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DIANOIA
The Undergraduate Philosophy Journal of Boston College

Spring 2014     Issue III
 

Featuring an interview with Richard Kearney,
Charles Seelig Professor in Philosophy

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DIANOIA
The Undergraduate Philosophy Journal of Boston College

Spring 2014

Issue III

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DIANOIA
The Undergraduate Philosophy Journal of Boston College

Dianoia fosters open philosophical discussion and writing among undergraduate 
students at Boston College. The journal provides a necessary venue for sharing 

creative, philosophy-based papers that bridge academic disciplines.

The ancient Greek word translates as “thought” but connotes a 
discursive direction or search for a higher form of knowledge.

Dianoia is sponsored by The Institute for the Liberal Arts 
and The Philosophy Department of Boston College

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Dianoia Staff 2014

Editor-in-Chief Karel-Bart Celie

Managing Editors Lucilla Pan, Andrew Skaras

Editors Nicholas Anderson, Eleni Callas, Daniel Cattolica, 
 Gunnar Lund, Ben Markely, Ben Miyamoto, 
 Peter Sheridan, Alec Walker

Copy Editor Timothy Bak

Designers Nicholas Cokonis, Jasmine Rebadavia

Faculty Advisor Rev. Ronald Tacelli, S.J.

The editors of Dianoia would like to express their gratitude to the following 
individuals for their generous support:

Mary Crane, Department of English and The Institute for the Liberal Arts

Susan Dunn, Center for Centers

Rev. Arthur Madigan, S.J., Department of Philosophy

Yasmin Nunez, The Institute for the Liberal Arts 

Cover illustration courtesy of Juan Osborne: Never, Never, Never Give Up, 2011, 
Digital, 3161 x 2001 pxl. All rights reserved. Readers are encouraged to visit 
www.juanosborne.com for information and illustrations.

The materials herein represent the personal opinions of the individual authors and 
do not necessarily represent the views of Dianoia or Boston College. 

If you have questions regarding the Journal or would like to submit your work 
for review, or if you’d be interested in joining next year’s staff, please contact the 
Journal at bcdianoia@gmail.com
Dianoia 

The Undergraduate Philosophy Journal of Boston College 
Spring 2014 Issue III

Boston College 
140 Commonwealth Avenue 
Chestnut Hill, MA 02467

Printed by Progressive Print Solutions

© 2014 The Trustees of Boston College

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Letter from the Editors

Winston Churchill was as much an intellectual as he was a political figure. 
His leadership of Britain during the Second World War helped the Allies 

defeat Nazi Germany and re-establish peace in Europe. However, Churchill was 
more than just a British prime minister. He was a prolific author who penned nu-
merous, comprehensive, and well-written publications, for which he won a Nobel 
Prize in Literature in 1953. It might be said, then, that Churchill’s strength as a 
public figure had its source in the strength of his intellectual life. By all accounts, 
Winston Churchill was more than just a statesman—he was a public intellectual. 

The theme of this third incarnation of the undergraduate philosophy journal 
of Boston College is the role of the public intellectual in contemporary society. In 
light of this theme, Dianoia is pleased to publish the highlights of an interview 
with philosopher, Richard Kearney. Kearney—a highly regarded public intellectual 
who played an influential role in the peace talks between northern and southern 
Ireland—serves as the Charles Seelig Professor in Philosophy at Boston College, 
where he continues to author books and teach students. We would like to thank 
him especially for contributing to this year’s issue. 

From a number of high-quality submissions, Dianoia is also pleased to present 
a selection of five essays that we hope will contribute to the intellectual dialogue 
on campus. “Banksy: Dissident Artist” examines the role of street art in critiquing 
consumer culture. A thoughtful analysis on the dialectical interplay between Ki-
erkegaard and Hegel is presented in the essay “Encountering Paradox: Movements 
of Faith and Reason in the Dialectics of Kierkegaard and Hegel.” Plato’s famous 
Third Man Argument is examined in the most analytic essay of this year’s issue, “A 
Critical Examination of the Third Man Argument.” Though more literary in style, 
the Journal has also included “Nietzsche the Autobiographer” for its pedagogical 
value in understanding Nietzsche’s own assessment of his life and works. Finally, 
“Divine Simplicity: The Centerpiece of Aquinas’ Doctrine on God” provides 
philosophical and theological insight into the thought of Aquinas. 

This year, Dianoia has opted to publish fewer essays that are, in turn, lengthier 
on average than a standard paper. Our hope in doing so is that anyone who does 
not know much about a given topic—say, Nietzsche’s life—can pick up this Jour-
nal and learn from the content. Dianoia seeks to be a forum for intellectual debate 
and dialogue in the Boston College community, and we believe that this year’s 
issue reflects that goal. Please enjoy the third edition of Dianoia, and we look for-
ward to your continued support. 

Sincerely,

Karel-Bart Celie, Editor-in-Chief

Lucilla Pan, Managing Editor

Andrew Skaras, Managing Editor

v

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Contents

Interview with Richard Kearney, Charles Seelig Professor in 
Philosophy 1

Banksy: Dissident Artist 13 
Alexander Trimes

Encountering Paradox: Movements of Faith and Reason in 
the Dialectics of Kierkegaard and Hegel 21 
Francis Adams

A Critical Examination of the Third Man Argument 35 
Gjergji Evangjeli

Nietzsche the Autobiographer 45 
Anthony Cossette

Divine Simplicity: The Centerpiece of Aquinas’ Doctrine 
on God 61 
Jonathan Phillips

 Author Biographies 68

vii

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...being involved with the public means trying 

to be answerable to, and attentive to, suffering 

and pain. As well as then imagining, through 

hope and utopia, alternatives of that.

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1

Richard Kearney, Ph.D.

Interview with Richard 
Kearney, Charles Seelig 
Professor in Philosophy

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2 DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL

As a part of this issue’s theme of the public intellectual, Dianoia conducted an interview 

with Richard Kearney, the Charles Seelig Professor in Philosophy at Boston College. 

Hailing from Ireland, Kearney has been extremely influential both philosophically and 

politically in the public talks surrounding the Troubles of Northern Ireland and the 

Peace Talks that occurred between the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the govern-

ment of the Ireland. Since then, he has appeared publicly in numerous forums to discuss 

issues of terrorism, politics, and philosophy.

Dianoia: Could you describe your role in the Northern Ireland Peace Talks?

Kearney: In 1977, I cofounded a journal called the Crane Bag, which was an 
interdisciplinary intellectual review founded by the Arts Counsels of northern and 
southern Ireland. It was a way of bringing together politicians, philosophers, writ-
ers, teachers, and professional people to develop a dialogue on the future of north-
ern and southern Ireland. It was open to all points of view. So we did an interview 
with the head of the IRA and with the Minister of Communications of Ireland at 
the time (you couldn’t find two people more opposed). It led to a controversy with 
Margaret Thatcher and Ian Paisley, who openly denounced it in Westminster Par-
liament saying, “Here’s British public funding going to a journal that shook hands 
with the IRA.” While our point of view was: “You’ve got to shake hands with the 
devil.”

So it was the idea that philosophy—or a philosophy journal—should be some-
thing that develops public debate. And also that all are admitted, because philoso-
phy is a discipline which, as Husserl said, is really the “science of sciences.” It is a 
foundational investigation for all disciplines. So it’s a forum—an agora, as Socrates 
put it—where people can come together and share opinions. That was kind of the 
beginning.

Then, in 1984, we did a special issue of the journal—called “The Forum Is-
sue”—and this was an issue that published the proceedings of the forum for a new 
Ireland that was set up by all the political parties in Ireland to imagine new solu-
tions for the future. One of the solutions that I, as a representative of the south of 
Ireland—with a Catholic, Nationalist, Republican background—proposed (and 
I co-presented with another philosopher from the north) was a model of joint 
sovereignty for Northern Ireland. Now sovereignty per se has always been defined 
as “one and indivisible,” going back to Rousseau and Bodin. So, if that’s the case 
and you’ve got a claim for a united Ireland, as was the case with the Republican 
Nationalist cause, which a majority in southern Ireland and a minority in northern 
Ireland supported, and then you’ve got a contrary claim for a United Kingdom, 
supported by the Unionists who are the majority in northern Ireland, then you’ve 

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3INTERVIEW WITH RICHARD KEARNEY

got a conflict of sovereignty claims that is absolutely incompatible and irresolvable. 
If sovereignty is going to be indivisible you can be British or Irish, but you can’t 
be both. So we proposed that you should be able to be both; and even though joint 
sovereignty is legally and constitutionally a contradiction in terms—that was the 
only solution for a contrary society like Northern Ireland! Which in a sense is an 
oxymoron, strictly speaking, because you can’t share sovereignty. But, by putting it 
in terms of a contradiction you can lead to new thinking. Constitutional impos-
sibility calls for imaginative possibility! And poetry works like that—Yeats talks 
about “beautiful despair.” You grow up between opposites and contradictions, and 
when you put the two together, you get poetic imagination. Or as Seamus Heaney 
put it, “Two buckets are easier carried than one, I grew up in between.” And our 
big wager was, “If you put two contradictory positions together, you get politi-
cal invention.” So we proposed joint sovereignty. And that was eventually one of 
the three proposals that were brought by the government of Ireland to Margaret 
Thatcher: joint sovereignty, federal Ireland, and a united Ireland. And she famous-
ly responded, “Out, out, out!” to my proposal and to the two others.

So that was my first exposure to tough political debate as a public intellectual. 
My first foray into politics—British-Irish mainly. Although in my book Postna-

tionalist Ireland I also explored pan-European-federal solutions, seeing Ireland as a 
region within Europe.

Then I did a number of television programs and public broadcasting. I used 
to have a weekly program on Irish national television on politics, philosophy, and 
literature. We interviewed the likes of Vaclav Havel, Noam Chomsky, Umberto 
Ecco, Paul Ricoeur, Jacques Derrida … they were all the published in a book called 
Debates in Contemporary Philosophy. And that was kind of a weekly attempt on 
British and Irish television to create debates between intellectuals—philosophers 
from Europe and North America. 

There was in Ireland and Europe at the time the idea that philosophers—or 
academics generally—could be public intellectuals. It is less so here [in the U.S.]. 
For the most part, philosophy remains much more of a … specialized professional 
activity I find. Regrettably so.

Dianoia: You mentioned the different roles that philosophers play in the U.S. ver-
sus in Europe. Did this shape your role in creating a public forum? What brought 
you to the place where you decided to start your journal and have those public 
conversations?

Kearney: Growing up, doing European philosophy—here sometimes called 
Continental Philosophy, although often more Continental American philosophy—

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4 DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL

some of the main people I was studying were Camus, Sartre, De Beauvoir, Mer-
leau-Ponty, Paul Ricoeur. They all edited and wrote for journals. These different 
intellectuals were all involved in public broadcasting and public intellectual de-
bates. Some of them taught at universities but the rest of the time they were out, 
engaged with the public. The first president of Czechoslovakia, Masaryk, was a 
Ph.D. in philosophy, a philosophy professor, who studied with Husserl and Freud. 
And his follower, Jan Patochka, a great philosopher in Prague, went on to found 
the famous peace rights movement, Charta 77, and was imprisoned and tortured 
for his trouble. But he left a huge legacy on Vaclav Havel and a whole generation 
of intellectual dissidents who brought about the Velvet Revolution in 1989.

In other words, the people I was studying were people who were involved 
with the public. The split between a professional academic specialization—called 
philosophy—and applied philosophy, practical philosophy, engaged philosophy, 
simply did not exist in that way. And this also appealed to me because I was doing 
philosophy and literature. Most of these publically committed philosophers were 
themselves writers—some of them, like Camus and Sartre, even being awarded 
the Nobel Prize for literature.  When teaching existentialism, I always start with 
Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, and Dostoevsky—who are as much literary writers as 
they are philosophers. I actually found it quite strange to come to North America, 
where philosophy departments were often cordoned off. 

In 2008 I set up a Guestbook seminar here at BC [Boston College] with four-
teen different departments involved, faculty and students. The idea was to develop 
philosophy in dialogue with literature, art, physics, psychology, political science, 
romance languages, and so on. And it was great fun. I still very much believe in 
interdisciplinary teaching and publishing. 

