COLLABORATIVE LEARNING AND WEB-BASED INSTRUCTION IN A COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP MODEL Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Learning, Volume 27, 2000 COLLABORATIVE LEARNING AND WEB-BASED INSTRUCTION IN A COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP MODEL Sarah L. Frank, University of West Florida ABSTRACT A study was conducted to determine the effects of collaborative learning and web-based instruction on academic achievement, in a constructivist en- vironment in a principles of financial accounting course. The instructional module used in the study was implemented in the form of a cognitive ap- prenticeship and incorporated situated learning tenets. A two-by-two factorial research design was employed. An evaluation of study results in- dicated that neither collaborative learning nor web-based-instruction alone impacted students� posttest performance. However, an evaluation of the interaction effect indicated that: collaborative learning was more effective when students were instructed in a classroom setting and utilized tra- ditional, face-to-face collaborative methods; and web-based instruction was more effective when students worked individually rather than in col- laborative dyads. CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING THEORY Learning theory has evolved into three paradigms: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. The basic difference between these paradigms is the consideration of objective reality verses rela- tive reality and external environments versus in- ternal processes. Behaviorism characterizes knowledge as object reality and learners as pas- sive vessels into which knowledge can be placed (Driscoll, 1994). Behaviorism is criticized be- cause knowledge is often disconnected from com- plex, realistic contexts and fragmented into man- ageable chunks (Slavin 1991). Cognitivism fo- cuses on mental operations and the role of the mind in gaining knowledge. Cognitivists tend to view knowledge as largely objective in nature, yet as something developed through internal proc- esses (Driscoll, 1994; Slavin, 1991). Constructiv- ism is essentially an extension of cognitivism. Constructivists emphasize three major points with regard to learning: knowledge is not object reality but is experienced reality, knowledge is situation- bound or context-dependent, and knowledge is not passively received but actively constructed (Driscoll, 1994; Pascual-Leone & Irwin, 1998). Proponents of constructivism argue that knowl- edge is based on learners' individual perceptions and experiences. As a consequence, pertinent learning experiences are vitally important for learners to construct knowledge. Since knowledge construction is situation-bound, realistic situations and authentic tasks aid learners in development of relevant skills and enhance learners' motivation (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1990). The learner must ultimately understand the how, when, what, and why of information con- cepts and relationships. Constructivists argue that through purposeful manipulation, careful observa- tion, and thoughtful analysis learners can develop a deep insight and understanding of the subject matter at hand. Cognitive psychologists, such as Resnick (1976), have underscored a troubling feature of typical classroom learning: its decontextualized charac- ter. In authentic contexts, learning gets support in a number of ways absent in the typical classroom. In authentic contexts: apprentice-like relation- ships are common; relevant knowledge and skills figure conspicuously in making progress on tasks; tasks allow learners to establish meaningful repre- sentations and connections within the knowledge domain; instruction is situated in engaging, prob- lem-rich environments; and a social network func- 188 Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Learning, Volume 27, 2000 tions to support and sustain performance. As an alternative to traditional instruction, many cognitive scientists advocate the centuries-old ap- prenticeship framework as the way to integrate the teaching of authentic, meaningful tasks (Teslow, Carlson, & Miller, 1994). They suggest that humans seem to learn naturally through en- culturation, the imitation of the behavior of a so- cial group in accordance with its norms. In most professions, entry-level professionals are indoc- trinated into the culture of the profession and aided in the development of appropriate knowl- edge, skills, and judgment, through coaching, modeling, or mentoring. Enculturation can be en- hanced by designing cognitive apprenticeships around authentic tasks and realistic performance, using tools-of-the-trade, and encouraging collabo- ration in realistic, information-rich environments (Teslow, Carlson, & Miller, 1994). "Truly effec- tive learning should be situated in a culture of needs and practices that gives the knowledge and skill being learned context, texture, and motiva- tion" (Perkins, 1995, p. 68). THE STUDY Sampling, Participants, and Instructional Materials The study employed a combination of conven- ience sampling and random assignment. Students in three daytime sections of ACG2021 Principles of Financial Accounting were combined to estab- lish a single participant pool, containing 91 par- ticipants. Participants were randomly assigned from the participant pool to one of four treatment groups: web-based, collaborative learning; non- web-based, collaborative learning; web-based, individualized learning; and non-web-based, indi- vidualized learning. The collaborative learning groups involved the use of learning dyads--pairs of learners. Instructional materials used in the study consti- tuted a researcher-developed module of instruc- tion related to the topic of fixed asset accounting. A constructivist scenario depicted the fictional exploits of Chris Torrez, during Chris� initial day as a co-operative education student. Chris was co- oping with Pensa Cola, Incorporated (PCI), a re- gional soft drink developer and distributor. As Chris moved through the day he/she was exposed to the relevant issues, decisions, and activities that relate to the topic of fixed asset accounting. Chris Torrez, the central character in the instruc- tional scenario, represented a gender neutral stu- dent of possible minority ethnic background. Other individuals, objects, and events in each of the various scenes within the scenario were de- scribed and/or displayed (graphically) from Chris� perspective; Chris, however, was not shown. The instructional approach selected repre- sented an attempt to allow each student utilizing the instruction to take on the persona of Chris, in order to cognitively enter the environment de- scribed and participate in the events depicted. The web-based instruction was delivered via WebCT. WebCT is course management software that can be used to design and implement entire online courses or to supplement traditional course offerings. WebCT uses the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) as delivery mechanisms and uses Web browser software as an interface envi- ronment. Variables The study included: two independent variables, collaborative learning and web-based instruction; a control variable, preexisting knowledge; and the dependent variable, posttest performance. Indi- vidual learners� scores were used to establish their level of pretest and posttest performance, while the mean score of the two dyad members was used to establish the dyad�s dimension with respect to the variables. The independent variable collaborative learning was comprised of two levels: collaborative learn- ing, in the form of structured dyads; and individu- 189 Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Learning, Volume 27, 2000 alized learning. The dyads were structured in that the researcher required that a limited number of specific activities take place during the collabora- tive effort. The collaboration was not scripted, however. While the definition and characteristics of collaborative learning are not clearly delineated (Butler, 1999; Markulis, Strang, Gosenpud, & Wheatley, 1994; Ramey, Leonard, & Leonard, 1999), the study�s collaborative learning envi- ronment was configured to provide for: positive interdependence, in the form of means interde- pendence via assignments structured so that in order for one group member to complete his/her tasks, the other group member must complete his/her tasks; group and individual accountability, by assigning both a group and individual grade for the homework assignments; promotive interac- tion, by requiring partners to exchange informa- tion and materials and provide each other with feedback; and interpersonal skills, by requiring learners to participate in dyadic collaborative as- signments prior to the study. The independent variable web-based instruction was comprised of the two levels web-based in- struction and non-web-based instruction. The web-based instruction involved use of instruc- tional material that was available via the WWW, and utilization of Internet and web-based commu- nication tools for learner collaboration and stu- dent-teacher interaction. Learners in the web- based treatment groups did not attend class meet- ings during the treatment period. The non-web- based instruction took the form of traditional on- site classroom instruction, and involved the use of printed-based instructional material, and tradi- tional face-to-face collaborative methods. The control variable preexisting knowledge repre- sented the extent to which the learner was already familiar with basic fixed asset accounting con- cepts and principles. Preexisting knowledge was measured via a pretest administration of the study�s posttest instrument and served as a co- variate with respect to posttest performance. Posttest performance was used to establish learn- ers� level of academic achievement. Posttest per- formance also represented the extent to which learners demonstrated mastery of instructional objectives related to the selected topic content. Utilizing a grading scale of 0 to 100, posttest per- formance was established via a measure of the degree to which learners correctly responded to questions and a problem on a discipline-oriented, researcher-developed examination. An expert panel confirmed the posttest instrument�s content validity; Formula K-R 20 and inter-rater reliabil- ity procedures established the instrument�s reli- ability. Procedures Following administration of the pretest and an orientation session, study participants, individu- ally or collaboratively, used the web-based or hard-copy instruction and completed the pre- scribed related exercises, assignments, and activi- ties. Access to the online instructional materials was limited, via WebCT access features, to only those participants assigned to the web-based learning groups. Because of the constructivist na- ture of the instruction, classroom instruction dur- ing the research study did not take the form of a traditional lecture-oriented presentation. The in- structor/researcher functioned primarily as a dis- cussion guide and moderator, and served as a source of information, not a conveyor of informa- tion. During the study, the instructor/researcher remained available to all students to the same ex- tent that the instructor was available to students prior to initiation of the study (in person during regularly scheduled office hours and via telephone or e-mail). The posttest was administered follow- ing completion of research study activities. Research Design and Data Analysis The study employed a pretest-posttest factorial (2x2) design, with randomization. Factorial de- signs are modifications of the posttest-only con- trol group or pretest-posttest control group de- 190 Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Learning, Volume 27, 2000 signs, and they allow for the investigation of mul- tiple independent variables and the evaluation of interactions between variables (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1996). The effect of ANCOVA is to make two or more groups equal with respect to control variables (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996). Therefore, an ANCOVA was used to evaluate data, assessing for significance at the .05 significance level. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Collaborative Learning The initial evaluation of study data examined the main effect of the independent variable collabora- tive learning. A comparison of the adjusted means suggested that while learners in the collaborative learning environment (M = 77.16, SD = 11.99) performed at a somewhat higher level of academic achievement than did learners in the individual- ized learning environment (M = 76.98, SD = 13.79), the difference in performance levels was not statistically significant. Slavin (1990) maintains that the primary advan- tage of collaborative learning is enhanced aca- demic achievement, and there is wide agreement among researchers that collaborative learning methods can and do generally have a positive ef- fect on academic achievement. However, Slavin's (1995) recent synthesis of best evidence related to collaborative learning indicates that 31% of the studies reviewed found no significant difference in achievement level, while 5% of the studies de- termined a significantly negative effect on achievement. This study�s findings concur with the findings of the approximately 1/3 of collabora- tive learning studies that suggest that collabora- tive learning does not significantly increase aca- demic achievement. In addition, the results of this study are in line with those of earlier collaborative learning studies in the area of accounting, which generally did not indicate enhanced academic achievement (Cottell, 1991; Hite, 1996; Parry, 1990; Ravenscroft, Buckless, McCombs, & Zuck- erman, 1995). Web-based Instruction A subsequent evaluation of study data examined the main effect of the variable web-based instruc- tion. A comparison of the adjusted means sug- gested that learners in the web-based learning en- vironment (M=75.62, SD=13.53) demonstrated slightly lower level of academic achievement than did learners in the non-web-based learning envi- ronment (M=78.52, SD=12.09). Again, the differ- ence in adjusted means was not statistically sig- nificant. Contrasting this study�s results with similar stud- ies proved to be difficult in that the body of documented research related to web-based in- structional environments is just beginning to be established. The issue of technology�s impact on learning has been debated for some time, how- ever. Clark's (1983) contentious meta-analysis of instructional systems led him to conclude that technologies "do not influence learning under any circumstance" (p. 445). Clark (1983, 1994) ar- gues that technology can impact only the cost or extent of disseminating instruction, and that it is the quality of the instruction itself that impacts learning. In contrast, Kozma (1991) contends that the characteristics and capabilities of a particular technology "interact with and influence the ways learners represent and process information and may result in more or different learning. . ." (p. 179). From the perspective of the overall effect of learning environment, the results of this study lend further credence to Clark�s contention. The instruction utilized did not impact academic achievement more substantially in the web-based environment than it did in the non-web-based en- vironment. 191 Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Learning, Volume 27, 2000 Interaction of Collaborative Learning and Web-based Instruction The final evaluation of study data examined the interaction effect of the two independent variables collaborative learning and web-based instruction. A comparison of adjusted mean scores suggested that learners in the non-web-based, collaborative learning environment (M = 83.61, SD = 7.69) per- formed at the highest level of academic achieve- ment, followed by learners in the web-based, in- dividualized learning environment (M = 80.52, SD = 13.26), then by learners in the non-web-based, individualized learning environment (M = 73.43, SD = 12.78). Learners in the web-based, collabo- rative learning environment (M = 70.71, SD = 12.04) demonstrated the lowest level of academic achievement. The results of ANCOVA procedures indicated that the interaction effect was statisti- cally significant and was disordinal. When the interaction of two independent variables is disordinal, the preferable treatment level for one factor depends upon the particular level of the other factor. In this case, participants utilizing col- laborative learning demonstrated higher academic achievement in the non-web-based learning envi- ronment than in the web-based learning environ- ment, while participants utilizing individualized learning demonstrated higher academic achieve- ment in the web-based learning environment than in the non-web-based learning environment. Likewise, participants utilizing web-based in- struction demonstrated higher academic achieve- ment in the individualized learning environment than in the collaborative learning environment, while participants utilizing non-web-based in- struction demonstrated higher academic achieve- ment in the collaborative learning environment than in the individualized learning environment. Based on a review of the literature, the researcher had anticipated that achievement-oriented benefits would accrue to those learners who participated in collaborative learning and to those learners who utilized web-based instruction. It seemed logical to assume that optimum benefits would accrue to those learners who were exposed to both collabo- rative learning and web-based instruction. While the study did not formally incorporate a control group, the factorial group that was not exposed to either one the treatment conditions served to es- tablish a baseline performance level. Learners in the non-web-based, collaborative environment and learners in the web-based, individualized en- vironment demonstrated commensurate and en- hanced levels of academic achievement, as ex- pected. However, learners in the web-based, col- laborative environment performed at a level of academic achievement comparable to learners in the non-web-based, individualized environment. In other words, learners in the factorial treatment group that should have demonstrated the highest level of performance actually demonstrated the same level of achievement as learners in the base- line group. IMPLICATIONS Based on results from collaborative learning stud- ies in other disciplines and the recommendations of the AAA (1986), AECC (1990), IMA and FEI (1994) and the accounting profession, accounting educators have begun integrating collaborative learning into accounting courses. While web- based collaboration did not increase academic achievement, it is critical that accounting instruc- tors begin to utilize Internet-based collaborative activities. Accounting and business students stand to benefit both educationally and professionally from early exposure to distributed technologies. "After IT [Information Technology] specialists, accountants are the most computer literate profes- sionals" (Olivier, 1995, p. 8). The Internet embod- ies a new interface between accountants, informa- tion users, and organizations. "Students of busi- ness read about collaboration, information tech- nology, virtual organizations, and virtual prod- ucts, but do not participate in their creation until after graduation" (Roy, 1997, p. 2). As students become more familiar with and adept at distrib- uted collaboration, it seems logical that increased 192 Developments in Business Simulation & Experiential Learning, Volume 27, 2000 academic achievement would then follow. Current, traditional, place-based educational mod- els are expensive and cannot meet the rising de- mand for educational services. Colleges and uni- versities are considering whether to maintain or to enlarge classroom-based academic programs or to substitute electronic programs, which they believe may offer a variety of economies (The IHEP, 1999). The body of research related to distance education, which higher education institutions must draw upon when making such decisions, is limited. In particular, web-based instruction is new enough that researchers are just now begin- ning to report the effects of web-based instruction on academic achievement and other issues. This study�s results support Kozma�s (1991, 1994) argument that technology�s impact on learning is a function of the particular learning situation, the tasks undertaken, and the learners involved. Study results indicated that the achievement effect of web-based instruction was impacted by the other instructional tactics employed and the ability of learners to effectively discharge the related im- peratives. Because individualized learners appeared to bene- fit from web-based instruction, instructional de- signers and developers can focus on supporting individual learning styles and preferences within a web-based environment, comfortable that such instruction should prove to be as effective as traditional, classroom-based instruction. However, because web-based, collaborative participants did not appear to benefit from web-based instruction, instructional designers and developers who plan to incorporate collaborative activities into web- based instruction should consider that many learners may not be technically or psychologically prepared to effectively participate in such activi- ties, and that the consequence may be a lack of student achievement. Instructors who utilize web- based instruction should recognize that not all learners will be equally prepared to participate in all forms of web-based instruction, and that achievement may be impacted. Learners who are considering taking a web-based course should consider their own skills and abilities in conjunc- tion with the instructional approach and tactics employed (e.g., degree of online collaboration) when assessing the potential for attaining their desired level of achievement while taking the course. Lastly, colleges and universities must rec- ognize that unless students are prepared to par- ticipate in technology-based collaborative efforts, increased access to instruction via web-based dis- tance learning may result in reduced success and completion rates. REFERENCES American Accounting Association (AAA) (1986, Spring). Future accounting education: Preparing for the expanding profession. Issues in Account- ing Education, 1(1), 169-195. 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Washington, DC: Author. 194 Table of Contents Volume 27, 2000 Internet International: A Simulation Exercise for Understanding Technological Innovation and customer Service In a Rapidly Growing Internet Server Company Simulations and Learning: Dialog and Directions Endnote Activity: A Tool for Integration of Course Content and Communication Skill Practice Incorporating Video as a Teaching Strategy in Interpersonal Communication Vision Quest: An Alternative Approach to Industry Analysis for MBA Courses in Strategic Strategic Management: An Evaluation of the Use of Three Learning Methods Trainer, Mentor, Educator: What Role for the College Business Instructor in the Next Century? Using the Internet and Shareware to Facilitate Computer Simulation in Distance Learning Classes Visual Modeling of Business Simulations Teaching about Information with Management Games A Self-Evaluation Based on the Discussion and Decision in Experts' Business Gaming The Restaurant Game Using Journals to Enhance Computer Simulation Based Learning Exercises to Facilitate Better Student Writing in the Undergraduate Strategy Class Identifying, Resolving, and Managing Common Ethical Dilemmas in the Workplace: An Experiential Approach Integrating the Digital Revolution into the Classroom The Wheel of Learning: An Integrative Business Curriculum Experiment The Changing Nature of Simulation Research: A Brief ABSEL History Perspectives on Simulation & Gaming's Review Process Experiential Learning Across Disciplines: Mixing International Business and Accounting Simulating Governmental Effects on Economic Development Internationalizing the Introduction to Business Course Using an International Text and Domestic Simulation with a Twist Using Stock Value as the Performance Measure in a Business Simulation Game Introducing Cross-Elasticities in Demand Algorithms Validating a Model of Currency Valuation An Exercise for Exploring the Relationship between Jungian Psychological Types and Organizational Politics Exercise: Preparing Financial Reports Using the Group Categorizing Technique Effect of Trust and Cultural Beliefs on Negotiation Processes: Data from an Experiential Role Play Experiential Learning Gets Stamp of Approval From the Boyer Commission Talent Search 2000 - An Experiential Activity to Help Strengthen Skills in Employee Recruitment and Selection Clemson University's Collaborative Learning Environment Initial Data on a Test Bank Assessing Total Enterprise Simulation Learning Changing the Assessment Paradigm: Using Student Portfolios To Assess Learning from Simulations How We Learn and Why We Don't: The Cognitive Profile Model: A Workshop in Teaching to Reach Your Students Knowing Thyself: A Portfolio Approach to Student Self-Assessment Collaborative Learning and Web-Based Instruction in a Cognitive Apprenticeship Model Teamwork Attributes in a Classroom Simulation Virtual Teams: Meeting the Next Challenge for Experiential Education New Age Learning: Nuance or Nonsense Developing Charisma: An Experiential Exercise in Leadership Problems and Solutions in Going Web-based with an Agribusiness Simulation Creating a Comprehensive Web-Enhanced Classroom Your Class is in Session, Now What? The Challenges of Teaching On-line An Application of Process Control Charts for Attributes as a Form of Classroom Assessment for Experiential Learning Work Goals and Life Aspirations: Do You Have What it Takes to be an Entrepreneur An Exercise to Develop Initiative: Possible Dream? The Ball Point Pen Assembly Company Management Game Review System Development Total Enterprise Simulations and Optimizing the Decision Set: Assessing Student Learning Across Decision Periods Facilitating Learning in the New Millennium with the Complete Online Decision Entry, System (CODES) The Marketing Management Experience The Right Venue for Your Simulation One More Time: Overall Dominance in Total Enterprise Simulation Performance A Profile of ABSEL Conference Attendees Learning Readiness: An Underappreciated Yet Vital Dimension in Experiential Learning Active Learning in a Professional Undergraduate Curriculum The Problem Is - They Think Differently! Cultures Integration in Mergers and Acquisitions: Putting Managers Together in a Business Simulation The Global Business Game: A Strategic Management and International Business Simulation