the simple addition of individual results, as anticipated by Senge’s studies (1990), not only in real companies but also in simulated firms. This is evidence that the problems brought in by business simulations can be designed to study organizational learning for low and high achievers. Challenges may focus daily problems in a short term perspective or more complex problems, long term oriented. High or low achievers, depending on the project’s life cycle, could administer new projects demanding for managers. Low achievers considering their competencies seem to respond faster and could supervise short life cycle. As the problems become more complex and the project’s life cycle grows to be longer, high achievers were supposed to take over the management since they are expected to be more successful on this perspective. It reinforces the importance of Business Games, a proven experiential learning method that permits to develop and evaluate managerial competencies not achieved in traditional teacher-centered classes. The idea proposed by Gentry et al. (1992:21) is confirmed: while objective exams evaluate the “memorized content” Business Games evaluate the development of a strategy – “process”. This study confirms the findings of Sauaia (2004). Participants of distinct profiles (undergraduates and graduates) managing different Business Games (MMG and EG) were observed. High achievers teams were not able to guarantee the best performance when playing as managers. Besides, there is strong evidence that organizational learning occurred during simulation and produced tangible value (ROE) not correlated to previous knowledge. Besides reinforcing the previous findings, an additional contribution of this study is that in the first replica occurred high and significant correlations during the year 2. Since the adaptation phase of the participants at the new work group is overcome, long-term orientation becomes more important and high achievers produce superior performance as a consequence of organizational learning in a more complex environment. The general believe that teamwork is always more productive than individual work is here rejected. As a recommendation to Business Games administrators, different characteristics of each program should be tested and replicated to exploit learning opportunities, making the experience more challenging and promote a non-repetitive learning to participants and to the teacher himself. LIMITATIONS These replications of Sauaia’s experiment (2004) reinforced the previous findings and produced external validity for different populations and diverse business games. One can notice a significant correlation between individual achievement and team performance starting in quarters 5, 6, and 7, in data collected from the first replica, which suggests that in future studies it could be isolated initial data from the period game rules are being learned. 271 Developments in Business Simulations and Experiential Learning, Volume 32, 2005 272 Besides, in attempting to produce abundant and better quality data, the number of rounds should be increased to better characterize the organizational learning process in a long-term perspective. Campbell and Stanley (1979:6) recommend that experiments, even if successful, should have a replication and cross validation in different periods, under other conditions, before they could be incorporated to science and theoretically interpreted with confidence. REFERENCES Badgett, Tom F., Brenenstuhl, Daniel C., and Marshall, William J. 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Table of Contents Volume 32, 2005 LEARNER BEHAVIOR IN THE ONLINE CLASSROOM EXPERIENCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A SIMULATION EXERCISE FOR INTEGRATING PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING IN MANAGEMENT EDUCATION DEMONSTRATION OF FOUR WEB-BASED SIMULATIONS THRESHOLD COMPETITOR: A MANAGEMENT SIMULATION ENTREPRENEUR: A NEW VENTURE SIMULATION MERLIN: A MARKETING SIMULATION MICROMATIX: A STRAGETIC MANAGEMENT SIMULATION LEARNING STYLES INFLUENCES ON SATISFACTION AND PERCEIVED LEARNING: ANALYSIS OF AN ONLINE BUSINESS GAME INTERNATIONAL INTERNSHIPS: DESIGN AND EXPERIENCES SIM MAP: TURNING ACTION-BASED LEARNING INTO SIMULATED CONSULTING PROJECTS NOTEL HEALTH SERVICES: A ROLE-PLAYING SIMULATION TEACHING EXPERIENTIALLY WITH THE MADELINE HUNTER METHOD: AN APPLICATION IN A MARKETING RESEARCH COURSE SIMULATING CUSTOMER LIFETIME VALUE: IMPLICATIONS FOR GAME DESIGN AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE VIRTUAL PROGRESS: SIMULATING ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ONLINE STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT: AN EVALUATION OF THE USE OF THREE LEARNING METHODS IN CHINA ADOPTION OF DISCUSSION-BASED TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT IN TEACHING STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT IN CHINA STUDENTS' VIEW ON THE USE OF