The third point I would make, which is relevant to all of you as undergraduate 
and graduate students, is that I resent the fact that everything revolves around the 
question: “Where are your philosophy students placed?” And if they are not placed 
in an academic institution—and usually a tenure track—it doesn’t count. You 
won’t get points for the ranking. Whereas, I would say that a good portion of my 
grad students since I came to BC ended up in public positions, not in academic in-
stitutions. One is running an NGO in Jerusalem, as co-director for the free move-
ment of Palestinians. She wouldn’t have gotten that position without a philosophy 
degree. She’s also writing philosophy—she does both. But that doesn’t count as a 
placement. The last two presidents of Ireland had Ph.D.’s in philosophy—neither 
would be counted as placements here. If Obama had a Ph.D. from Boston College 
or any American university—his being president in the White House would not 
count as a placement. So it’s considered an academic “failure” to put someone in 
charge of an NGO or a government. Tell that to half the ministers in the French 
government—all Ph.D.’s. Doesn’t count. Havel—doesn’t count. Masaryk—doesn’t 

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5INTERVIEW WITH RICHARD KEARNEY

count. So it’s kind of absurd, expressed in the narrow view that if you do philoso-
phy at a graduate level, it has got to be to teach at a tenure-track university job. 
Whereas a lot of European and Continental philosophy, in any case, teaches in a 
very broad and interdisciplinary way. So it’s a huge plus to go into an interview 
and have a graduate degree in philosophy. It’s very sought-after. And not just in 
Europe—where it certainly is—but also, I believe, increasingly here in America. 
Or at least that is what some of my grad students out there in the market tell 
me. It’s kind of a prestigious thing to have—undergraduate or graduate, M.A. or 
Ph.D.—going into non-philosophical jobs.

Dianoia: Would you say that the philosophical environment in the United States 
precludes philosophy students from functioning as public intellectuals?

Kearney: It is hard to speak in general terms. With a graduate degree, you have 
the choice—1) to become a professional academic philosopher, teaching in a uni-
versity or 2) do that and have a public role, or 3) just have a public role. But either 
way philosophy will form you—it’s a foundational humanistic formation. And this 
should be touted and promoted as a plus. I taught in Dublin for 21 years in our 
Ph.D. program, and I would say maybe 50% went on to teach in philosophy pro-
grams. Most of the rest went into public functions. That was always my interest—
philosophy and something else—not just specialized logic-chopping. But that 
doesn’t mean one shouldn’t have a really rigorous academic training. Of course one 
should. But it should always be in dialogue with other disciplines. Or at least have 
the option of doing that. These should be equi-primordial options—to stay in aca-
demic philosophy or to apply your talents to public discourse and debate. Or both.

Dianoia: Do you think that is changing at all? Do you think people are becoming 
aware that the inter-disciplinarity is important?

Kearney: I think it’s growing. And for two reasons. First of all, people are open-
ing their minds. They are realizing that specialization is going to disappear into a 
hole. And second, the Ignatian humanistic spirit of BC and other Catholic uni-
versities—and I talk about that in a broad sense—caused them to always have this 
broad education in the humanities. So BC is ripe for that. But I think there was 
a tendency for a while to ape the Ivy Leagues and say, “We should be doing what 
Harvard and Yale are doing.”  When what the Jesuit intellectual tradition is do-
ing is far more interesting and profound and life-changing than the kind analytic 
knit-picking and conceptual navel-gazing that passes for philosophy in certain 
esteemed quarters. It’s an intellectual inferiority complex which infuriates me. 

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6 DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL

“We’ll drop in the rankings if we don’t become like Harvard.” Well, who makes 
the rankings?

So I think that is turning around, and BC, in its intellectual and spiritual cul-
ture, is very open to interdisciplinary, humanistic education. There’s different ways 
of doing philosophy—as technical rationality or as humanistic reason. Analytic 
philosophy, which has predominated in so called “Anglo-Saxon” thinking, privileg-
es the former; so called “continental” philosophy the latter.  Every student should 
be trained in both, but I know where my preference lies.

Another factor, of course, is that there just aren’t enough academic jobs today 
for Ph.D.’s. There are not enough university posts for Ph.D.’s, so people have to 
think out of the box. But that is not a reason not to study philosophy.  We have all 
these unemployed Ph.D.’s in philosophy so what can they do? How about running 
the country? Running NPR? Running the diplomatic corps? Running a publish-
ing company, setting up journals, running theatres, running NGO’s?

Dianoia: Do you think there is a cultural reason for this? Something in American 
culture that is the reason why the role of philosophy is perceived so differently 
here as compared to Europe?

Kearney: I think exactly the same reason that the government took away public 
funding from NPR. Same thing. Thinking is dangerous. Keep it cloistered. Of 
course, that’s putting it too bluntly. But when I pay taxes I want some of those 
taxes to go for public education, public broadcasting, and public debate. Yet there 
seems to be a prejudice in certain quarters that if funding for public broadcasting 
comes from taxpayers instead of from private individuals, it is somehow suspect. 
It’s an extraordinary indictment of what one means by “public.” And that division 
between public and private is, in my view, ruinous.

Some people would say: well what about Greece? And I would say well that 
went to the other extreme, where you had 80% of the people working in public 
or state positions, and that has got to be countered. But America has gone to 
the other.  I throw up my arms in despair at the way certain people use the term 
Obamacare as a slur. Rick Santorum, for example, described it as “apartheid.” 
Saying, “How can Obama be celebrating Nelson Mandela’s memory when he is 
introducing apartheid here?” So what can you do? There can’t be a sense of owner-
ship of the public domain, either of health, education, or broadcasting, when the 
term ‘care’ is treated as a term of insult.

Also, there tends to be a sense that the disciplines should be quantifiable. 
It’s very hard to quantify theology or philosophy. If you want to do so you need 
to adopt a quasi-scientific form of reasoning that can get grants and work with 

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7INTERVIEW WITH RICHARD KEARNEY

strict criteria of verification and falsification. Now that is a certain side of phi-
losophy—Aristotle wrote the Physics, as well as the Metaphysics.  He did both. So 
I’m not saying that there shouldn’t be a scientific philosophy or a philosophy of 
science—there are wonderful people here at BC who teach that. I’m all for it. But 
the tendency since the 50’s and 60’s has been to focus on a certain brand of philos-
ophy that is  “measurable” in terms of proofs. And then certain philosophy depart-
ments (Princeton, Yale, Harvard, and so on) tried to ape the sciences in narrow 
ways—though things are beginning to open up again now and the whole analytic-
versus-continental divide is happily beginning to erode. Some scientists replied: 
don’t try to do our job, do your job, and then we will talk to you … because you can 
teach us things about foundational human questions that we’re not doing here in 
our laboratory. But don’t try and compete with the rats in our laboratory—we’re 
doing very well, thank you very much. And of course that gave pseudo-scientific 
philosophy an inferiority complex. They couldn’t measure up to the sciences! But 
as I say things are beginning to open up again. I’m delighted, for instance, that 
Shawn Kelly is the chair at Harvard—he comes from Merleau-Ponty and he can 
do cognitive sciences and phenomenology of perception. The important thing is to 
get the two traditions to talk to each other.

Dianoia: You’ve alluded to the fact that, in Europe, there has been a more active 
role played by public intellectuals than in the United States. Do you think that 
the media also plays a role? Should public intellectuals function to filter what is 
presented to the public? The media is there to correct factual errors, but there is no 
discussion about ideological errors.

Kearney: That’s a very good point. And it’s a lack of a middle ground—a mediat-
ing ground. You’ve got the ideologies of government, as it were, and the statements 
and proposals come out, and then you’ve got the big public. But no one is really 
mediating. So more and more the media has taken up the role of mediation—as 
they should. But they should be a forum for public intellectuals and commenta-
tors also. And there still are some out there, but increasingly it’s becoming pundits 
in an entertainment game. It’s like sports commentary except it’s political com-
mentary. Tick-tack, tick-tack, but it’s not a deep, informed, philosophical debate. 
It’s all sound bites. (I’m talking mainly about Fox News and even CNN, more 
than NPR which has some excellent cultural programming of course—but they 
are always under such huge financial pressure.) It has become increasingly about 
entertainment rather than education. BBC, when it was set up, was founded with 
a few principles, one of which was definitely education. In the media, it’s important 
that you get the fact-checkers—that’s essential, the media should be there to in-
vigilate the facts. But the second role is commentary and interpretation, and that’s 

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8 DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL

become incredibly impoverished. You go into an airport or a hotel, and you’ve got 
split screens and it’s just to-and-fro news clips and “opiniators.” It’s a spectator’s 
sport—gladiatorial, adversarial chit-chat—but rarely real in-depth interviews apart 
from NPR/PBS, which has a minority audience. Now, I repeat, the latter is often 
excellent but it absolutely reduces me to tears to hear them have to beg five days in 
a row during fundraisers. In the meantime, they can’t have a debate because they 
have to get the money to support it. And to me that is just not a democracy—
when people have to scrape, borrow, and beg to get enough to talk intelligently 
about things! I mean on one level it goes back to the American spirit and that’s 
fine—we all pay for what we get. I’m all for things from the ground up rather than 
the top down. That can be extremely important. People get together, and there’s a 
groundswell of opinion from beneath. Yes. But NPR has to appeal for money to 
individuals in their cars, in their homes, on their way to work. It’s almost always 
an appeal to private individuals. Not a community or province or state thing. And 
public radio is communal. So it should be paid for communally.

Dianoia: Do you find the literature in Europe—in philosophy, for example—more 
accessible to a general reading audience than it is here? Conversely, is the general 
reading audience more informed, so that a higher-level journal is more accessible 
to them?

Kearney: I think it works both ways. Remember, in France, Germany, Italy, and 
several other European countries, philosophy is part of the high school educa-
tion—it’s taught to all students prior to graduation. You don’t have to wait till you 
go to university to study philosophy—you are already formed and informed by it. 
And that makes a big difference. 

But I don’t wish to be too down about American education. I came here for a 
reason. I came here to work, so it’s not like I don’t see the wonderful opportunities 
and advantages of the great universities, libraries, research institutes. They are re-
ally wonderful, among the best in the world. My argument is not about resources. 
It is elsewhere.

Let me put it in the form of a question: “What happened between the intel-
lectual heyday of Jefferson and Franklin, for example, and our own day to explain 
how, for some reason, the intellectual-philosophical work isn’t as central to the 
culture?”  Why did it get cloistered and confined to academic campuses (often in 
remote settings like Dartmouth, Wellesley, Princeton, even Boston College) in a 
kind of cultural apartheid? Why this quarantine of philosophy? One learns great 
things, but far from the madding crowd. One thinks great thoughts but apart from 
the world.

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9INTERVIEW WITH RICHARD KEARNEY

Dianoia: You teach philosophy of imagination, and you’ve written several books 
on imagination. Could you flesh out what you see the role of imagination is for 
the public intellectual?

Kearney: Well, it enables one to enter the kingdom of “as if.” And that opens up 
the space of possibility, a laboratory of possibilities, so that you can think oth-
erwise. And if you can think otherwise, things can be otherwise. It reminds me 
of Bertolt Brecht, a German playwright and poet, who said, “The most radical 
poem I ever wrote was of an apple growing silently in a Berlin orchard during the 
height of Hitler’s power.” This was radical because to imagine something beauti-
ful growing in the middle of evil was a categorical imperative that things can be 
otherwise, that things must change. So imagination opens up the future, it opens 
up the realm of possibility. And I think that’s why, say in Northern Ireland, the 
road to the peace process was paved not just by politicians and jurists but by poets 
and writers, able to imagine what it was like to be the enemy, to empathy with the 
adversary, to image the possibility of the impossible. To imagine what came about 
with the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. 

I’m currently directing an international project called “Guestbook,” which 
started here at BC, where we bring together young people, students, from differ-
ent divided communities—Northern Ireland, Kosovo, Jerusalem, Dokto—and we 
get them to exchange narratives. First of all, we get them to share their own story. 
And then, in the second part, they imagine a new story. They create something 
together from the components of their respective histories. The wager is that if 
they can come up with an aesthetic solution in images—it can be poetry, video, 
drama, graffiti, comic-strip animation—something new may be created in reality 
afterward. There’s a prize at the end of each year. A prestigious committee decides 
on the winners and they come to Boston College to screen their work and receive 
their prize. 

That’s all based on the idea of narrative imagination. You tell your own story, 
and then you listen empathically through your imagination to the story of your 
enemy. And then you co-create a third story. So that’s the philosophy of imagina-
tion applied to the public pedagogical domain. I’m working with young people 
because, in these split countries/cities, the thing is so trans-generational. The hope 
is in the young people making new images and stories with their iPhones, com-
puters, and flip-cameras. That technology has changed the world.  They are com-
ing up with some remarkable work which they post on our website—guestbook-
project.com—and then engage in exchanges with other international students on 
our interactive website and blogs.

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10 DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL

Dianoia: Do you think that your designation as a public intellectual has shaped 
how you view yourself and your work? How do you see that designation shape you 
as you continue?

Kearney: Well, it means that I’m always wondering, “How does this relate to 
what’s happening in the world now?” So you could say that that is Socratic exis-
tentialism. Of course, I’m not comparing myself to Socrates—I’m talking about 
the method. You go into an agora, and you see what the debates are. What is jus-
tice? What is war? Let us not forget that Greek philosophy and drama first arose 
in response to war—the Peloponnesian War, the Trojan War, the Persian War, and 
so on.

So being involved with the public means trying to be answerable to, and at-
tentive to, suffering and pain. As well as then imagining, through hope and utopia, 
alternatives of that. Now, I’m not saying all philosophy needs to do that. There is 
always that moment, absolutely indispensible, when one needs to take a step back 
and retreat, and contemplate, before going out into the world again. Philosophy 
has two lives— the vita contemplativa and the vita activa. You need both.

There are so many distractions, so many things to plug into, and so on. My 
own personal retreat is the south of Ireland—we still have a little house there. I 
go there every summer for three months, and that’s where I get all of my writing 
done. If I didn’t have that, I couldn’t do the more public stuff.  One needs to step 
back to step forward. 

This interview was conducted by Karel-Bart Celie, Editor-in-Chief, and Andrew 

Skaras, Managing Editor, with Richard Kearney in December of 2013. 

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11INTERVIEW WITH RICHARD KEARNEY

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It is through Banksy’s dissidence, his dedication 

to graffiti, and his determination to reveal 

what he perceives as consumerism’s threat to 

humanity, that he attempts to resurrect and 

propagate a culture in which social relations 

are not mediated by financial interactions.

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13

In a conversation with author Tristan Manco, Banksy, the anonymous graffiti 
artist from Bristol, England, states, “All graffiti is low-level dissent, but sten-

cils have extra history. They’ve been used to start revolutions and to stop wars.”1 
Banksy’s own use of stencil graffiti has earned him an international reputation as 
a political artist whose pieces challenge the status quo and undermine authority 
around the world.2  Perhaps most prominently, Banksy’s art functions as a critique 
of consumer culture and the heavy influence that advertising holds in contempo-
rary society. An analysis of his pieces through the lenses of Herbert Marcuse’s and 
Erich Fromm’s Frankfurt School philosophies provides a greater understanding of 
Banksy’s status as a dissident artist.

Banksy adopted and developed the use of stencils in the early 1990s, a tech-
nique that enables him to produce pieces more quickly and thus reduces the 
“danger of detection that is the risk of a slower freehand piece.”3  The illegal status 
of graffiti is significant as it endows Banksy’s art with a dissentient quality it 
might not otherwise possess. As Herbert Marcuse claims, society has invalidated 
the “subversive force,” that is, the “truth” of art that would ordinarily be considered 
political by “assimilating its antagonistic contents.”4  By operating outside of the 
mediums condoned by the “new totalitarianism,” which relegates political works of 
art to objects of leisurely contemplation accessible only in museums, Banksy’s art 
makes it impossible for society to absorb the “destructive content” of his art, as its 
very presence disobeys the law and transgresses the norm—it cannot be ignored. 
In this sense, Banksy’s art “saves its substance by denying its traditional form and 
thereby denying reconciliation.”5 It is perceived by the legal system not as art, but 
as crime.6 

Much of Banksy’s art critiques the oppressive influence of advertising agencies 
and corporations over society and the subsequent rise of consumerism. According 
to Banksy:

The people who truly deface our neighborhoods are the companies that 
scrawl their giant slogans across buildings and buses trying to make us feel 

Alexander Trimes

Banksy: Dissident Artist

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14 DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL

inadequate unless we buy their stuff. They expect to be able to shout their 
message in your face from every available surface but you’re never allowed 
to answer back. Well, they started this fight and the wall is the weapon of 
choice to hit them back.7

As the quotation suggests, Banksy interprets consumerism as the pursuit of a 
specific brand of adequacy, one that is constructed by the companies that manu-
facture the advertised products. Such a conception of consumer culture resembles 
Erich Fromm’s sentiment that, “the individual, primarily alone and self-sufficient, 
enters into economic relations with others as means to one end: to sell and to 
buy.”8  In Banksy and Fromm’s understandings of consumerism, objects function 
as mediators for social interaction, the dynamics of which is dictated by the pro-
ducers—in order to adhere to the established norm, in order to avoid “feel[ing] in-
adequate,” that “we buy their stuff.”9  Banksy, however, chooses not to adhere, but 
rather to engage in the “fight” and raise issue with the contemporary paradigm.

In his effort to retaliate, Banksy employs “the wall,” the same public medium 
used by advertisers, to undermine consumer culture.10  His 2011 piece Sorry! The 

lifestyle you ordered is currently out of stock is a prime example of this technique. The 
piece, which is simply the title spelled out in large font, is painted over a space 
regularly reserved for advertisements. It expresses Banksy’s notion that companies, 
when advertising, are not advertising their product so much as the lifestyle they 
want consumers to associate with their brand; the product is a means of achiev-
ing a certain “adequate” lifestyle. The fact that the lifestyle is “out of stock” sug-
gests that the lifestyles that companies advertise, and lifestyles in general, cannot 
be bought. A way of life is not contingent upon a single purchase. By depicting a 
deficiency of consumer culture, that no product provides the lifestyles companies 
construct and advertise, Banksy exemplifies Fromm’s definition of “disobedience” 
as an “affirmation of reason and will.”11  Through his attempt to disillusion con-
sumer society by promulgating what he identifies as the truth, Banksy realizes 
“man’s capacity to see, to say what he sees, and to refuse to say what he does not 
see.”12  He is, essentially, prompting the viewer to think critically so that he or she 
may discern the disjunction between what is advertised and what can actually be 
bought.

Banksy encourages his audience members again to consider their purchasing 
habits and the way they perceive the stores where they shop in I Pledge Allegiance 

to the Bag. As Eva Branscome describes the painting, it depicts “three sweet little 
patriotic children [who] are taking part in a flag-raising ceremony.”13  In a twist on 
the term brand loyalty, it is not a flag that has been raised at the top of the flagpole 
but a Tesco bag. The Tesco logo remains intact; Banksy does nothing to deface it, 
but he does alter the context in which it is displayed. The work suggests that con-
sumers live according to the dictates of brands, as they are conveyed in advertise-

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15BANKSY: DISSIDENT ARTIST

ments. The viewer is encouraged to consider how he or she perceives companies 
and how his or her purchasing decisions are influenced by advertisements.

I Pledge Allegiance to the Bag is not the only work where Banksy portrays a 
relationship between children and consumer culture. His 2007 piece ATM Girl 

exemplifies a separate instance in which the artist comments on consumerism’s 
effect on children. The work displays a robotic arm that, having emerged from an 
ATM, is grasping a young girl by the waist. When considered alongside I Pledge 

Allegiance to the Bag, this piece clearly shows that Banksy takes issue with the way 
materialism influences children. The pieces, like Marcuse, both suggest that “prod-
ucts indoctrinate and manipulate” individuals.14  Banksy proposes that children, 
who enter this indoctrination process at birth, who spend their entire lives and 
mature in consumer society, will know no alternatives and will remain obedient to 
the brands that they see advertised—they will pledge their allegiance to brands. 
In such a society of material consumption, the children are, as Banksy implies, 
controlled by and are at the whim of the ATM, that is, money, which will enable 
them to participate in society through the medium of products produced by those 
brands they are raised to obey.

Banksy’s critique of consumer culture gains a more serious, morbid dimension 
in the piece Shop ‘Till You Drop. The work, which he painted during the 2011 holi-
day shopping season, is located about halfway down the length of a tall building 
in London and portrays a woman grasping onto a shopping cart as she plunges to 
her death. Distinct from the previous two paintings, Shop ‘Till You Drop does not 
overtly elicit critical thinking regarding the viewer’s relationship to companies or 
brands and does not initially call into question what exactly brands are attempt-
ing to sell the consumer and how the consumer is influenced by advertising, but 
instead posits that materialism and consumer culture are harmful, even deadly, 
to the individuals so thoroughly immersed in it. The work induces the viewer to 
consider how consumer culture affects him or her negatively; it conveys Marcuse’s 
notion that, through indoctrination, consumerism  “promote[s] a false conscious-
ness which is immune against its falsehood” by illustrating how products destroy 
humanity and human relations.15  As materialism becomes a “way of life” that 
consumers can perceive as nothing other than “a good way of life,” it displaces the 
previous ways of existence in which products did not facilitate all social interac-
tion.16 

Banksy adopted an alternative method of criticism of conveying his criticism 
when, in October 2013, he set up a stall in Central Park to sell “100% authentic 
original signed Banksy canvases.”17  The stall, which sold the paintings for $60 
each, performs two functions. First, it undermines the commodification of art, as 
a BBC article reports that “many of the pieces [are] estimated to be worth up to 
£20,000 [$32,000] each.”18  By selling the works for so much less than the market 

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16 DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL

says they are worth, Banksy makes the monetary values assigned to works of art 
appear arbitrary.19  Second, as Forbes writer Kathryn Tully explains, “the Central 
Park sale ably proves the artist’s point. Without the context or hype, New Yorkers 
can’t spot a signed Banksy original when it is literally right under their noses.”20  
The stall’s lack of success illustrates the influence of advertising in sales; despite 
the value of the pieces, the stall only sold eight canvases and generated a mere 
$420 in revenue after customers negotiated for lower prices.

The manner in which Banksy conducts himself, both with regard to the “huge 
prices” that his “anti-establishment art commands” and his decision to remain 
anonymous, embodies the ideals Plato establishes in the Apology.21  Though 
Banksy’s own financial status is unclear, his art, as graffiti, is inherently free to view 
and consider.22  In a 2007 interview with the New Yorker he acknowledges, like 
Plato’s Socrates who has never “exacted or sought pay of anyone,” that he “give[s] 
away thousands of paintings for free.”23  In the article, he proceeds to admit, “The 
money that my work fetches these days makes me a bit uncomfortable, but that’s 
an easy problem to solve—you just stop whingeing and give it all away. I don’t 
think it’s possible to make art about world poverty and then trouser all the cash” 
[sic].24  Similar to Socrates, Banksy does not seek monetary compensation, but 
uses his art as a means of “examining” the status of society and prompting others 
to think critically about the consumerist culture in which they live.25 

Additionally, Banksy, like Socrates, is unable to lead “a public life” free of 
persecution, due to the nature of his work.26  As previously mentioned, it is the 
illegality of graffiti that enables his art to be truly subversive. Aware that he “has 
issues with the cops,” Banksy is unable to reveal his identity without encountering 
legal consequences.27  Were he to pursue a public existence under his real identity, 
he would be unable to continue his art, his dissent, the very things he “dedicate[s] 
[his] entire life to.”28  It is for these reasons that only his work can remain public, 
that it must remain public, while Banksy lives anonymously. In order for Banksy’s 
message to be interpreted politically, it is necessary for his art to explicitly under-
mine the culture it opposes; to critique consumer culture as a spectacle with an 
exhibit inside a museum that charges an admission fee would damage the work’s 
integrity as well as the artist’s credibility. Under such circumstances, Banksy’s op-
tions are limited to outlaw or apolitical artist.

In Wall and Piece, Banksy writes, “The greatest crimes in the world are not 
committed by people breaking the rules but by people following the rules. […] As 
a precaution to ever committing major acts of evil it is our solemn duty never to 
do what we’re told, this is the only way we can be sure.”29 The statement embod-
ies, though perhaps hyperbolically, Fromm’s notion that disobedience, with which 
“human history began,” can function virtuously to perpetuate existence, while “it 
is not unlikely that [humanity] will be terminated by an act of obedience.”30  It is 

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17BANKSY: DISSIDENT ARTIST

through Banksy’s dissidence, his dedication to graffiti, and his determination to 
reveal what he perceives as consumerism’s threat to humanity, that he attempts 
to resurrect and propagate a culture in which social relations are not mediated by 
financial interactions.

1 Tristan Manco, Stencil Graffiti (New York: Thames & Hudson, 2002), 76.

2 Provocative pieces such as those depicting children escaping over, or peering through the 
shattered remains of the West Bank Barrier in Israel earned Banksy a spot on Time Maga-
zine’s list of the 100 most influential people of 2010.

3 Eva Branscome, “The True Counterfeits of Banksy: Radical Walls of Complicity and Subver-
sion,” Architectural Design 81.5 (2011): 116. In this article, Branscome summarizes the evolu-
tion of Banksy’s method.

4 Herbert Marcuse, One-dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society 
(Boston: Beacon Press, 1991), 61.

5 Herbert Marcuse, Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud (London: Rout-
ledge, 1998), 145.

6 Ibid.

7 Banksy, Wall and Piece (London: Century, 2005), 8.

8 Erich Fromm, Escape from Freedom (New York: H. Holt, 1994), 9.

9 Banksy, Wall and Piece, 8.

10 Ibid.

11 Erich Fromm, On Disobedience: Why Freedom Means Saying “no” to Power (New York: Harper, 
2010), 24.

12 Fromm, On Disobedience, 24.

13 Branscome, “True Counterfeits of Banksy,” 116.

14 Marcuse, One-dimensional Man, 12.

15 Ibid.

16 Ibid. Emphasis Added.

17 Banksy, “Central Park,” Banksy NY, October 13, 2013.

18 “Banksy Stall Sells Art Works for $60 in New York,” BBC, October 14, 2013.

19 Banksy has previously undermined what he identifies as the “small group” that “create[s], 
promote[s], purchase[s], exhibit[s] and decide[s] the success of Art” by hanging his own 
pieces in major museums including Tate Britain, the Louvre, and MOMA. Banksy, Wall and 
Piece, 144.

20 Kathryn Tully, “Would You Buy A Banksy From A New York Stall For $60? Not Many 
Did,” Forbes, October 14, 2013.

21 Will Ellsworth-Jones, “The Story Behind Banksy,” Smithsonian, February, 2013, 2.

22 According to Branscome, “Banksy has made money through the sale of his book Wall and 
Piece,” which was a bestseller when it was released in 2005, “selling 90,000 copies and taking 
£1 million.” Branscome, “True Counterfeits of Banksy,” 116.

23 Plato, “Apology,” The Internet Classics Archive, Trans. Benjamin Jowett (MIT, 1994-2009), 11. 
Lauren Collins, “Banksy Was Here,” The New Yorker, May 14, 2007, 6.

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18 DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL

24 Collins, “Bansky Was Here,” 6.

25 Plato, Apology, 14.

26 Ibid., 12.

27 Ellsworth-Jones, “Story Behind Bansky,” 1.

28 Keegan Hamilton, “Village Voice Exclusive: An Interview With Banksy, Street Art Cult 
Hero, International Man of Mystery,” The Village Voice, October 9, 2013, 3.

29 Banksy, Wall and Piece, 51.

30 Fromm, On Disobedience, 1.

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19BANKSY: DISSIDENT ARTIST

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Kierkegaard’s hostility towards Hegel was 

like that of an angry sibling: however much 

he rejected and ridiculed Hegelian dialectic, 

nonetheless antithesis and its explication was 

for him, too, the key. His notion of dialectic is 

similar to Hegel ’s in the sense that it involves a 

“becoming,” but unlike Hegel, it is a subjective 

becoming not an objective becoming.

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21

The disquieting feeling that usually accompanies reading the works of Søren 
Kierkegaard arises from the daunting realization that he is challenging us to 

critically evaluate our existence; to consider the possibility that we are not living 
in the most authentic way of which we are capable. He does not say this explicitly, 
but it is implicit in his unusual method of communication—what he calls “indirect 
communication.”  The challenge in reading Kierkegaard is in unraveling what he 
means by indirect communication. We can get at in the following way: as a whole, 
his literary production shows great thematic breadth, ranging from the poetic to 
the philosophical and into the religious. His chameleon-like versatility is further 
shown by the fact that he unfolded his production through a series of pseud-
onyms. They appear in many of his works, either by themselves or in tandems, and 
each speaks his own mind. It becomes clear, then, that he is not concerned with 
merely espousing his theories and leaving it up to his readers to decide whether 
or not they agree with him. He is challenging the reader to enter deeply into the 
existential questions he engages, to restore what he thought was the essential 
element in the human search for meaning: passion. It is for this reason that he is 
often referred to as the “father of existentialism,” (although he would probably not 
enjoy being associated with an “ism,” for reasons I hope will be clear by the end of 
this analysis). At the same time (and this is the crucial point), there is a definite 
order with which Kierkegaard, as the manager of these various characters, holds 
their views over and against each other. The whole of his production is meant to 
be a theory of existence, an expression of the journey of the individual through 
various stages, which he sees as culminating in the religious stage with the charac-
ter who poses the ultimate challenge to our existence: Jesus Christ.

Much of Kierkegaard’s thinking was in reaction to what he considered to be 
the highly speculative nature of philosophy down through the ancient, medieval 
and modern periods. It is unfortunate then, (for the German philosopher, Hegel) 
that he was the man that received the butt of the criticism, for Kierkegaard’s 
criticism really applies to all the great metaphysicians in the history of Western 
philosophy. Nevertheless, we will examine Kierkegaard’s specific problems with 

Francis Adams

Encountering Paradox: 
Movements of Faith and Reason 
in the Dialectics of Kierkegaard 
and Hegel

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL22

Hegel and all the thinkers who were so greatly influenced by him (many of whom 
were Kierkegaard’s peers at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark, where he 
lived). His primary grievance with this brand of philosophy was that it reduced 
the real to the rational; that is, it asserted that all truth could be expressed in ratio-
nal categories. Kierkegaard strongly disagreed with this view and held that there 
are other truths, truths more relevant to the human condition, which could not be 
explained rationally. In Concluding Unscientific Postscript, he undergoes his most 
comprehensive critique of Hegel and asserts that truth is subjective as opposed to 
objective; that is, truth is grounded in the individual and not in a larger system of 
knowledge, as Hegel asserted. Although Kierkegaard is critical of Hegel in this 
sense, there is an important thread that unites these two thinkers that will serve as 
a useful tool for illuminating their philosophies: their use of dialectical reasoning.  
Hegel’s dialectic does away with the distinction between subject and object and 
therefore determines truth to be an objective, assimilated whole, whereas Kierkeg-
aard’s dialectic is entirely subjective, as it traces the movement of the individual 
through what he determined to be the three stages of existence: the aesthetic, the 
ethical and the religious stage. These differences in dialectical style point to dis-
tinctive epistemologies and worldviews.  It is only after our comparison of Hegel 
and Kierkegaard that we will be able to understand that authenticity for Kierkeg-
aard can only be fully realized subjectively as one navigates through the various 
paradoxes of existence. 

Hegel’s self-proclaimed project as a philosopher was to advance the field of 
philosophy away from being merely a love of knowledge and into an actual attain-

ment of knowledge.i  He believed that metaphysical truth could only exist in a sci-
entific system, that is, objectively, for otherwise it would be tainted by the various 
prejudices of subjectivity. He claims, therefore, to have apprehended the realm of 
truth, “as it is, stripped of all integument, in and for itself, implicit and explicit.”1 
He claims to have grasped the Darstellung Gottes, that is, God’s presence, as he was 
in his eternal essence before the creation of nature and finite spirit.2ii  Kierkegaard 
reviled this tendency of systematizing knowledge (again, present in ancient, medi-
eval, as well as modern thought), for its abstract, speculative quality. Hegel, on the 
other hand, was deeply animated by the belief that he could grasp the universal 
order of things. One of Hegel’s pupils, Hotho, described his mentor’s ambition 
as follows: “It was precisely in the depths of the seemingly undecipherable where 
this powerful mind pried and poked about with splendidly self-confident ease and 

i. It is telling that Hegel misrepresents the meaning of the word “philosophy” by substituting the 
word “knowledge” for “wisdom,” thereby extracting the distinctly human quality from the word.

ii. It should be noted that Hegel’s use of “God” is ambiguous and should not be understood in the 
theistic sense. Scholars seem to think Hegel merely used the word “God” to save his chances of 
gaining a position as a professor. Hegel is considered a pantheist. The words, “God,” “Spirit,” and 
“Absolute” will be used synonymously throughout this analysis.

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23
ENCOUNTERING PARADOX: MOVEMENTS OF FAITH AND REASON 

IN THE DIALECTICS OF KIERKEGAARD AND HEGEL

calm.”3  Merold Westphal, in his essay, Kierkegaard and Hegel, captures the essence 
of Hegel’s ambition as a metaphysician, while helpfully contextualizing him in the 
history of Western thought:

Hegel’s insistence that philosophy must be scientific answers Kant’s ques-
tion whether metaphysics can be objective knowledge, free from perspec-
tival subjectivities of sense, opinion, tradition, authority, interest, and so 
forth. It is easy to recognize in this aspiration to objectivity not merely a 
modern awe of physical science but an ancient awe of mathematics that 
goes back to Pythagoras and Plato. When this awe gives place to envy and 
this envy gives rise to the quest for metaphysical comfort that comes from 
metaphysical certainty, we have a dominant tendency in Western philoso-
phy.4 

In Hegel’s thinking, the only true method was the one that included all re-
gions of thought. He strove towards a unity of cognitive thinking that encom-
passed contradiction, that is, he apprehended actuality as structured in oppo-
sites. “Yes” and “No,” “A” and “non-A” are thought to both be expressions of pure 
thought as such, so through a triadic movement of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, 
the two opposites are apprehended into the Whole, the Absolute.iii  This means 
that oppositions like true and false are merely different ways in which the sub-
stance of the Absolute expresses itself; a contradiction, therefore, represents an 
advance, and each negation is a positive act of cognition leading to a higher and 
broader level of truth. Through this dialectic movement, the Absolute is thought 
of as in a continual process of becoming. Hegel’s dialectic is interrelated with 
history, as history comes to be seen as a series of stages in which the Absolute is 
actualized: 

All historical events admit of being regarded from a viewpoint accord-
ing to which they represent opposed opinions, contradictory attitudes and 
contrasting elements. It is a truism that history proceeds in movement 
and countermovement. It likewise seems to be unequivocally clear that the 
movement of history repeatedly leads to a kind of equalization in which 
antimonies are sublimated.5 

To get a clearer picture of Hegel’s view of history, it will be useful to highlight 
some of the significant periods of history in which the supposed development 
of Spirit can be seen. He regarded Spirit as being asleep in nature before human 
beings came to be on earth. With the rise of human beings, Spirit “woke up” in 
the self-consciousness of the human. Further down the road, Christianity came to 
represent one of the higher stages of Spirit’s self-consciousness. This was the stage 

iii. The unique German word for this triadic movement is Aufhebung, which combines the senses 
of “cancelling out,” “nullification,” and “sublimation,” and therefore connotes a development, to-
gether with a dissolution, of what came before.

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL24

in which Spirit came to understand itself by way of representation. The metaphor 
of God becoming man in Jesus represents Spirit becoming conscious of itself. In 
this sense, he regarded Christianity as true in content, but not in form; a merely 
representational form of truth is ultimately inadequate for Hegel because, in his 
view, a historical point of departure (God existing in time through Christ) is 
incapable of being given for an eternal consciousness. Hegel’s rather arrogant view, 
therefore, is that religion is “defendable” in the sense that we cannot all be philoso-
phers, but “pure” philosophy is the proper form in which truth exists. It follows 
from Hegel’s dialectic that the distinction between subject and object is lost as the 
two are sublimated into the Absolute. Kierkegaard, as we will see, took subjectivity 
very seriously and used this distinction as a point of departure for creating his own 
dialectic grounded in the individual existing person. 

Kierkegaard’s existential dialectic is unique in the sense that its stages are 
presented as a hierarchy of three stages of existence: the aesthetic, the ethical, 
and the religious. Kierkegaard’s hostility towards Hegel was like that of an angry 
sibling: however much he rejected and ridiculed Hegelian dialectic, nonetheless 
antithesis and its explication was for him, too, the key. His notion of dialectic is 
similar to Hegel’s in the sense that it involves a “becoming,” but unlike Hegel, it is 
a subjective becoming not an objective becoming. For Kierkegaard the dialectic is 
a lived process by which the individual moves towards fulfillment. As the German 
philosopher and psychologist, Robert Heiss, notes, “it has similarities to experi-
ments in depth psychology where the subject is made to talk, to present himself in 
the flux of his different life situations, of his ideas and his objective and subjective 
relations.”6  This analysis helps illuminate what Kierkegaard is trying to accom-
plish through the work of his various pseudonyms; their navigation through the 
stages of existence (which we are about to explore), can be regarded as a sort of 
self-analysis of the existing person.  From stage to stage there is (as with Hegel) 
an Aufhebung, and each step of this dialectic process grows in scope and intensity, 
as the individual himself grows in passion and inwardness. 

In Volume I of the first pseudonymous work, Either/Or, Kierkegaard first 
demonstrates a unity, that is, the aesthete. The aesthete’s writing is romantic litera-
ture in the highest sense; it is written in a whimsical, undecided spirit, in which 
the negativity, and the ultimate lack of viewpoint of the author shine through. The 
irony with which this part is written is clear and perhaps exaggerated at times: 
“To be a perfect man is after all the highest human ideal. Now I have got corns, 
which ought to help some.”7  Nevertheless, his criticism retains a caustic humor as 
well: “It happened that a fire broke out in a theater. The clown came out to inform 
the public. They thought it was a joke and applauded. He repeated the warnings, 
they shouted him down. So I think the world will come to an end amid general 
applause from all the writs, who believe that it is a joke.”8  Everything he touches 

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25
ENCOUNTERING PARADOX: MOVEMENTS OF FAITH AND REASON 

IN THE DIALECTICS OF KIERKEGAARD AND HEGEL

upon in this volume seems to be dealt with in a half-serious, half-mocking tone. 
It is meant to express a peculiar state of indecision, a wayward shifting from irony 
to seriousness with no particular goal in sight. In Volume II of Either/Or, there is 
a dramatic shift in tone, style, form and character. This author is a married man 
whose purpose is to defend marriage to the author of Volume I. In his defense of 
marriage, he also attacks his friend’s whimsical attitude towards life and his exis-
tential position. The high aesthetic quality of writing of the first volume is replaced 
by a didactic tone in the second:

…You take great delight in “comforting” people when they have recourse 
to you in critical situations. You listen to their exposition of the case and 
then say, “Yes, I perceive perfectly that there are two possibilities, one can 
do either this or that. My sincere opinion and my friendly counsel is as fol-
lows: Do it or don’t do it—you will regret both.” But he who mocks others, 
mocks himself, and your rejoinder is not a mere nothing, but a profound 
mockery of yourself, a sorry proof of how limp your soul is, that your 
whole philosophy of life is concentrated in one single proposition: “I say 
merely either/or…life is a masquerade…”9 

The essence of Kierkegaard’s dialectic in this case is in unmasking what he has 
shown to be a unity (the aesthete) so as to reveal him to be, in fact, a disunity, a 
man in despair. The married man’s concern quoted above is to elevate the aesthete 
into the ethical stage of existence. Thus we see part of Kierkegaard’s dialectical 
purpose at work: to bring about a confrontation between the aesthetic and ethical 
stages of existence. When one finds himself in the midst of the despair of the aes-
thetic stage, one inevitably makes a choice: to either remain an aesthete or to enter 
the ethical. This decision, as Kierkegaard sees it, can only be formulated dialecti-
cally: “choose or do not choose, in either case you have chosen.”10  Quite clearly, 
the ethical man is the higher type for Kierkegaard; he lives more passionately, with 
more intensity, and is therefore closer to authenticity. 

In this progression from the aesthetic to the ethical stage of existence we can 
see similarities to Hegel’s dialectic: one stage is left for another in a forward move-
ment characterized by contrast; whatever the new level may be, it is not reached by 
any sort of direct development, but by way of contradiction. In both cases there is 
progression that results from these contradictions. Despite Kierkegaard’s contempt 
for Hegel, the fundamental nature of his own brand of dialectical thought is quite 
dependent on him. 

In Kierkegaard’s well-known work, Fear and Trembling, we see the formulation 
of the religious stage of the dialectic. The radical change in seriousness in terms of 
tone and subject matter that takes place in the transition from Either/Or to Fear 

and Trembling was shocking to his contemporaries, who had considered him a 
mere poet and man of letters. In Fear and Trembling we see him abandon irony al-

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL26

together and enter into the religious pathos of dread. Instead of dealing with what 
previously seemed like light-hearted themes, he turns his attention to the great re-
ligious figure, Abraham, and the story of the binding of Isaac, in which Abraham 
is commanded by God to sacrifice Isaac, his first-born son. It is clear from the 
outset that Johannes de Silentio, the pseudonym in this work, reveres Abraham: 
“No one is as great as Abraham! Who is capable of understanding him!”11  He is 
referred to as the “Knight of Faith,” the paradigm of the faithful man precisely be-
cause nobody can understand him. Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice Isaac, whose 
birth was a miracle of God, simply cannot be understood from an ethical point of 
view; if anything, we might understand it ethically as intent to murder. Kierkeg-
aard tells us, however, that Abraham’s action involves what he calls a teleological 

suspension of the ethical, in which the duty to the society (i.e. the universal) is given 
up in favor of duty to God. Kierkegaard is very careful to make this point; for this 
is the point at which he breaks decisively from Hegel. In the Hegelian system, the 
laws and customs of society represent the highest moral duty. In other words, for 
Hegel, Kierkegaard’s ethical stage of the dialectic is the highest. But it is precisely 
this movement beyond the ethical, which Abraham makes, that comprises the last 
stage in Kierkegaard’s dialectic; namely, the movement of faith. In this movement, 
Kierkegaard reveals the paradox that is faith:

Faith is precisely the paradox that the single individual as the single indi-
vidual is higher than the universal, is justified before it, not as inferior to it 
but as superior…[for] the single individual as the single individual stands 
in an absolute relation to the absolute …the paradox of faith, then, is 
this…that the single individual determines his relation to the universal by 
his relation to the absolute, not his relation to the absolute by this relation 
to the universal.12 

The movement of the single individual through faith is a paradox that goes beyond 
human understanding and communication, precisely because it does not reference 
the objective world of the ethical, but rather the subject-based relationship with 
the absolute.  Indeed, only faith is “capable of transforming a murder into a holy 
act most please to God, a paradox which gives Isaac back to Abraham, which no 
thought can master, because faith begins precisely where thinking leaves off.”13  
We see, then, that the individual’s ultimate duty is to God—that this represents 
the fullness of truth, and that therefore the state cannot be the embodiment of the 
teleological fulfillment of the Divine Reason, as Hegel claims.

Now that we have the three distinct stages of Kierkegaard’s dialectic in place, 
we can begin to examine the qualitative shifts that take place in the movement 
from one stage to the next. With this in mind, it will be important to take note of 
the subtitle of Fear and Trembling: “A Dialectical Lyric.” The lyrical component 
of his dialectic helps distinguish it from Hegel’s dialectic because the implication 

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ENCOUNTERING PARADOX: MOVEMENTS OF FAITH AND REASON 

IN THE DIALECTICS OF KIERKEGAARD AND HEGEL

is that it does not take place in the dimension of rational thinking, but in another 
“lyrical” dimension. The dialectical movement for Kierkegaard is defined by the 
movement of the individual through the stages of existence; therefore truth is 
subjective, (grounded in the individual), and not objective (grounded in the realm 
of rationality). We saw how in Either/Or the aesthete lived in a state of whimsical, 
ironic paradox; he lived his life indecisively and without passion. The introduction 
of the Husband, that is, the ethical man, presents a schism; whereas the aesthete 
treats paradox as an existential game and makes the most of life in the midst of 
this paradox, the ethical man compels a decision: to continue living in despair or 
to grow in passion, to rise to the ethical stage or to remain in the aesthetic. The 
ethical man’s didactic tone, (as opposed to the aesthete’s ironical tone) is more 
serious, a quality that Kierkegaard calls, an “inward deepening,” an intensifica-
tion of passion, and a move towards authenticity. In Fear and Trembling the tone 
of the dialectic movement darkens even more; it changes from a didactic tone to 
a dreadful tone, as the horror of Abraham’s predicament becomes manifest. Thus 
the passion it takes to get from the ethical to the religious stage is far greater than 
the passion needed to get from the aesthetic to the ethical stage. This intensifica-
tion of passion is what Kierkegaard sees as the highest form of authenticity and is 
described as “making room so that God can come.”14

The Kierkegaardian dialectic differs in another important respect from Hegel’s. 
Rather than proceed by way of a synthesis between opposites halves of a paradox, 
the Kierkegaardian dialectic proceeds by a deepening of paradox without clear 
resolution of its terms. The qualitative shifts in tone that we have just witnessed 
reflect not only an intensification of passion, but an expansion of paradox that oc-
curs as one moves through the stages of existence. The “either/or” that the aesthete 
confronts in his whimsy, always shifting between decisions and unsure why it even 
matters that a decision be made at all, turns into a dreadful “either/or” for Abra-
ham in which the consequences of the decision have suddenly become ominously 
fateful. Philosopher Walter Kaufmann said of this characteristic Kierkegaardian 
quality:

Nobody before Kierkegaard had seen so clearly that the freedom to make a 
fateful decision that may change our character and future, breeds anxiety… 
I know of no other great writer in the whole nineteenth century, perhaps 
even in the whole of world literature, to whom I respond with less happi-
ness and with a more profound sense that I am on trial and found wanting, 
unless it were Søren Kierkegaard.15

One of Kierkegaard’s primary goals in Fear and Trembling is to challenge those 
who read the Genesis story from what he would likely call an “aesthetic” point of 
view, that is, those who admire Abraham for his faith, yet do not hesitate to abhor 
any religious fanatic who resolves to act like Abraham. In his analysis of this hor-

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL28

rible story, he asserts that an authentic faith requires that one obey God even if it 
is required that one disobeys his conscience.

As a Christian, much of Kierkegaard’s animosity towards Hegel was in reac-
tion to his claim that his system “completed” Christianity by restoring it to its 
proper conceptual (i.e. philosophical) form. In Hegel’s view this was the only sense 
in which Christianity could be true, for a historical point of departure could not 
be given for an eternal consciousness. Thus, in Concluding Unscientific Postscript, 
Kierkegaard undergoes his most thorough philosophical critique of Hegel’s sys-
tem, through the mouthpiece of a new pseudonym, Johannes Climacus. Although 
it is clear that Kierkegaard admires Hegel in the sense of making use of the dialec-
tic and praising the rigor with which he constructed his system, he is nonetheless 
ardently opposed to this type of speculative philosophy because it relegates the in-
dividual to the level of a “fantastical abstraction,” a non-person with no orientation 
in life. The essence of his critique is that Hegel trespasses over what he considers 
to be an insurmountable gap between the human and Divine understanding; he 
erroneously tries to explain the nature of reality sub specie aeterni (in the aspect of 
eternity). This is not to say that Kierkegaard disbelieved in systematic knowledge 
as such. It is merely to say that if a system of existence did exist, it could only be 
known by God. In other words, only God could be a Hegelian. 

Furthermore, Kierkegaard considered Hegel to be overly troubled with his-
tory. He preferred not to live thinking about the past, for it extracted from his 
self-awareness as one living in the present. He termed this preoccupation with 
history as a form of “absentmindedness,” a psychological trick the individual plays 
on himself in order to divert from his awareness as an existing person. He sees this 
decision to speculate about the past as a form of inauthenticity, for it estranges 
the individual from truth, which is grounded in his subjectivity. He diagnoses this 
absentmindedness and reluctance to live in the present as a spiritual disease of the 
age:

Perhaps the reason our age is dissatisfied when it is going to act is that 
it has been coddled by observing. That is perhaps why there are so many 
fruitless attempts to become something more than one is by lumping to-
gether socially in the hope of impressing the spirit of history.16

He recognizes that complacency readily gives way to speculative thought because 
it is only through speculation that one is able to extract oneself from lived life. In 
perhaps his most debilitating criticism of Hegel, however, Kierkeegard exposes 
Hegel’s dubious presuppositions by pointing out that the system requires a hu-
man being to create it, which raises the vexed question of how it could ever be 
completely objective. He poses a few questions rhetorically: if the Spirit’s only 
objective is to manifest itself dialectically over the course of history, how does one 
explain the fact that it wastes so many generations of people and so much time to 

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ENCOUNTERING PARADOX: MOVEMENTS OF FAITH AND REASON 

IN THE DIALECTICS OF KIERKEGAARD AND HEGEL

set the dialectic in motion? Why is the process so slow if this is all God wants?17  
Furthermore, Kierkegaard (and indeed many other philosophers) thought it 
arbitrary to import movement into logic: “It is indeed curious to make movement 
the basis in a sphere in which movement is inconceivable or to have movement 
explain logic.”18  This point is made clearer as Kierkegaard analyzes the way in 
which Hegel tries to get his system off the ground. The opening chapter of Hegel’s 
Science of Logic, deals with this very problem and argues as follows: 

Thus the beginning must be an absolute, or what is synonymous here, an 
abstract being; and so it may not presuppose anything, must not be mediated 
by anything nor have a ground; rather it is to be itself the ground of the 
entire science. Consequently, it must be purely and simply an immediacy, 
or rather merely immediacy itself…the beginning therefore is pure being.19

Climacus sees the problem with this line of reasoning: “How does the system 
begin with the immediate, that is, does it begin with it immediately?”20  His 
objection shows how the lack of regard for the individual thinker is the death of 
the system before it even gets started, for it requires a human reflection to decide 
to begin with immediacy and not some other beginning point. Ironically, this is a 
point that Hegel seems to concede. He writes, “All that is needed (at the begin-
ning of the system) is simply the resolve, which can also be regarded as arbitrary, 
that we propose to consider thought as such.”21  But Climacus sees this starting 
point as anything but the harmless starting point that Hegel considers it to be, 
for two reasons: firstly, the resolve to consider thought as such assumes that it is 
possible to conceive of thought without a thinker; secondly, that it is appropriate 
to do so. Climacus seems to think that is not appropriate to do so, for it would 
once again be elevating the individual to the level of God. In the end, regardless 
of whether or not these contentions hold water, Hegel’s decision to embark upon 
the system assumes that Kierkegaard is wrong, and therefore breaches the system’s 
own requirement of a presuppositionless point of departure. 

As we can see, the highest task in life for Kierkegaard cannot be to think ob-
jectively, that is, to risk falling into the trap of speculative thinking, but to become 
subjective, to find “inwardness.” Chapter II of the Postscript commences by setting 
out to identify what it is to be subjective, to begin to exist inwardly. He starts by 
commenting on the nature of objective reflection versus subjective reflection:

Whereas objective thinking is indifferent to the thinking subject and his 
existence, the subjective thinker as existing is essentially interested in his 
own thinking, is existing in it. Therefore, his thinking has another kind of 
reflection, specifically, that of inwardness, of possession, whereby it belongs 
to the subject and no one else. Whereas objective thinking invests every-
thing in the result and assists all mankind to cheat by copying and reeling 
off the results and answers, subjective thinking invests everything in the 

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL30

process of becoming and omits the result, partly because this belongs to 
him, since he possesses the way, partly because he as existing is continually 
in the process of becoming, as is every human being who has not permit-
ted himself to be tricked into becoming objective, into inhumanly becom-
ing speculative thought.22

Here we again see the emphasis placed on process, the individual’s movement 
through life; objectivity seems to be represented as a kind of stasis. Truth is to be 
found in subjectivity, for it is only subjectively that we are aware of ourselves as 
existing persons. Truth is to be discovered inwardly through what he calls “inward 
deepening,” and any retreat from this is seen as gratuitous speculation: “Essentially 
viewed, the knowing that does not inwardly in the reflection of inwardness pertain 
to existence is accidental knowing, and its degree and scope, essentially viewed are 
a matter of indifference.”23  This is to say that all knowledge is essential only in 
as much as it relates to the knower. Only momentarily, in subjective inwardness, 
can one be in a unity of the infinite and the finite that transcends existing. He 
calls this “the moment of passion.” Hegel believed that we can transcend existence 
objectively, but this is not the case according to Climacus. This can only be done 
subjectively, in the moment of passion. The moment of passion is essential because 
it is the way in which we move through the stages of existence; it is what stands in 
the face of paradox and asserts the individual’s will to truth. He also sees passion 
as essential because it is the way in which we relate in truth to the eternal, revealed 
truth—Jesus Christ.iv  It is how we are lifted out of the finiteness of our existence 
through faith. He holds that Christ is a paradox, fully God, fully man, and that 
any hope of relating to Him must be purely subjective, for, “[the fact that] truth 
becomes a paradox is grounded precisely in its relation to an existing subject.”24  
Christ, for Kierkegaard, cannot be understood objectively by reason. The person 
who chooses the objective way is doomed to fail because God himself, as figured 
in Christ, is a person, a subject, and must therefore be related to as such. Clima-
cus’ passion begins to shine through as he discusses “the wise person” who, in his 
inwardness, does not waste his time trying to apprehend God objectively, for he 
knows that every moment in which he does not have God is a moment wasted. 
Indeed, “God is something one takes along a tout prix [at any price], which in pas-
sion’s understanding, is the true relationship of inwardness with God.”25 

This is a re-articulation of the description of authentic faith displayed by 
Abraham in Fear and Trembling—the willingness to not demand objective certain-
ty, but to trust in God. Kierkegaard speaks of this moment of passion as a decision 

iv.  It would be interesting to consider how Kierkegaard reconciles his view that truth is grounded 
in the subject with the notion of revealed truth, which is of course essential to holding a Christian 
worldview. This is a question he takes up in his work, Philosophical Fragments, which we unfortu-
nately can’t delve into here.

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31
ENCOUNTERING PARADOX: MOVEMENTS OF FAITH AND REASON 

IN THE DIALECTICS OF KIERKEGAARD AND HEGEL

a man must make when he comes to a fork in the road where he has to decide 
whether to risk objective uncertainty and have faith, or keep objective certainty 
and lose faith. On the one hand, he observes nature and does indeed see omnipo-
tence and wisdom, but on the other hand, he sees immense suffering. Yet for him, 
faith must triumph in this situation, for: 

At the point where the road swings off, objective knowledge is suspend-
ed… (but) the inwardness is so very great, precisely because it grasps this 
objective uncertainty with all the passion of the infinite…Without risk, no 
faith. Faith is the contradiction between the infinite passion of inwardness 
and the objective uncertainty. If I am able to apprehend God objectively, I 
do not have faith; but because I cannot do this, I must have faith.26

The claim that Christ is a paradox is essential for Kierkegaard, as it forms the 
foundation for his explication of “indirect communication,” the way by which we 
relate to Christ, in his work, Practice in Christianity. Now under the pseudonym, 
Anti-Climacus, he argues that without acknowledging the fact that Christ is a 
paradox, (the eternal essential truth come into existence in time), it is impossible 
to be an authentic Christian. To objectify Christ, as he claims so many speculative 
theologians do, is to misunderstand Him, to idolize his teaching, to reduce Him 
to the level of a moral teacher. Moreover, to deny the paradox is to do the same as 
Hegel, that is, to suppose that we can see from God’s point of view.  Kierkegaard 
reminds us that we are no position to do so: “I am only a poor existing human 
being who neither eternally nor divinely nor theocentrically is able to observe the 
eternal but must be content with existing.”27 

Anti-Climacus so despises speculative theology that he thinks it worse, and 
more dangerous, than the modern trend to demythologize Christianity, pointing 
out that it “accepts the paradox [of Christ], but does not stop with it.”28   The rea-
son he is so hostile to this is because he thinks there is no need to go further than 
the paradox, for when a person in faith continues to adhere firmly to it, he deep-
ens himself in the inwardness of faith and “does not stop either.”29  In fact, that 
is the reason Christ chose to reveal Himself as such, with the summons that the 
existing individual go further and further in the inwardness of faith. By trying to 
go beyond the paradox, the speculative thinkers are not, in fact, explaining it, but 
correcting it. In doing this, they not only extract the existing person, that is, Jesus of 
Nazareth, out of the paradox, but they extract the existing quality from the person 
who encounters the paradox as well.

Christ’s decision to abase himself, that is, to become fully human, is the heart 
of Christianity because it is what makes any communication between us and God 
possible. Christ is the sign of contradiction, however, so direct communication is 
impossible. This is where the notion of indirect communication comes into the fore; 
the idea that Christ communicates with us not directly, but rather indirectly by 

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL32

being the embodiment of the paradox, fully human and fully divine. This mysteri-
ousness makes Christ’s communication with us on earth anything but a straight-
forward teaching on morality of the kind that a speculative theology would like 
to provide; it requires a deeper, more intimate part of our humanity: the heart. 
Kierkegaard realizes that Christ, fully perfect yet fully abased, can only appeal to 
this part of our psyches. We cannot imitate Christ before we are drawn by and 
begin to love Him; this is what Kierkegaard meant by indirect communication. 
In other words: “[Christ] exercises power over (man), the power of love, which is 
indeed capable of everything, above all of making alike; (man’s) whole deepest in-
ner being is transformed little by little, and he seems to be beginning to resemble, 
however imperfectly, this image that has made him forget everything—also the 
world in which he is, which now regards him with astonishment and alienation.”30  
The essence of the Christian faith is in accepting God’s love and being drawn to 
Him through Christ. This is what Christendom has lost in objectifying Christ by 
turning Him into a moral teacher; it has lost that very mysterious, yet very real, 
intimate form of indirect communication that far surpasses rationality and pen-
etrates the depths of the soul in appealing to the heart. Thus any objective moral 
system derived from Christianity without first going through faith subjectively is 
essentially lifeless. 

In the end, it is clear why Kierkegaard has been such an influential thinker in 
our time. By insisting that truth is subjective, he sought to restore the essential 
element of passion to life. The only thing that mattered to him was how we live; 
what we know is meaningless, it is vanity in the face of death. This is why he is 
often called the father of existentialism. Nonetheless, he does not merely forget his 
favorite speculative thinker (to criticize, that is), Hegel, but appropriates his notion 
of dialectical movement into his body of work. The dialectic he espouses is very 
different from that of Hegel, as we have seen, but it is effective because it works 
by the same Hegelian principle of Aufhebung, in which contradiction, or opposi-
tion, is acknowledged, but the movement continues regardless. Unlike Hegel, who, 
when confronted with paradox of Christ, rises above it and attempts to explain it 
objectively, Kierkegaard sees the appropriate response as a sort of yielding to and 
communication with it. This principle of embracing paradox and advancing on-
wards in inwardness is the heart of authenticity for Kierkegaard, for it is also the 
essence of moving through the three stages of existence.  Once we arrive at Jesus 
Christ in the religious stage, the essence of faith will become the paradox itself.  
We are confronted by contradiction in life’s journey at each stage: the movement 
through the stages requires “a moment of passion” in which we push forward 
and grow in inwardness despite paradox. We see this growth in each individual 
moment of decision: at first the aesthete is complacent and whimsical, then the 
ethical man enters the picture and demands decision, and finally in Abraham we 
see the supremely inward decision of placing his trust in God. Similarly, in our 

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ENCOUNTERING PARADOX: MOVEMENTS OF FAITH AND REASON 

IN THE DIALECTICS OF KIERKEGAARD AND HEGEL

relationship with Christ, rational considerations must be left behind, and we must 
compel ourselves in inwardness to relate to him in truth, that is, as the abased hu-
man person.

1 Heiss, Robert. Hegel, Kierkegaard, Marx: Three Philosophers Whose Ideas Changed the Course of 
Civilization. Trans. E.B. Garside. New York: Delta Books, 1975, 9.

2 Ibid.

3 Ibid., 10.

4 Westphal, Merold. “Kierkegaard and Hegel,” The Cambridge Companion to Kierkegaard. Ed. 
Alastair Hannay and Gordon D. Marino. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, 
112.

5 Heiss, Hegel, Kierkegaard, Marx, 99.

6 Ibid.

7 Kierkegaard, Søren. Either/Or. Trans. Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong. Princeton Uni-
versity Press, 1987. 42.

8 Ibid., 45.

9 Ibid., 48.

10 Ibid., 50.

11 Kierkegaard, Søren. The Essential Kierkegaard. Trans. Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong. 
New York: Princeton University Press, 1991. Kindle Edition. 49.

12 Ibid., 56.

13 Ibid., 58.

14 Heiss, Hegel, Kierkegaard, Marx, 291.

15 Kaufmann, Walter. “Kierkegaard and the Crisis in Religion”. Princeton University. 1960. 
Lecture. YouTube. 

16 Kierkegaard, Søren. Concluding Unscientific Postscript. Trans. Howard V. Hong and Edna H. 
Hong. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992, 138.

17 Ibid., 159.

18 Kierkegaard, The Essential Kierkegaard, 196.

19 Westphal, Kierkegaard and Hegel, 114.

20 Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript, 111.

21 Westphal, Kierkegaard and Hegel, 114.

22 Kierkegaard, The Essential Kierkegaard, 191.

23 Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript, 197.

24 Ibid., 199.

25 Ibid., 193.

26 Ibid., 195.

27 Ibid.

28 Ibid., 197.

29 Ibid.

30 Kierkegaard, Søren. Practice in Christianity. Trans. Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong. 
New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1991, 224.

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One can see throughout the Parmenides 

that one of the basic dissimilarities between 

Socrates and Parmenides is that the latter is a 

committed materialist, whereas Socrates is not.

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35

What has come to be known as the Third Man Argument has brought 
scholars of Plato and philosophers at large many headaches, due to the 

seeming end that it brings to the Platonic theory of the Forms. Most puzzlingly, 
it is included in the Platonic corpus itself. One could assume from this that this 
could either be a window into Plato’s own doubts about the Forms, or an exer-
cise that Plato meant for his students to undertake a solution that has been lost 
through the ages. This paper will show that the Third Man Argument and the 
infinite regression resulting from it can conclusively be proven to be unsound and 
the regression dissolved. To achieve this goal, a three-step process is appropri-
ate. First, recent scholarship will be analysed along with two arguments, one from 
differences in predication and one that seeks to show that there is an inherent 
inconsistency in the argument will be examined. This analysis will show that the 
first argument is successful but leads to a further problem that in turn needs to 
be solved and that the second misunderstands the nature of the Forms. Second, 
an original argument solving the Third Man will be offered, supported by recent 
developments in formal logic. Lastly, an attempt will be made to conclusively solve 
the predication problem in the first part through appealing to the original argu-
ment offered in the second section.

I. Analysis of Recent Scholarship on the Third Man Argument

The argument in Parmenides 132a1-b2 comes as a series of attacks by Par-
menides on the Theory of the Forms, which include questioning whether any 
particular participates in only part of a Form or in it fully. Having been unable 
to argue against the Forms in that way, Parmenides proceeds by saying that there 
must be an infinite regression of Forms, since every time a Form is considered 
to be the principle behind a set of objects that share a certain property, a new set 
arises which includes the first set and the Form, which itself necessitates a new 
Form. Unlike most of the other arguments, however, the young Socrates does not 
give a response to this argument, and it is ultimately swept under the rug for the 
purpose of advancing the dialogue. Though this is not the only time Plato does 

Gjergji Evangjeli

A Critical Examination of 
the Third Man Argument

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL36

not choose to follow a particular argument to the end, this particular instance 
seems rather problematic, in that solving the regress which Parmenides argues to 
be inherent in the Theory of the Forms is both central to Platonic philosophy and 
does not seem obvious.

The name ‘Third Man Argument’ comes from Aristotle,1 who made the argu-
ment famous, but in Aristotle’s account there are added complications. First, there 
is the issue of trying to put Platonic Forms into Aristotle’s categories. Since the 
Forms cannot be fully put either in the category of ‘substance’ or ‘form/essence,’ 
Aristotle’s version would necessitate a prolonged discussion of whether the Forms 
can be put appropriately into one of these categories. Before treating the argu-
ment proper, Aristotle reminds the reader that substance is made up of essence 
and matter, which means that the Forms cannot be accurately described as sub-
stances. If this were true, Aristotle would be correct in saying that to believe the 
Forms exist would lead to an absurdity, since it would necessitate that all things 
simply are replications of the same thing. As Plato does not argue that the Forms 
are material, however, this view is patently false. The Forms being essences is not 
a path which Aristotle takes and one is left to wonder why this is the case. The 
fact that humans are used as the illustrating example is a further difficulty, since 
neither Plato nor Aristotle has a very clear account of how Form or essence fully 
relates to humans, and the debate still rages concerning a correct understanding of 
both philosophers’ views regarding this issue. Therefore, since the logical structure 
of the argument does not change much between the version in Parmenides and the 
Aristotelian version, it would be more prudent to treat the argument as it appears 
in Parmenides and avoid the additional metaphysical hurdles in the Aristotelian 
version that do not directly relate to the Third Man Argument as such.

In terms of logical structure, the argument relies on three basic principles. The 
first principle is the Principle of Abstraction, which says that for every property f 
there must be a Form, F-ness, through which all objects with f get that property.2  
There are multiple places in the Platonic corpus where this is affirmed. The sec-
ond principle, known as Uniqueness, states that for each set of objects that share 
the property F there must be one and only one Form F-ness through which F is 
instantiated. The third principle, here referred to as the Feedback Principle, as-
serts that the Form F-ness and all the objects that it substantiates form a new class 
of things with the property f from which a new Form F1 must be posited.3  The 
Feedback Principle is drawn out of two enthymemes, namely Non-Identity, which 
follows directly from Separation, and Self-Predication. Non-Identity means that a 
Form is not identical to any of its instantiations. This is a logical necessity and well 
supported within the Platonic corpus as being directly deductible from Separa-
tion, which is to say that a Form is by itself or “one over many.”4  The Principle of 
Self-Predication is also well supported within the Platonic corpus and gets to the 

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37A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE THIRD MAN ARGUMENT

idea that a Form F-ness is (a) f 5, where ‘f’ is the quality for which it stands. Since 
the Feedback Principle contradicts the Principle of Uniqueness, the latter is false. 
From this can be concluded that the Theory of the Forms leads to an infinite re-
gression and, as a result of this, is absurd. Mapped out, this argument states:

(i) (Abstraction) For every F there is a Form F-ness, through which all 
objects with F get that property.

(ii) (Uniqueness) For each F there is at most one F-ness.
(iii) (Separation) Each F-ness is one over many and itself by itself.
(iv) (Non-Identity, from iii) F-ness is not identical to any particular p

f
.

(v) (Self-Predication) F-ness is (a) f, where f is the quality for which it 
stands.

(vi) (Feedback Principle, from iv and v) For every set (F) = {any f}, there is 
a second set, (F

1
) = {F + F-ness}.

(vii) C1 (from i and vi) Therefore, there must be an infinity of Forms, F-

ness, F-ness
1
, F-ness

2
, …. F-ness

n
.

(viii) C2 (from C1) Therefore, ii must be false.

There has been some discussion among academics concerning whether the 
Principle of Self-Predication and the Principle of Separation are mutually exclu-
sive and that, therefore, the argument is invalid and the Principle of Separation 
has to be excised from Plato’s Theory of the Forms in order to make it coherent.6  
This position, however, seems to misunderstand Plato in what he means concern-
ing Separation. Both Separation and Self-Predication (though there could be 
a better name for it) can be held in common if one properly understands that a 
Form is different from the objects it instantiates since the instantiated objects 
contain the property in question imperfectly, whereas the Form holds it perfectly 
and is the ultimate source for instantiations. Others have considered the Principle 
of Self-Participation as precisely trying to bridge this gap. However, careful text 
analysis of Parmenides and other Platonic dialogues shows that the instantiated 
objects are always taken as participating in the Form, which implies that the Form 
not only has the property which it instantiates, but is the ultimate possessor of it, 
from which other objects ‘borrow’ that property. 

Constance Meinwald7 notes that there are simply two different modes of 
predication within Plato’s Theory of the Forms, namely predication pros ta alla, by 
which particular objects are instantiated, and predication pros heauto, by which the 
Form itself acquires the quality it represents. Whereas objects that do not possess 
a certain property f as being in their nature are predicated through participation 
in F, F receives its property f by its very nature. Meinwald failed to recognize that 
a difference in predication leads to an understanding of a distinction in participa-
tion, which Francis Pelletier and Edward Zalta point out.8  The Form F, then, is 
both predicated by and participates in itself (though this phrasing seems redun-

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL38

dant, everything fully participates in itself ) by virtue of its very nature. By offering 
this argument, then, the Third Man is resolved since there is a qualitative differ-
ence between F and all objects that exemplify f.

Bryan Frances, however, challenges this view due to certain details in Mein-
wald’s analysis. Though the first ‘part’ of the Third Man seems to be sufficiently 
answered by the pros ta alla and pros heauton distinction, there is a second Third 
Man that arises from it, or at least so Frances argues.9 Specifically, he argues that if 
all the Forms receive the property of being eternal pros ta alla, as Meinwald argues, 
then there is an infinite regress formed there. The simple solution to that problem, 
however, is that not all the Forms receive eternality pros ta alla, since the Form of 
the Eternal receives its eternality pros heauton. Frances considers this solution, but, 
for some reason, seems to think it is unimportant. Having made this argument, 
it is necessary to flesh out what pros ta alla and pros heauton predication means in 
terms of the Forms and of other objects that are not Forms and what saying that a 
Form has pros ta alla predication means metaphysically.

According to Plato, the Forms are perfect, eternal, immutable, and simple. If 
this is true, there should be an innate uneasiness in saying that Forms participate 
among themselves pros ta alla. If the Forms are simple, then it would be more ap-
propriate to argue that, for example, the Form of Justice is eternal not pros ta alla 
by participation in the Form of the Eternal, but pros heauton qua its being a Form 
in itself. This, however, would simply give rise to a modified version of the Third 
Man. Under this version, F

a
, F

b
, F

c
, … are eternal pros heauton and the Form of the 

Eternal (F
E
) is also eternal pros heauton. Therefore, a new set can be formed for 

which there should be a new Form (F
E1

) and so on and so forth ad infinitum. This 
solution, then, brings us nowhere.

A possible way to mend the argument so as not to fall into the trappings of 
a second Third Man would be to make a distinction between pros heauton predi-
cations which are not also self-predications and those that are. Under this view, 
all objects in the sensible world are predicated for some property f by pros ta alla 
predication, Forms that contain f but are not F

f
  (i.e. the Form of Virtue is vir-

tuous) are predicated pros heauton by virtue of it being that particular Form or 
a Form (so that the Form of Justice is virtuous by virtue of it being the kind of 
Form that pertains to virtue and eternal by virtue of being a Form as such), and 
the particular Form F

f
 is predicated pros heauton through itself. This second dis-

tinction also works in reverse, since not only is the Form of Justice virtuous, but 
the Form of Virtue is just pros heauton by virtue of being the kind of Form which 
pertains to justice. This distinction in pros heauton predications, however, requires 
some degree of separation from the Platonic corpus in that, although it is not 
contradictory to it and works well in explaining the relationship between differ-
ent Forms, there seems to be no direct evidence in Plato to support the making of 

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39A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE THIRD MAN ARGUMENT

such a distinction. Therefore, it must be approached with a caveat for those who do 
not stray too far from the text and for whom a purely explanatory proof that fits 
with the Platonic principles is not sufficient. The solution to this problem, there-
fore, must be seen as likely but not proven and, ultimately, will have to wait until 
the first argument in Section II to be conclusively resolved.

Another principle considered is the idea that F is distinct from F
1
 in function. 

If this is the case, the expanded set every object that has the property f and F itself 
bring forth a ‘new Form,’ F

1
. However, it follows from this that F is not an f, but 

rather an f
1
 and so on and so forth ad infinitum. In this case, if F is, in fact, not an 

F but an F1, and it cannot be included in the expanded set, because it is not one 
of the things that have the property f. To simply assume that F gets the property 
of being f from F

1
 etc., is to assume that one needs more than one Form for each 

property, but this is the conclusion of the argument. Since this is so, to include it 
as a suppressed premise makes the argument invalid.10 If the property which F1 
instantiates is any different than the property of F, then the argument makes no 
sense. If it is the same, then the argument is circular because it assumes what it is 
trying to prove. The problem here seems to be that the Forms are seen solely as 
regulative and explanatory principles rather than full metaphysical beings as the 
Parmenides and Plato’s work at large would argue. This, however, seems to be a 
departure from the text of Parmenides and applies only to the extensive papers that 
have only recently been written on this issue by current philosophers. It seems, 
then, that this solution does not bring us any closer to solving the Third Man.

II. Solving the Third Man Argument

These considered, an argument can be formed which does not rely on subtle 
metaphysical principles to solve the Third Man. The most obvious problem with 
this argument is that the Forms are not physical, but exclusively immaterial. One 
can see throughout the Parmenides that one of the basic dissimilarities between 
Socrates and Parmenides is that the latter is a committed materialist, whereas 
Socrates is not.11  Though this argument relies on principles that Aristotle, rather 
than Plato, formally puts forth.12  As those acquainted with Aquinas should be 
familiar with, every angel is its own species since there is no individuating prin-
ciple to distinguish between two individuals.13  The same principle applies in this 
case. Since the Forms are simple, there is no individuating factor to differentiate 
between F and F1, since they both instantiate a given property f. By Leibniz’ Law 
of Indiscernibles, which states that two things which hold all their properties in 
common cannot be numerically distinct, F and F1 must, of necessity be one and 
the same Form. Every time a distinction between the two is made, it collapses on 
itself since the Forms are immaterial. The infinite regression, then, while possible 
in thought, is impossible in reality, since the argument fails to grasp the kind of 

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL40

thing that a Form is and is therefore invalid.

At this point, a proponent of the Third Man Argument may choose to argue 
that the set of all things which have property F (S={x: F(x)}) is inherently incon-
sistent by appealing to Russell’s paradox. Russell’s paradox argues that a set of 
everything is inherently contradictory, because the set would have to be one of 
the members of the set, which, according to the Foundation Axiom, would be an 
absurdity. The Foundation Axiom says that there cannot be an infinite sequence of 
sets each of whose terms is an element of the previous term.14  One might reply, 
however, that the set proposed is simply not specific enough, since the Platonic 
Theory of Forms makes a clear distinction between the manner in which any 
given thing in this world which has a property F is instantiated and the manner in 
which F-ness itself is instantiated (i.e. F-ness has the property F perfectly, whereas 
any particular object that has F does so imperfectly). Be that as it may, however, 
recent developments in set theory make it possible to have a consistent set even 
without relying on the distinction between the instantiation of the Forms and the 
instantiation of particular objects. Since a Form has the property which it instanti-
ates and, therefore, participates in itself, the expanded set of the Form and all the 
objects which it instantiates has to be understood as a Non-Well-Founded set. 
Though Russell’s paradox deems the set Ω={Ω} an absurdity,15 Aczel introduces 
a variation of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory with the AFA16 by using which one 
can keep the theory of the Forms consistent. The Anti-Foundation Axiom (AFA) 
argues that sets should be considered as graphs rather than a collection of ele-
ments, where a set “is an abstract obtained by taking a graph G and then associat-
ing to each node of x in the graph a set in such a way that the set associated to x is 
the set of sets associated to the children of x in G.”17  Peter Schweizer explains the 
contribution of this theory as follows:

This object induces an infinite descending chain of membership, but it is 
nonetheless hereditarily finite, since each member of the chain has only 
one element. ZFC, with the axiom of foundation replaced by the AFA, is 
provably consistent relative to the original system. Thus circularity is for-
mally absolved … and the world of ‘hypersets’ is rendered just as axiomati-
cally secure as the cumulative hierarchy.18

By implementing this method, there is a consistent way to understand the Theory 
of Forms in terms of Self-Predication and Self-Participation which further dis-
solves the infinite regression argued for in the Third Man.

III. Differences in Predication Revisited

For those who are not convinced that the distinction between predication 
pros heauton and predication pros heauton as self-predication can be applied to 

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41A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE THIRD MAN ARGUMENT

Platonic metaphysics without altering any principle already in place, the solution 
of the second Third Man formulation would have to be solved by appealing to 
the principle in Section II that, since the Forms are immaterial, no individuating 
principle can be produced for them. Therefore, since here also F

f
 and F

f 
1 cannot 

be distinguished by appealing to an individuating principle, they also collapse 
back into one another. The Third Man, then, is doomed to fail due to the fact that 
Parmenides seems to have a physical conception of the Forms, whereas Socrates 
argues that they are immaterial. Whatever the case, one possibility which can be 
conclusively be thrown out is that the Forms are predicated pros ta alla in be-
ing (for example) eternal, since that would clash with the principle that they are 
simple. 

