CAN HANDICAPPED STUDENTS ACCESS YOUR CLASS WEB SITE?
Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 30, 2003
CAN HANDICAPPED STUDENTS ACCESS YOUR CLASS
WEB SITE?
Marian W. Boscia
King’s College
mwboscia@kings.edu
R. Bruce McAfee
Old Dominion University
rmcafee@odu.edu
ABSTRACT
While most ABSEL members have developed web sites for
the classes that they teach, many may not be aware that recent
legislation regarding access for the handicapped require that
these sites be accessible to all. This paper provides a brief
review of the laws pertaining to making web sites available to
the handicapped. It also reviews guidelines made by two
organizations regarding how to implement the law. Finally,
the paper examines how major software developers are
addressing these issues and reviews various Internet sites that
ABSEL members can turn to for further information and free
testing of existing materials.
INTRODUCTION
Most ABSEL members now make use of web sites for
their courses. They post course notes, syllabi, power point
slides, recommended readings, etc. on their sites so that
students can access them on the Internet. Most create their
sites without much thought given to any legal issues that might
apply. Recent legislation, however, now poses new burdens
on all faculty and their universities.
It is now estimated that there are 54 million Americans
with disabilities [Tillett, 2001]. Of these, over 20.9 million
Americans aged 15 and over have work-related disabilities.
Approximately 24% have computers at home, while less than
half of this group, 2.4 million people, have access to the
Internet via their home computer. Although over 2.1 million
people with disabilities make use of the Internet either at home
or on some other computer, they are less than half as likely as
their nondisabled counterparts to have access to a computer at
home and three times less likely to have the ability to connect
to the Internet at home [Kaye, 2000].
Recent litigation over Internet accessibility points to an
increasing legal burden on educators to be in compliance with
recent legislation. On November 4, 1999, the National
Federation of the Blind filed suit against America Online in
the Federal District Court under the Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) [Wingfield, 1999]. The Federation, a
nonprofit organization of 50,000 members nationwide, took
the position that America Online and the Internet must provide
public accommodation for persons with disabilities. This was
the first legal action taken against an Internet content provider.
Advocates argue that just as wheelchair ramps and lowered
curbs ease physical access, designing Web materials that
support software that translates text to speech, allowing the
blind to read, can ease access to the virtual world of the
Internet [Gibson, 2001]. The suit was settled on July 26, 2000
when the Federation and America Online reached an
agreement to work closely together to ensure continued
progress on accessibility. In addition, America Online
reinforced this commitment to accessibility by posting an
accessibility policy on its Web site.
This litigation serves as a cautionary note for all Internet
and web site developers. Lawsuits over the inaccessibility of
their Web sites, software, or both have been filed against Bank
of America, H&R Block, Intuit, and Wells Fargo [Bonner,
2002]. Educators must become familiar with issues of
accessibility and strive to support compliance with standards
that promote universal access to online materials.
In this paper, we will first provide a brief review of the
laws pertaining to the use of web sites. We will then review
suggestions by two organizations regarding how individuals
can meet legal requirements. We will conclude with how
major software developers are addressing these issues and will
review various Internet sites that ABSEL members can turn to
for further information and free testing of existing materials.
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR INTERNET
ACCESSIBILITY
Internet accessibility is covered by two major pieces of
legislation. First, the Americans with Disabilities Act (P.L.
101-336) (ADA) provides that institutions that are subject to
the act must furnish appropriate aids and services to ensure
effective communication with individuals with disabilities,
unless doing so would result in a fundamental alteration to or
in an undue burden on a program or service [28 C.F. R.
Section 36.303; 28 C.F.R. Section 35.160]. Examples of aids
5
mailto:mwboscia@kings.edu
mailto:rmcafee@odu.edu
Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 30, 2003
include audiotapes of texts, Braille materials, large print
materials, and captioning and text readers. On September 9,
1996, the U.S. Department of Justice issued a policy ruling
extended ADA requirements to include communication
through the Internet.
Two years later, the Workforce Investment Act of 1998
[Public Law 105-220, 1998 HR 1385], based on the ADA,
significantly fortified the technology access requirements of
Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Section 508).