CASE METHOD IN CHINA CHINESE STUDENTS' PERCEPTIONS OF BUSINESS GAMING EXPERIENCECSR - A CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY SIMULATION CREATING DYNAMIC INTERACTION IN A VIRTUAL WORLD: ADD VALUE TO ONLINE CLASSROOMS THROUGH LIVE ELEARNING AND COLLABORATION: A DEMONSTRATION CAPABILITIES OF EXPERIMENTAL BUSINESS GAMING A COMPARISON BETWEEN SOLUTIONS AND DECISIONS IN A BUSINESS GAME VALIDATING BUSINESS SIMULATIONS: DOES HIGH PRODUCT QUALITY LEAD TO HIGH PROFITABILITY? ALIGNING ART AND EPISTEMOLOGY: ILLUSTRATIONS TO DISTINGUISH DISCOVERY FROM KNOWLEDGE BUILDING TUTORIALS USING WINK STUDENTS AS LAB RATS: THE ETHICS OF CONDUCTING NON-PEDAGOGICAL RESEARCH IN THE CONTEXT OF CLASSROOM SIMULATIONS AND EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THE EFFECT ON GAME PERFORMANCE OF DIFFERENT MEASURES AND UNITS OF ANALYSIS IN QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS ANALYZING AND THINKING WHILE PLAYING A SIMULATION COMPUTER BUSINESS SIMULATION DESIGN: THE ROCK POOL METHOD EXPANDING THE ROLE OF E-ROOMS IN DISTANCE LEARNING APPLICATIONS TO MANAGEMENT EDUCATION APPLICATION OF TRADITIONAL AND ONLINE JOURNALING AS PEDAGOGY AND MEANS FOR ASSESSING LEARNING IN AN ENTREPRENEURIAL SEMINAR DEVELOPING MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS: ASSESSING AND COMPARING THE IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES USING A MANAGEMENT SIMULATION OR A MANAGEMENT GAME INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT GAME Œ AN INTEGRATED TOOL FOR TEACHING STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT INTERNATIONALLY STUDENT EXPECTATIONS OF SIMULATIONS DISTANCE EDUCATION DELIVERY OF AN INTENSIVE SIMULATION BASED COURSE TEACHING SERVICE LEARNING USING A BUSINESS GAME ROLE-PLAY SIMULATION EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE OF COLLABORATIVE VIRTUAL COMMUNICATION AND MULTI-USER VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS FOR BUSINESS SIMULATIONS SIMULATION PERFORMANCE & PREDICTOR VARIABLES: ARE WE LOOKING IN THE WRONG PLACES TO MEASURE THE RIGHT LEARNING? VIDEO CASE: JET-A-WAY INC. Œ FOCUSING ON DIVERSITY AND ENTREPRENEURIAL LEADERSHIP ACTIVE LEARNING: WHAT IS IT AND WHY SHOULD I USE IT? FACILITATING THROUGH COLLABORATIVE REFLECTIONS TO ACCOMMODATE DIVERSE LEARNING STYLES FOR LONG-TERM RETENTION ONLINE CUMULATIVE SIMULATION TEAM PERFORMANCE PACKAGE WHEN PROPHECY FAILS: A SMALL SAMPLE, PRELIMINARY STUDY USING EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING TO INTEGRATE THE BUSINESS CURRICULUM FORECASTING STOCK VALUE EMPLOYING PROGRESSIVE PRACTICES AND PRINCIPLES TO FACILITATE SEMINAR ROOM LEADERSHIP AMONG LEARNERS: SHARED POWER AND COLLECTIVE ACCOUNTABILITY INDIVIDUAL ACHIEVEMENT DOES NOT GUARANTEE TEAM PERFORMANCE: AN EVIDENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING WITH BUSINESS GAMES DECISION MAKING IN BUSINESS SIMULTION DESIGN ZUG UM ZUG 2015: COLLECTIVE BARGAINING AS A TWO-LEVEL GAME A NEW METHOD FOR MODELING INNOVATION AND R&D IN BUSINESS SIMULATIONS: ILLUSTRATED WITH A SIMULATION OF A NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT PORTFOLIO DEVELOPING A MICRO SIMULATION EFFECT OF MARKET SHARE AND PRODUCTION EXPERIENCE ON COMPANY PROFITABILITY RE-DESIGNING A CURRICULUM THAT VALUES A WORK-INTEGRATED APPROACH TO STUDENT LEARNING HOW SIMULATIONS AND EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING FIT AS WE COMPLY WITH LEGISLATIVE AND AACSB ASSESSMENT GUIDELINES: HOW TO DEVELOP ACADEMICALLY SOUND COURSES THAT ALSO MEET STAKEHOLDER NEEDS EVALUATING SERVICE LEARNING: REFLECTION AND ASSESSMENT FROM THE STUDENT POINT OF VIEW SIMPLIFYING AND ENHANCING FINANCIAL ANALYSIS IN CASES AND SIMULATIONS OVERCOMING THE BUSINESS GAME COMPLEXITY PARADOX EXPLORING THE PREFERENCE IN LEARNING APPROACH AMONG THE HONG KONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS: CASE STUDY, PROBLEM-BASED OR TRADITIONAL TEXTBOOK QUESTION AN EXERCISE FOR EXPLORING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JUNGIAN PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES AND POLITICAL STYLE IN THE WORKPLACE EVALUATING THE DIRECTION OF RESEARCH IN ONLINE EDUCATION: ARE WE GOING ANYWHERE? AIS RAIL SYSTEM: A COMPUTER-BASED JOB-ORDER COST SIMULATION BLOOM BEYOND BLOOM: USING THE REVISED TAXONOMY TO DEVELOP EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING STRATEGIES DELIVERING A TECHNOLOGY-BASED CASE IN A TECHNOLOGICAL WAY: THE SMARTCART CASE USING THE INTERNET TO ENHANCE COURSE PRESENTATION: A HELP OR HINDRANCE TO STUDENT LEARNING TEACHING PRACTICES: A CLUSTER ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS IN HONG KONG TEACHING PRACTICES: A CLUSTER ANALYSIS OF TEACHING STAFF IN HONG KONG EVALUATING A SIMULATION WITH A STRATEGIC EXPLORATION TOOL A SYMBOLIC MODEL OF THE SIMULTANEOUS ACHIEVEMENT OF CONCRETE BENEFITS AND LEARNING BY PARTICIPATING GROUPS IN EXPERIENTIAL ACTIVITIES: ‚THE SPHERE OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING