




































Special Edition: Junior Clinical Research (2022), Vol. 2 No. S2 
 https://doi.org/10.47488/dhrp.v2iS2.73 

 

 
DHR Proceedings ǀ http://dhrproceedings.org 122 2022, Vol. 2 No. S2 122-132 

 

COMMENTARY 

Breast Cancer in Hispanic Women 
 

America Escalona1,2,  Jaraeth Garza1,3, Isabella Larralde1,3, Gabriella Martinez1,4,  Mia 

Muñoz1,3, Darleny Reyes1,2, Ryan Villalobos1,2, Kassandra Zuniga1,3 

 

 

 

12nd Annual Junior Clinical Research Internship, South Texas Academy for Education & Training in Research, DHR Health 

Institute for Research & Development 
2Progreso Early College High School, Progreso, TX 
3San Benito High School, San Benito, TX 
4Robert Vela High School, Edinburg, TX 

 

All correspondence should be addressed to Program Director, 2nd Annual Junior Clinical Research Internship Program, DHR 

Health Institute for Research & Development, 5323 S McColl Road, Edinburg Texas, 78539 

 

Received 08/05/2022 

Accepted for publication 8/16/2022 

Published 8/16/2022 

 

Keywords: Breast Cancer; Treatment Breast Cancer; Cancer Hispanic Women 

 

Introduction  

 

Breast cancer is one of the most common 

cancers in women (1). It is also the second most 

common cause of death for females (2). In the United 

States, there are about 287,850 women diagnosed with 

breast cancer every year (3). Most women are 

diagnosed when they are 50 years or older (4). 

Although it is more likely for older women to be 

diagnosed, younger women can be at risk of it as well 

(2). Hispanic women are more likely to be diagnosed 

at a younger age and more likely to die from breast 

cancer (5).  

 

Pathogenesis  

 

Breast cancers are often a type of carcinoma 

called an adenocarcinoma. By definition, breast cancer 

is a disease in which cells in the breast grow out of 

control often leaving a “lump” in the breasts (6). 

 

 

Genetics 

 

Between 5% to 10% of breast cancer cases 

are hereditary. This means the cancer results directly 

from gene changes or mutations passed on from a 

parent (7). The mutated genes that are often 

responsible for cancer are the BRCA1 and BRCA2 

genes. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are tumor suppressing 

genes that contain the instructions for the protein 

responsible for reparation of damaged DNA, meaning 

they are the genes responsible for fighting cancer (8). 

When these genes are working normally, they keep 

cancer cells from growing and dividing too rapidly or 

uncontrollably. However, when these genes are 

mutated, they are not able to do their job properly. As 

a result, damaged DNA that is left unrepaired by the 

mutated genes may cause the accumulation of cellular 

mutations that are likely to divide and change rapidly 

which can cause cancer (9). Not every woman with 

mutated BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes will get breast 

cancer, but they are at an increased risk.   



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Figure 1. Cancer risk associated with inherited BRCA2 

mutations 
Reference: https://www.facingourrisk.org/info/hereditary-cancer-and-

genetic-testing/hereditary-cancer-genes-and-risk/genes-by-

name/brca2/cancer-risk  

 

Diagnosis  

 

Diagnosing patients with breast cancer can be 

difficult to do as there is a process that has to be done 

before they are able to diagnose. There are machines 

that are used to screen for cancer as well as locate the 

site of the cancer. It may also be used to determine how 

the cancer has developed. To visualize internal breast 

structures, a low dose x-ray of the breast is performed; 

this procedure is known as mammography. It is one of 

the most suitable techniques to detect breast cancer 

(6).  

 

There are two most common methods used to 

diagnose which are known as learning machine and 

deep learning. Machine learning goes with a small 

group in simplified words and is used to help or 

improve research. Deep learning has the same process 

and steps but in machine learning it is separated and 

taken slow (6, 10). 

 

 

 

 
Figure 2. Difference between two pipelines: 

conventional machine learning pipeline (left) and 

deep learning pipeline (right) 
Reference: Gardezi SJS, Elazab A, Lei B, Wang T. Breast Cancer Detection 

and Diagnosis Using Mammographic Data: Systematic Review. J Med 

Internet Res. 2019 Jul 26;21(7):e14464. doi: 10.2196/14464. PMID: 

31350843; PMCID: PMC6688437. 

 

There are chances of a false positive and false 

negative due to background noise, unwanted/ 

unnecessary objects, annotations, and even labels.  

 

The process can be somewhat complex due to 

many steps in a single process, which can be 

considered as sub-groups of one process, but have to 

go through several steps to determine the diagnosis. 

With that being said the process is time consuming not 

only that but a vast amount of money just to process 

and identify to then treat the cancer which can be a 

great amount of money. For example, the minority 

populations/ ethnicity/ race can be affected by said 

process and money such as the poor low economic 

race such as the Hispanics. In research it is said that 

the Hispanic/ Latinos are what make the most 

population of patients that have breast cancer (11). 

Hispanics are known to take long in the process or not 

even do the entire steps before it is too late therefore 

the cancer has spread into more than the breast into 

muscles surrounding the tissue. In most cases there is 

a low chance of surviving the cancer as it may be too 

late.  

 

Ethnicity/Race  

 

Breast cancer is one of the most common 

cancers affecting young women. In Hispanic/Latina 

women, it is the leading cause of cancer death (13). 

https://www.facingourrisk.org/info/hereditary-cancer-and-genetic-testing/hereditary-cancer-genes-and-risk/genes-by-name/brca2/cancer-risk
https://www.facingourrisk.org/info/hereditary-cancer-and-genetic-testing/hereditary-cancer-genes-and-risk/genes-by-name/brca2/cancer-risk
https://www.facingourrisk.org/info/hereditary-cancer-and-genetic-testing/hereditary-cancer-genes-and-risk/genes-by-name/brca2/cancer-risk


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There are many components that contribute to this. 

Some are culture, genetics, and more. Regarding the 

Hispanic culture, there are many factors that 

contribute to increased cases of breast cancer, such as 

diabetes and obesity (15). One example is the diet in 

the culture. Food is very important in the culture and 

while it’s not always a factor, the diet and overall 

lifestyle habits of Hispanic people, specifically in the 

US, is not always the healthiest, and it can contribute 

to developing diseases like diabetes and obesity (14). 

Having diseases like diabetes and obesity may lead to 

developing breast cancer and/or developing a more 

severe case than they would have otherwise (15).  

 

Another risk factor in the culture is the 

mindset. There is a relatively common apprehension 

for seeking medical care within the community. Lack 

of education may contribute to this, depending on the 

area. Delay in seeking medical care increases the 

progression and severity of other diseases in Hispanic 

women, which can increase the risk of having breast 

cancer. There can also be a language barrier that 

contributes to this mindset. The patient may feel 

uncomfortable being in an environment where they 

don’t fully understand everything that’s going on, and 

they may not feel understood themselves (16). This 

also contributes to cases of cancer potentially being 

caught too late, or the patient not getting adequate care 

for their sickness.  

 

There are also economic disparities that can 

impact the treatment of Hispanic women with breast 

cancer. It is very common in the Hispanic culture to 

find a family with one or more parents who work 

multiple jobs or work one very long and stressful job, 

only to be able to make ends meet (17). Adequate 

cancer treatment can be very expensive and may not 

be available in the patient's community, so they may 

have to travel to get this care. This is not always an 

option, and this can negatively impact the treatment. 

Another very common barrier that people in the 

community may face is lack of health insurance, which 

can also be a reason for not going to see a medical 

provider or getting adequate care (18).   

 

A further barrier that some Hispanic/Latina 

women face is documentation. In the US, it is 

extremely difficult for an undocumented individual to 

get the same treatment as someone that is documented. 

Being undocumented can intensify some of the 

previously mentioned factors such as economic 

disparities, being uninsured, not being able to freely 

travel to seek specialized care, and mindset (19). 

Ultimately, a family may just choose to simply not go 

through all of the hardships that come with breast 

cancer treatment, (financial, psychosocial, physical, 

etc.) especially if there is no guarantee that it will 

work. 

 

Age Comparison  

 

Women get breast cancer usually after they 

turn 65 years old (20). Most new cases in the United 

States are shown to all be older than 65 years old. 

Although breast cancer in younger women is not 

unknown, it is rare because breast cancer only affects 

about 4-6 % of the women under the age of 45 (21). 

Breast cancer in younger women has a more 

aggressive effect than the patients who are older (21) 

They usually have a worse prognosis and more 

aggressive phenotype; higher proportions of high-

grade and later-stage tumors; and lower estrogen 

receptor positivity (21) There have also been cases of 

women with breast cancer of the age of 80 and older. 

The older the patients, the more risk and life 

threatening factors there are. The quality of life is 

retained from any treatment they may receive (22). 

The women in their mid 50’s to late 60’s have very 

low risk compared to the women who are younger or 

older than those ages (23). 

 

Risk factors  

 

 There are many risk factors to getting breast 

cancer such as smoking, and obesity. Studies have 

shown that women that smoke at adolescent or peri-

menarcheal ages are at a high risk (24). A study 

showed that out of 102,927 women with 7.7 years 

follow-up, 1,815 developed breast cancer (24). 

Obesity is a higher risk for developing breast cancer, 

particularly in postmenopausal women, and with 

worse disease outcome for women of all ages. Obesity 

is associated with the risk of both pre- and post-

menopausal breast cancer (25). Many things such as 

body mass index, weight gain and waist, and hip ratio 

have all been positively associated with risk of 

developing breast cancer (25). If you were to drink



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three alcoholic drinks per week you would be 15% 

more likely to contract breast cancer (26). Experts 

conclude that for every extra drink your percentage 

will increase by 10% (26). Women who breastfeed for 

at least one month had a 50-58% chance, and women 

with at least 2 children had an 87-93% (27). There are 

many risk factors to contracting breast cancer, many 

that you have control over, but there are few that we 

do. Therefore, people should be proactive and choose 

a healthier lifestyle to better their chances of 

improving their quality of life. 

 

Side Effects  

 

 Women diagnosed with breast cancer are in 

need of information regarding the treatments and side 

effects of breast cancer. There are many side effects 

during the different stages of breast cancer. When 

someone that is a young adult and diagnosed with 

breast cancer, they run the risk of several 

complications such as blood clots, sexual difficulties, 

and infertility (28). Breast cancer (BC) in young 

women is rare, affecting only 4-6% of women under 

the age of 40 (29) Regardless, breast cancer remains 

the most common malignancy among younger 

patients. Recently, a significant increase in BC rates 

has been observed among pre-menopausal subjects 

(30). Breast cancer in young women requires special 

attention due to its specific morphologic and 

prognostic characteristics and unique aspects, 

including fertility preservation and psychosocial 

issues. If an older person is diagnosed with breast 

cancer, they are more likely to run more of a risk of 

infection due to their immune system (30). The side 

effects include menopause, lymphedema, heart 

problems, and dental issues. Compared to other 

ethnicities, the Hispanic/Latino community runs more 

of a risk of getting diagnosed with breast cancer in 

women over other ethnicities such as White and Non-

Hispanic (31).  

 

Since many women suffer from breast cancer 

they often have to go through treatments that may 

leave them with both short-term and long-term side 

effects due to the therapy they go through. All though 

breast cancer is a serious topic to deal with, many 

women may get concerned about the sexual 

difficulties they may go through. Additionally, it may 

be difficult to talk to their physician about the way this 

could affect them or their partner (32). Some may not 

see what women are going through such as self-image 

dysmorphia or sexuality concerns. This can cause a 

person that is diagnosed with breast cancer or has 

breast cancer to start negatively hating the way they 

feel because they are dissatisfied with the way they 

look due to the way they think of themselves (33). 

They may also believe that they themselves as a person 

are not sexually appealing and begin to be self-

conscious about their surgical scars and texture of their 

skin. All of these issues are side effects of breast 

cancer a woman can or has suffered through. 

 

An important factor to consider with both 

surgical options and medication used to treat cancer is 

the side effects and to be proactive in the positive 

outcomes depending on what is recommended to the 

patient. Side effects include both physical and 

physiological changes.  “Expected physical changes 

include hair loss, breast or chest wall disfigurement, 

skin texture change, vaginal irritation, decreased bone 

density, hot flashes, and weight loss or gain.” (34).  

 

Diagnosis and treatments are an enormous 

change in a patient’s life. There are many side effects 

and issues that can happen. There will be various 

changes in your diet, day-to-day life, muscle 

deterioration, and depression. Once you start your 

journey you will notice that you may not be able to 

keep certain foods down, and will have a lot of 

regurgitation. Your taste buds will most likely not like 

a vast variety of food but you can always get meal 

supplements to keep your food intake up. Ongoing 

trials test that the impact of weight loss and lifestyle 

changes can decrease the risk of secondary breast 

cancer. On another note your taste buds aren't the only 

things that change, your muscle mass will defer since 

you may not want to be mobile anymore due to 

soreness/pain from your treatments. On average, 25% 

lower strength was found in lower extremities and 12-

16% in the upper extremities (35). Your doctor or 

oncologist will refer you to a physical therapist to keep 

muscles and nervous system working. Since you will 

be going to a lot of treatments and 

therapies/appointments, you will notice that you may 

not have the time or energy to see family/friends. 

There is a 38.2% chance of getting depression and 

32.3% of anxiety (36). Any cancer patient is at risk for 



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depression but breast cancer patients are at a higher 

risk. It is good to have a stable support system at home 

during these tough times, especially to help with 

mobility, diet, and emotional struggles.  

 

Treatment  

 

Chemotherapy is a common breast cancer 

treatment. There were significant racial/ethnic 

differences in the quality of life controlling for socio 

demographics, clinical factors and treatment factors. 

Treatment depends on the stage of cancer.  It may 

consist of chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery.  

Usually, you receive chemotherapy in two to three 

week cycles, with periods of rest between cycles. 

Many Hispanic women take action on complementary 

interventions during their breast cancer treatment and 

set out the association between the oppressive side 

effects and the most common side effects. Some of the 

side effects can be hair loss, nail changes, mouth sores, 

loss of appetite or weight changes, nausea and 

vomiting, diarrhea, fatigue, hot flashes and/or vaginal 

dryness from menopause caused by chemotherapy and 

nerve damage (37). The side effects normally go away 

once the treatment is done; there are always ways to 

reduce these side effects. There may be some 

racial/ethnic differences in the effectiveness of some 

of the treatments for breast cancer that have not been 

fully understood (38).  The chemotherapy for breast 

cancer can cause side effects, depending on the type 

and dose given, and the length of the treatment. 

Hispanic women are more likely to be diagnosed at a 

later stage and get less aggressive therapy. That leads 

to a lower survival rate. 

 

Alternative Treatment Options  

 

Treatment options for Breast Cancer (BC) 

can range from conservative methods to more 

aggressive approaches based on the stage of breast 

cancer. Cancer patients can also opt for chemotherapy, 

biological therapy and even hormone therapy. Other 

options include Partial mastectomy (PM), Mastectomy 

without reconstruction (M), Mastectomy with 

reconstruction (M+R) and PM with oncoplastic 

reconstruction (OS).  

 

Treatment options can range from invasive to 

noninvasive procedures and medication patient’s 

dependent on the stage in which cancer was detected. 

Hormone levels are also an important factor to 

consider when looking into therapy. Table 1 illustrates 

the typical treatment options for breast cancer.  

 

Time is another factor. Both in when it is 

diagnosed and how much time the patient will be in 

treatment.  In addition to considering time invested in 

treatment options patients need to also consider what 

medications they will be taking. Table 2 indicates the 

medications used in the treatment of breast cancer.  

 

Treatment options along with 

recommendation for medication can be discussed with 

the patient's oncologist to determine the best possible 

option to successfully treat the patient. In addition, it 

is important to consider what treatment option the 

patient will pick to prevent a recurrence as much as 

possible.  