Effective August 7, 2000, Section 508 requires that when
Federal agencies use electronic and information technology,
they must ensure access to people with disabilities, unless it
would pose an undue burden to do so. The level of access must
be comparable to the same available to non-disabled Federal
employees and members of the public. States receiving
Federal funding under the Assistive Technology Act of 1998
are also subject to Section 508 provisions. The Federal
government does not currently require the private sector to
comply with Section 508. However, the government is using
the influence of its buying power. Federal agencies spend
more than $30 billion per year on information technology
products and services [Tillett, 2001]. These purchases must
comply with Section 508. [See Waddell & Urban (2000) for an
in-depth discussion and links to government publications
related to this legislation.]. [Also See Section 508-- Web
Accessibility of the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (PL
105-220, 1998 HR 1385), and implementation strategies,
including the Priority 1 Web Content Accessibility
checkpoints (http://www.w3.org/TR/WAI-
WEBCONTENT/full-checklist.html) and Microsoft's Web
Guidelines
(http://www.microsoft.com/enable/guides/default.htm)]
This legislation places educators under a significantly
increased burden not to produce, distribute, or support Internet
materials that are in violation of the 1990 ADA. This act,
which celebrated its twelfth anniversary July 2002, has
prompted an enormous amount of litigation in schools and the
workplace [Sager, 2000]. Some of the important accessibility
issues pertaining to Web page design relate to the way in
which individuals interact with computer technology and
accessibility of the information itself. For instance, certain
disabilities result in difficulty reading or comprehending text
or may understanding the language of the document. Using a
keyboard or mouse my be an impossibility. Some users may
require appliances that have a text-only screen, a small screen,
an older browser, or a slow Internet connection.
IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY FOR WEB
CONTENT ACCESSIBILITY
Two organizations have developed recommendations for
how ABSEL members and others can best comply with the
laws. In 1999, The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
established a useful set of priorities for implementing
accessibility standards for a Web site. [The most recent
version is available at http://www.w3.org/TR/WAI-
WEBCONTENT/]. Web design elements to enhance
accessibility have been assigned to one of three priority levels.
For each priority level, W3C has listed a number of
checkpoints for individual design elements. These
checkpoints can serve as a basis for evaluating the overall
accessibility of Web content.
For items given Priority1 status, the guidelines require
that all disability groups be able to access the information
contained in a Web document. An example of a Priority 1
checkpoint is as follows:
“Provide a text equivalent for every non-text element
(e.g., via "alt", "longdesc", or in element content).
This includes: images, graphical representations of
text (including symbols), image map regions,
animations (e.g., animated GIFs), applets and
programmatic objects, ASCII art, frames, scripts,
images used as list bullets, spacers, graphical buttons,
sounds (played with or without user interaction),
stand-alone audio files, audio tracks of video, and
video” [World Wide Web Consortium at
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG/full-checklist.html].
A Web content developer should comply with Priority
2 guidelines to prevent disability groups from having
difficultly in accessing information in the document. For
example, Priority 2 guidelines require that foreground and
background color combinations provide sufficient contrast to
be easily viewed by someone having color deficits and when
displayed in black and white only. Further, the designer
should clearly identify the target of each link.
Priority 3 guidelines may or may not be addressed, but
still can cause access difficulties for one or more disability
groups. To comply at a Priority 3 level, the content
developer must specify the expansion of each abbreviation or
acronym in a document where it first occurs, the primary
natural language of a document must be identified, and a
logical tab order through links, form controls, and objects
should be defined. Organizations are encouraged to adopt
the W3C guidelines and checklists as a means of improving
web content accessibility.
A second group that has developed guidlelines for
internet access is the HTML Writers Guild. In 1999, this
organization published a list of twelve design features that
insure at least minimal accessiblity for students with
disabilities. This list was based on version 1.0 of the Web
Content Accessibility Guideines published by the World
Wide Web Consortium [http://www.w3.org/TR/WAI-
WEBCONTENT]. References to the guidelines were
included in the descriptions of list elements. The
abrieveated HTML Writers Guild guidelines are as follows:
1. “Provide text equivalents for non-text elements”
[WCAG 1.1, 1.3, 1.4] Images in HTML have an
“ALT” attribute that displays text when the image
fails to load or when, using browsers such as Internet
Explorer, the cursor hovers over the mouse. HTML
acessiblity software will read this description of the
image. Similarly, text equivalents should be provided
for all multimedia files that describes their information
6
http://www.w3.org/TR/WAI-WEBCONTENT/full-checklist.html
http://www.w3.org/TR/WAI-WEBCONTENT/full-checklist.html
http://www.microsoft.com/enable/guides/default.htm
Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 30, 2003
content. These alternative materials can take the form
of transcripts or synchronized captions.
8. Use client-side imagemaps, not server-side [WCAG
9.1, 1.2] An imagemap is an image for which various
“hot spots” have been assigned addresses. Clicking on
the hot spots have differing outcomes. However, not
all users can use, or will have access to, a graphical
pointing device such as a mouse. Therefore, an
accessible web page is one that can be navigatable via
keyboard or voice commands. Only client-side
imagemaps, not server-side imagemaps, can be
provide keyboard navigation by the user. This is
because and related
tags that define the imagemaps are contained in the
HTML document being viewed, and not on the page
server. Some Web design experts suggest that you
should avoid putting imagemaps on your pages unless
you have a really good reason for using them.
2. “Don't rely solely upon color” [WCAG 2.1] It is
important to also provide additional HTML markup
codes such as or that indicate the
color changes for acessibility aids. In addition, high
contrast alternatives support students with certain
visual impairments.
3. “Identify language changes” [WCAG 4.1]
Screenreaders and other assistive technologies can
adapt to most major languages used on the Internet.
The language for an entire page can be set using the
following meta tag. . In order for the technology
to identify the correct language for specific text within
a page, the phrase can be placed within the … element.
4. “Make sure pages are usable without style sheets”
[WCAG 6.1] Cascading Style Sheets are heavily used
to facilitate the standardization of an entire Web Site
and to reduce the length of the code used in each
individual page. The information about fonts, colors,
layout features, etc. is saved in a text file with a “css”
type designation. This file is then linked to a web
page by inserting a link tag, such as , between the …
tags. By linking a style sheet CSS file to
pages, the time spent developing of Web content can
be greatly reduced. Unfortunately, many adaptive
technology browsers do not support the use of CSS
file links. Therefore, it is important to check your
pages for layout and content with the link to the CSS
removed.
9. Use HTML 4.0 table markup on data tables
[WCAG 5.1, 5.2] Increasingly tables are being used to
control the placement of content on a Web page.
However, the resulting table display can be altered by
the user as result of the user’s preferences for font
styles and sizes. Therefore, column sizes must be able
to adjust to various sizes and fonts, In addition,
windows based graphical user interfaces can create
problems for visually impaired users. Though using
the HTML 4.0 Specification for tables provided by the
World Wide Web Consortium at
http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-
html40/struct/tables.html, proper used of the HTML
table model can support accessibility. As an
additional benefit, the contents of properly formatted
tables can be readily imported into databases or
spreadsheets.
10. Frames should have NOFRAMES and TITLEs
[WCAG 12.1] Using frames should be avoid
whenever possible. When frames are used, the
following code should be included at the bottom of
frameset page:
5. “Update equivalents for generated content”
[WCAG 6.2] Frequently, Web designers include text
that is autogenerated as a student moves the cursor
around a page, as students clicks on or points at
images, or as time passes. These events may be
inaccessible unless auditory, textual equivalents and
visual content are synchronized as they are generated.
This may involve creating an alternative site that does
not have graphic content.
<BODY>
<P>This page uses frames.</P>
<P>Your browser does not support frames.</P>
</BODY>
6. “Don't make the screen flicker” [WCAG 7.1]
Flashing or strobing screen effects can trigger seizures
in people with photosensitive epilepsy. Although
photosensitivity is rare, 1 in 4,000, reactions to light
flashes can have serious consequences.
Unfortunately, the use of a framed layout
drastically hampers accessibility. For example,
sometimes text readers for visually impaired users
cannot find the inside frame that contains the body of
the text. This is because screen reader or self-voicing
browsers navigate only one screen at a time. This
software can tell a visually impaired user the general
content of a frame, but cannot follow multiple events
in multiple frames. When there are no titles included
in the code of individual framed pages, visually
impaired users can easily be confused about the
function and content of each page. [See Ebina and
Miyake, 2001]. Therefore, every page that appears in
7. Use plain, understandable English [WCAG 14.1]
People with cognitive disabilities, poor readers, and
those for whom English is not their primary language,
may be confused by technical language and jargon.
For information about the Plain English Movement
sponsored by ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and
Communication Skills [Urbana, IL] visit
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed284273
.html .
7
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed284273.html
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed284273.html
http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/struct/tables.html
http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/struct/tables.html
Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 30, 2003
a frame should have its own descriptive
attribute set. Please note that simply presenting this
<NOFRAMES> message to someone who is using
adaptive technology that does not support frames is far
from an adequate accomodation. Ideally, the
<NOFRAMES> message should include links to an
alternative presentation of the materials in text form.
11. Don't rely solely upon scripts and applets. [WCAG
6.3] Since a visitor to your web site may not be able to
execute your javascript scripts or java applets,
supplemental materials should be provided when
javascript is disabled. Each page that relies on
javascripts or applets, should include a script that
verifies support of these codes.
The Mozilla Organization, established by
Netscape Communications Corporation on February
23, 1998, has developed Mozilla, “an open-source web
browser, designed for standards compliance,
performance and portability”
[http://www.mozilla.org/mozorg.html]. In support of
this effort, the organization provides links to
documentation for web pages writers at
http://www.mozilla.org/docs/web-developer/.
Included are links to “Dynamic HTML” and
JavaScript sites where free codes for browser and
JavaScript detection are available.
12. As a last resort, make an alternate page. [WCAG
11.4] Web designers should use alternative pages in
only the most extreme cases.
HOW TECHNOLOGY VENDORS ARE
ADDRESSING THESE ISSUES
Major information technology vendors, including Apple,
Microsoft, Oracle and IBM, currently build accessibility
features into new software designs. Microsoft provides
resource guides based on the nature of the impairment.
Impairments covered include vision, hearing, mobility, and
cognitive and language impairments. These guides are made
available to educators and the public at
http://www.microsoft.com/enable/guides/default.htm . For
each impairment, Microsoft lists assistive technology products.
Microsoft supplies an impressive set of links to papers
covering access issues, which are organized by impairment
type. Another important feature of Microsoft’s Web site are
the step-by-step tutorials for enhancing the accessibility of
each of its products. These tutorials can be used to make
certain that impairments will not bar users from having access
to Microsoft products.
Apple Computers Worldwide Disability Solutions Group
(WDSG) supports the development and distribution of Apple’s
Macintosh Human Interface Guidelines, which is freely
available at
http://developer.apple.com/techpubs/mac/pdf/HIGuidelines.pdf
in PDF format. These guidelines specifically address issues
involving people with a seizure disorder as well as
accessibility for individuals with physical, visual, hearing, and
speech or language disabilities. These guidelines provide the
design requirements to achieve universal access for all people,
including those with a disability. Most items on the Apple
checklist are comparable to those on the W3C checklist. An
important feature of this book is that it includes numerous
examples of the guidelines applied to the Macintosh platform.
INTERNET SITES THAT PROVIDE
INFORMATION
Numerous internet sources ae available to ABSEL
members and the public that provide support, information, and
free testing of existing materials. The following are among the
most well known.
1. Disability Information Links. The National Information
Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities is an
information and referral center focusing on disabilities
and disability-related issues of children from birth to age
22. Their information is targeted at families, educators,
and other professionals. This site offers an extensive set
of links to PDF-format publications. The NICHCY home
page is located at http://www.nichcy.org/.
2. Web Content Accessibility Guidelines. The World
Wide Web Consortium (W3C) provides a comprehensive
set of Web design guidelines at
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG/.
3. Quick Tips. Department Of The Navy Web
Information Service provides “Quick Tips On How to
be Section 508 Compliant” located at http://lej-
www.med.navy.mil/section508/tips.htm. These tips
address specific html code requirements for images and
image maps, multimedia, page organization, table and
frame layouts, and hypertext links.
4. Website Design. The Trace Center of the College of
Engineering at the University of Wisconsin provides a
conprehensive set of links dedicated toward building more
usable Web sites at http://trace.wisc.edu/world/web/.
These links include valuable Web access tools for both
users and authors.
5. Page Checker. Validate your pages with an ADA
validation tool such as Bobby, originally sponsored by
IBM and now owned by Wildfire Corporation. Bobby is
downloadable from
https://www.elicense.com/watchfire/store/index.asp for a
$99 charge. A second alternative is A-prompt Test
Program available at
http://aprompt.snow.utoronto.ca/help/test.html as a free
download. W3C HTML Validation Service is freely
available at http://validator.w3.org/.This service checks
documents for compliance with W3C accessibility
guidelines and makes recommendations for
improvements.
6. Model Programs. The Family Center on Technology
and Disability (Family Center) is a project funded by the
Office of Special Education under the U.S. Department of
Education. One of its goals was to identify exemplar
8
http://www.mozilla.org/docs/web-developer/
http://www.microsoft.com/enable/guides/default.htm
http://developer.apple.com/techpubs/mac/pdf/HIGuidelines.pdf
http://www.nichcy.org/
http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG/
http://lej-www.med.navy.mil/section508/tips.htm
http://lej-www.med.navy.mil/section508/tips.htm
http://trace.wisc.edu/world/web/
https://www.elicense.com/watchfire/store/index.asp
http://aprompt.snow.utoronto.ca/help/test.html
http://validator.w3.org/.
Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, Volume 30, 2003
9
programs that provide technology support and services to
families of students with disabilities. The Family Center
Web site at http://fctd.ucp.org/fctd/aboutfctdt.htm
provides a brief description of six model technology
support and service programs, including source of funds,
populations served, and services provided, as well as
contract information. These can serve as templates that
organizations can use in establishing their own program.
CONCLUSION
Given that most ABSEL members have developed web
sites for their classes, it is now imperative that they examine
these sites to determine if they meet the requirements of the
Americans with Disabilities Act and Section 508 of the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Given the fact that most ABSEL
members are not lawyers, a good first step might be to check
with those at the university who are responsible for web site
operations or the university attorney to review what needs to
be done to be compliant. In addition, faculty may want to
access some of the many references provided in this paper to
obtain information or to conduct a free testing of their existing
materials.
Abascal and Civit [2001] point out that there are huge
social improvements that wireless technologies, for example,
have brought to many disabled and older people. These
include more personal autonomy as well as improved security
via hand held personal communication devices. The benefits
of all of these technologies including those related to the
internet will only be realized when equal access is achieved.
ABSEL members can help by making sure that their course
web sites are available to all.
REFERENCES
Abascal , J. & Civit, A. (2001) “Bridge In The Gap Between
Designed For All And Assistive Devices.” In Ed.
Constance Stephanidis, Universal Access in HCI:
Towards an Information Society for All (Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Publishers: New Jersey): 3-7.
Apple Computer, Inc. Macintosh Human Interface
Guidelines. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,
Reading, Massachusetts, 1995.
Bonner, P. (2002) “And Web Sites for All.” PC Magazine,
May 7, 2002, available at
http://www.pcmag.com/article/0,2997,s=1487&a=25256,
00.asp
Ebina, T. & Miyake, T. (2001) “Hierarchical Web Frame
Navigation For The Visually Impaired.” In Ed. Constance
Stephanidis, Universal Access in HCI: Towards an
Information Society for All (Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Publishers: New Jersey): 905-908.
Gibson, K. (2001) "Better accessibility draws multiple
markets." Marketing News, 01/15/2001, Vol. 35 Issue 2:
8.
“HREOC 2000: Reasons For Decision Of The Hon William
Carter Qc Inquiry Commissioner Concerning Relief ,
Complaint Between Maguire and SOCOG, Human Rights
and Equal Opportunity Commission,” November 18,
2000, URL:
http://www.hreoc.gov.au/disability_rights/decisions/comd
ec/Maguire%20v%20SOCOG3.htm
HTML Writers Guild, Inc. (1999) “HTML Writers Guild Web
Accessibility Standards.” Last updated November 21,
1999. Available at
http://www.hwg.org/opcenter/policy/access.html
Kaye, H. S. (2000) “Computer and Internet Use Among
People with Disabilities.” Disability Statistics Report (13).
Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education, National
Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research
available at dsc.ucsf.edu/UCSF/pdf/REPORT13.pdf.
Tillett, L. S. (2001) “Web Accessibility Ripples Through IT.”
InternetWeek, 02/12/2001, Issue 848: 1-3.
Waddell, C. D. & Urban, M. D. (2000) Overview of Law &
Policy for IT Accessibility” International Center for
Disability Resources on the Internet, June 8, 2000. URL:
www.icdri.org/SL508overview.html
Wingfield, N. (1999) “Must Web Sites Be Accessible To the
Blind?” Wall Street Journal -- Eastern Edition, November
05, 1999, Vol. 234 Issue 90, pB1.
http://fctd.ucp.org/fctd/aboutfctdt.htm
http://www.pcmag.com/article/0,2997,s=1487&a=25256,00.asp
http://www.pcmag.com/article/0,2997,s=1487&a=25256,00.asp
http://www.hreoc.gov.au/disability_rights/decisions/comdec/Maguire v SOCOG3.htm
http://www.hreoc.gov.au/disability_rights/decisions/comdec/Maguire v SOCOG3.htm
http://www.hwg.org/opcenter/policy/access.html
Table of Contents
Volume 30, 2003
The Optimal Timing For Introducing Business Simulations
Can Handicapped Students Access Your Class Web Site?
The Competition Game: Decision Making In A Dynamic Environment
Pan-Pacific Enterprises: Strategic Decision Making
Simulation Study Of Stochastic Channel Redistribution
The Impact Of Business War Games: Quantifying Training Effectiveness
Experiential Learning: Introducing Faculty And Staff To A University Leadership Development Program
The Feasibility Of The Balanced Scorecard For Business Games
A Misuse Of Pims For The Validation Of Marketing Management Simulation Games
Incorporating Technology Into The 21st Century Classroom: Are We Facilitating Academic Dishonesty?
Improving The Effectiveness Of Peer Evaluations
The Use Of A Simulation In An Integrated Mba Curriculum
Student Portfolios In Business Education Student Portfolios In Business Education At Ashland University
Using SAP ERP Technology To Integrate The Undergraduate Business Curriculum
Board Games And Teaching Textile Marketing And Finance
Blogging: A New Threat To Student Research?
The Way We Talk! Take II
Strategic Management: An Evaluation Of The Use Of Three Learning Methods In Hong Kong
Adoption Of Discussion-Based Teaching And Assessment In Teaching Strategic Management In Hong Kong
The Tobin Q As A Company Performance Indicator
Using Representative Nominal Group Technique For Course Review And An Interactive Solicitation Of Ways To Enhance Absel's Image
Making Teaching Matter: The Art And Science Of Teaching Business Communication
Beyond Sex, Age, And Race: Exploring The Deeper Contents Of Diversity
Teaching & Learning The Facilitation Process
A Brief On Debriefing: What It Is And What It Isn't
Changing Perceptions Of The Importance Of Leadership: The Contribution Of Individual Spirit Harmonics In Leadership
Knowledge, Skills And Sustainable Values In Learning Organizations: Some Implications From The Multicultural Virtual Classroom
Challenges Of Teaching Undergraduate Organizational Behavior In A Nontraditional Time Format
Interactive Online Positioning With The Web-Based Product Positioning Map Graphics Package
The Longitudinal Effects Of Entrepreneurship Training On Risk Tolerance: A Look At Similarities And Differences Between Male And Female Undergraduate Students
Revisiting Strategy Learning In A Total Enterprise Simulation
What Are Simulations For?: Learning Objectives As A Simulation Selection Device
Gaming Agency Markets
Cooperate For Profits Or Compete For Market? Study Of Oligopolistic Pricing With A Business Game
The Design Of A Business Simulation Using A System-Dynamics-Based Approach
Modeling The Product Development Function For An Entrepreneurial Firm
Simulation Performance And Forecast Accuracy? Is That All?
Business Manager Identification Of Competitors In Real World And Simulation Settings
Monte Carlo Simulation Analysis On The Costs Reduction Argument Of Interest Rate Swaps
Ebiz Game: A Scalable Online Business Simulation Game For Entrepreneurship Training
A Model For Online Education Delivery And A Look At Online Delivery Effectiveness
Incorporating "Company Reputation" into Total Enterprise Simulations
The Genesis And Future Of The Absel "Classicos" Initiative