 

Treatment Cost   

 

The yearly cost of breast cancer treatment in 

the United States is $16.5 billion according to the CDC 

(39). It is also said to have the highest cost for 

treatment amongst cancers (39). The cost of treatment 

can differ depending on many things like what stage 

the cancer is in, the type of treatment you’ll receive, 

age, and if you have insurance or not. The typical 

patient can expect to pay from $60,637-$134,682 for 

treatment although this can vary (40). Depending on 

the type of treatment, a Stage 4 patient could expect to 

pay up to 64% more than patients with lower Stages of 

breast cancer (40). In patients undergoing a surgical 

removal, those with Stage 0 patients can expect to pay 

121% more than Stage 4 patients (40). Since breast 

cancer in younger women tends to be more aggressive, 

the treatment is usually more intensive and expensive 

(41). Treatment is expensive with or without 

insurance, however, a patient is likely to pay more 

without it. Fortunately, there are multiple 

organizations who offer help to patients (42). Some of 

these organizations include The Healthwell 

Foundation, Partnership for Prescription Assistance, 

and The Pink Fund (43). Some of these foundations 



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can also provide support for those that have insurance 

but do not cover individual drugs or certain treatments. 

 

Conclusion  

 

 The consequences of breast cancer include 

not only different occurrences during treatment, but 

also diagnosis. Breast cancer is most common in 

Hispanic women, making up more than half of the 

population of Hispanic women. During the early years 

of mammography, there were many new cases of 

cancer in situ, but 75% of the cases died due to cancer 

in situ. Thanks to the advancements in cancer 

treatment methods, the quality of life for cancer 

patients has greatly improved. Furthermore, there is 

still a need to change the rate. Hispanic women are 

more likely than non-Hispanic women to be affected 

by this breast cancer. It is due to poor living/economic 

options that Hispanics and Latinos are the most 

affected. The Hispanics had scarce or no resources 

compared to other races. In spite of this, many 

Hispanics do not seek medical attention until they are 

too ill or have a condition. This in turn means that the 

disease or cancer has spread to other parts of the body. 

Poor economic sources are one possibility, which can 

greatly impact the entire community, thus contributing 

to the large breast cancer population. 

 

Acknowledgments 

 

Dr. Monica Betancourt-Garcia, MD, Scientific 

Director; Melissa Eddie, MS, Program Manager; 

Xochitl Lopez, BS, Program Coordinator 

 

Funding 

Funded by DHR Health Institute for Research & 

Development; DHR Health; Region One ESC 

GEARUP College Ready, Career Set!; Region One 

ESC GEARUP College Now, Career Connected and 

Region One ESC PATHS 

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https://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/programs-impact/pop/breast-cancer.htm#:~:text=%2416.5%20BILLION&amp;text=13%25%20of%20all%20cancer%20treatment,States%20are%20for%20breast%20cancer.&amp;text=Breast%20cancer%20has%20the%20highest%20treatment%20cost%20of%20any%20cancer.&amp;text=The%20amount%20that%20patients%20pay,widely%20de
https://www.valuepenguin.com/health-insurance-breast-cancer-treatment-study
https://www.valuepenguin.com/health-insurance-breast-cancer-treatment-study
https://www.valuepenguin.com/health-insurance-breast-cancer-treatment-study
https://www.valuepenguin.com/health-insurance-breast-cancer-treatment-study
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https://www.youngsurvival.org/learn/living-with-breast-cancer/practical-concerns/financial-assistance
https://www.youngsurvival.org/learn/living-with-breast-cancer/practical-concerns/financial-assistance
https://www.youngsurvival.org/learn/living-with-breast-cancer/practical-concerns/financial-assistance
https://www.youngsurvival.org/learn/living-with-breast-cancer/practical-concerns/financial-assistance


Escalona, et al  Breast Cancer in Women 
https://doi.org/10.47488/dhrp.v2iS2.73 

 

 
DHR Proceedings ǀ http://dhrproceedings.org 131 2022, Vol. 2 No. S2 122-132 

 

 

Table 1: Typical Treatment Options for Breast Cancer by Stage 

 
Reference: Maughan, K. L., Lutterbie, M. A., & Ham, P. S. (2010). Treatment of breast cancer. American family physician, 81(11), 1339–1346. (34) 

 

  



Escalona, et al  Breast Cancer in Women 
https://doi.org/10.47488/dhrp.v2iS2.73 

 

 
DHR Proceedings ǀ http://dhrproceedings.org 132 2022, Vol. 2 No. S2 122-132 

Table 2: Medication Used in the Treatment of Breast Cancer 

 
Reference: Maughan, K. L., Lutterbie, M. A., & Ham, P. S. (2010). Treatment of breast cancer. American family physician, 81(11), 1339–1346. (38) 

 