IV. Conclusion

In short, the Third Man argument fails to show an infinite regression of the 
Forms. Of the three arguments put forth, the argument from differences in predi-
cation successfully dissolves the regression if the added principle that there is a 
substantive difference between pros heauton predication when the principle in 
question is drawn naturally from the Form and pros heauton predication as self-
predication is accepted. If this principle were not accepted, this argument would 
have to rely on the argument from lack of an individuating principle in order to 
conclusively dissolve the second Third Man. The argument seeking to show that 
the Third Man is inherently circular, though very similar to the argument from 
lack of an individuating principle, has to be discarded, since it injects a later con-
ception of the nature of the Forms which Plato himself does not share. Ultimately, 
the argument from the lack of an individuating principle dissolves the infinite re-
gression since it shows that the there is an additional assumption that Parmenides 
makes in forming the argument that Socrates disagrees with. Together with the 
implementation of the theory of Non-Well-Founded Sets, this argument shows 
that both the expanded set is logically consistent without producing a regres-
sion and that the regression is only possible in thought. Having considered that 
there are either two or three arguments, depending on whether one accepts the 
added pros heauton distinction and the rather provocative titles that recent articles 
carry that treat the issue of the Third Man, an account that looks favourably on 
the Third Man Argument will have to appeal to more nuanced interpretations in 
order to maintain its bite.

1 Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1038b35-1039a2

2 Schweizer, Peter. “Self-Predication and the Third Man.” Erkenntnis 40.1 (1994): 23. <http://
www.jstor.org/stable/20012526> 

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL42

3 Ibid.

4 See Phaedo 75c11–d2, 100b6–7 and Republic 476b10, 480a11, in Plato: Complete Works, trans. 
John M. Cooper (Indianapolis: Hacket, 1997).

5 Plato, Symposium 210e, Phaedo 100c

6 Schweizer’s article does a good job of pointing out that Wedberg and other have been able to 
solve the Third Man Argument, but at the expense of departing from the Platonic text and 
compromising Plato’s theory of the Forms. To take that position one would have to assume 
either that Plato thought that there was some fallacy in the argument which turns out not to 
be so or that he saw a problem with the theory of the Forms which he hoped his successors 
would be able to solve. To argue for either of these cases, however, would be to have to make 
an inference without any evidence.

7 Meinwald, Constance, “Good-bye to the Third Man,” in The Cambridge Companion to Plato. 
Trans. R. Kraut. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, 365-396.

8 Pelletier, Francis J., and Edward N. Zalta. “How to Say Goodbye to the Third Man.” Noûs 
34.2 (2000): 165-202. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/2671980>

9 Frances, Bryan, “Plato’s Response to the Third Man Argument in the Paradoxical Exercise of 
the Parmenides,” Ancient Philosophy 16 (1996): 54.

10 Schweizer, Peter, “Self-Predication and the Third Man.” Erkenntnis 40.1 (1994): 27-28. 
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/20012526>

11 See, for example, Parmenides 145a-b, among others.

12 For the sake of extreme preciseness, it is Averoes which is accredited, at least in Aquinas, as 
coming forth with this central principle, by interpreting Aristotle.

13 Aquinas, St. Thomas. On Being and Essence. Trans. Armand A. Maurer. Toronto: Pontifical 
Institute, 1968, 54.

14 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Non-Wellfounded Set Theory, 2.2

15 Schweizer, “Self-Predication and the Third Man,” 38.

16 Aczel, Peter, Non-Well-Founded Sets, Center for the Study of Language and Information, 
Stanford University, Lecture Notes Number 14, 1988.

17 Ibid. 2.3.

18 Schweizer, “Self-Predication and the Third Man,” 38.

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43A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE THIRD MAN ARGUMENT

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Until the middle of the twentieth 

century, Nietzsche was associated with 

the very ideas that he fundamentally 

opposed throughout his active life.

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45

Without a shred of doubt, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche is a giant among 
Western philosophers, not least because of his immense but sometimes 

controversial influence upon succeeding generations. He has certainly furnished 
this culture with a treasure-chest’s worth of memorable quotations, including 
the pithily infamous and now-hackneyed aphorism “God is dead.”1  However, 
critically appraising the full scope and force of Nietzsche’s personality and ideas 
requires delving into one of his most overlooked but extraordinarily insightful 
works: his short autobiography entitled Ecce Homo: How One Becomes What One 

Is. For all of its faults, it stands out as a tour-de-force among the canon of mem-
oirs and autobiographies, for it offers nothing other than Nietzsche’s own view 
of his life and his works. As Walter Kaufman, the preeminent Nietzsche scholar 
of the 20th century, duly noted when introducing Ecce Homo, “Who would not 
rather have Shakespeare on Shakespeare, including the poet’s own reflections on 
his plays and poems, than the exegeses and conjectures of thousands of critics and 
professors?”2  Indeed, more than anything else Nietzsche ever wrote, Ecce Homo 
deserves a distinct place within the world’s autobiographical oeuvre simply because 
it is a “triumph of style” and offers a range of insights not just on the development 
of Nietzsche’s own self-consciousness but, more fundamentally, on the human 
condition itself.3

Before attempting to digest what Nietzsche thought about life’s undeniable 
complexities, a brief account of his background will be presented in conjunction 
with passages from his autobiography so that one can fully understand and ap-
preciate how the development of his philosophy was inextricable from the pivotal 
events and influences that surrounded his life. The son of Lutheran Minister Carl 
Ludwig Nietzsche and his wife, Franziska Oehler, he was born on October 15, 
1844 in the German town of Röcken in modern-day Saxony.4 Whether by coinci-
dence or not, Nietzsche began writing his autobiography Ecce Homo on his forty-
fourth birthday, October 15, 1888; on the same day, he inscribed a dedication to 
introduce the main work after the preface as a form of thanksgiving to the fateful 
role he played in the circumstances of his own life’s unfolding, a characteristic of 

Anthony Cossette

Nietzsche the 
Autobiographer

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL46

his perfectly cheerful philosophical outlook: 

On this perfect day, when everything is ripening and not only the grape 
turns brown, the eye of the sun just fell upon my life: I looked back, I 
looked forward, and never saw so many and such good things at once. It 
was not for nothing that I buried my forty-fourth year today; I had the 
right to bury it; whatever was life in it has been saved, is immortal. . . . How 

could I fail to be grateful to my whole life?—and so I tell my life to myself.5 

Nietzsche actually had every reason to disparage his own existence because it was 
fraught with difficulties and major illnesses that plagued him up until the very 
end. A series of protracted ailments threatened to overtake his well-being, but he 
fought back and instead chose the path of affirmation and fashioned his “will to 
health, to life, into a philosophy.”6  

Regarding his parentage, Nietzsche informs the reader that “My father died 
at the age of thirty-six.”7  Indeed, records show that his father Carl Ludwig died 
in the year 1849 from what was then diagnosed as a “softening of the brain,” a 
euphemism for a major mental illness.8 It should be noted here that the death 
of his father, as with all people who suffer bereavement from the painful experi-
ence of losing one’s relatives or loved ones, must have made an indelible mark on 
Nietzsche’s psyche even at such a young age. The lack of a parent whom he never 
had a chance to know left him without an instructional figure of his own sex in his 
household. Nevertheless, Nietzsche speaks of him with reverence and a large sense 
of pride, as his father “had received his pastoral position” from the Prussian King 
Frederick William IV, after whom his son Friedrich was named.9 In a subsequent 
section of Ecce Homo, Nietzsche again comments on the metaphysical (rather than 
actual) relationship with his father by saying, “I am merely my father once more, 
and, as it were, his continued life after an all-too-early death.”10 Thus Nietzsche 
treats as seminal the continuities that lay between him and his father, whose 
legacy his son intends to fully bring to fruition in the form of the written word.

Nietzsche does not say much about his mother other than a few remarks about 
her full-blooded German-ness which contrasted sharply with his supposed belief 
in his Polish ancestry,11 a claim that turns out to be patently false.12 There is an 
extant photograph of Nietzsche standing next to his mother who has her hands 
clasped around his right arm, perhaps symbolic of her overprotectiveness (Ap-
pendix 1). After her son succumbed to mental illness, she took him under her care 
until her death in 1897, and his sister Elizabeth nursed him thereafter until he 
died in 1900.13 

Toward the end of Nietzsche’s life and especially after his death, the status 
of his relationship with his sister remained contentious in the minds of many. As 
children and young adults, they were quite close, but as they grew older, Nietzsche 

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47NIETZSCHE THE AUTOBIOGRAPHER

“came to realize that [his sister’s] character and outlook were basically opposed to 
what he wanted his own to be.”14 When she married a prominent nationalist and 
anti-Semite named Bernhard Förster whose ideologies completely and utterly 
contrasted with Nietzsche’s own, the bonds that held brother and sister together 
for so long were broken apart.15 The philosopher, who stood vehemently opposed 
to any strain of anti-Semitism that ran through Europe in his era, especially in his 
native Germany, could not restrain himself any longer. He unleashed his fury and 
targeted it directly toward his sister in a letter written not too long after her mar-
riage to Bernhard and the couples’ emigration to Paraguay to found a new Ger-
man anti-Semitic colony there called Nueva Germania; one can unquestionably 
feel the arousal of irritation in the letter’s tone and a condemnation of any associa-
tion of his name with the anti-Semitic movement:

One of the greatest stupidities you have committed—for yourself and for 
me! Your association with an anti-Semitic chief expresses a foreignness to 
my whole way of life which fills me ever again with ire and melancholy. 
. . . It is a matter of honor to me to be absolutely clean and unequivocal 
regarding anti-Semitism, namely opposed, as I am in my writings.16 

In spite of all of this, after her brother had lost much of his mental faculties, 
Elizabeth returned to take care of him and assume custody of all of his writings, 
sometimes distorting them to suit her and her husband’s nationalist and anti-
Semitic viewpoints.17  It is for this reason, and the fact that the Nazis appropriated 
the Nietzsche “cult” based on Frau Förster-Nietzsche’s corrupt “corrections” of her 
brother’s writings, that Nietzsche’s reputation in the West suffered greatly for the 
longest time. Until the middle of the twentieth century, Nietzsche was associated 
with the very ideas that he fundamentally opposed throughout his active life. For-
tunately, his image has been resuscitated thanks to more scholarly and authentic 
editions of his voluminous writings being published in Europe and notable Eng-
lish translations that adhere closely to Nietzsche’s style and original intent appear-
ing in the Anglosphere.18 

Apart from his familial troubles and the tainting of his name by others, Ni-
etzsche was grateful that he received the best education one could have in his 
time. Indeed, his schooling years were formative and exerted no less of a decisive 
influence upon his thinking. As a youth he was educated at the Schulpforta, one of 
the most prestigious boarding schools in 19th century Germany.19 Here Nietzsche 
began to take up an interest in classical philology, a field that would eventually 
land him a professorship at the University of Basel in Switzerland at the young 
age of only twenty-four.20 Outside of school, Nietzsche read the writings of the 
German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer whom he called “more honest but 
gloomy in matters of spirit” and whose philosophical influence on Nietzsche 
was profound.21  The young Nietzsche was attracted to Schopenhauer’s essential 

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL48

doctrines of the primacy of the Will in human action, his advocacy for an ascetic 
lifestyle, and his synthesis of Western ideas with Indian philosophy as found in 
the Hindu Upanishads. Moreover, Schopenhauer’s skepticism and staunch atheism 
led Nietzsche to appreciate him all the more, as Nietzsche’s own attitudes toward 
religion were uncompromising, strongly rebuking all forms of organized worship.22 
He touches upon this radical distancing of himself from the concept of God in 
the second section of Ecce Homo:

I do not by any means know atheism as a result; even less as an event: it is 
a matter of course with me, from instinct. I am too inquisitive, too ques-

tionable, too exuberant to stand for any gross answer. God is a gross answer, 
an indelicacy against us thinkers—at bottom merely a gross prohibition for 
us: you shall not think!23 

According to Kaufmann, Nietzsche never appeared to experience any sort of “cri-
sis of faith” as an adolescent.24 Not until near the end of his writing career, in the 
same period in which he wrote Ecce Homo, did he direct his most sustained attacks 
against Christianity. He loosened all inhibitions against the world’s largest religion 
by penning The Antichrist, with a title meant to portray the author as “anti-Chris-
tian” and, at the same time, “be as provocative as possible.”25 

Alongside the Schopenhauerian influence, no one can avoid discussing Ni-
etzsche and his autobiography without mentioning his friendship with and ulti-
mate dissociation from the German composer Richard Wagner. With reluctant 
praise, Nietzsche “considered the composer Germany’s greatest living genius.”26  
But when Wagner became increasingly nationalistic and anti-Semitic in his out-
look and opinions, Nietzsche could no longer remain privy to the developments in 
his old friend’s artistic circle and simultaneously hold true to his integrity. Thus he 
increasingly forbade himself all possible contact with the goings-on at Bayreuth, 
where the annual performances of Wagner’s operas were held.27 In Ecce Homo, 
the one reason he “could never forgive Wagner” was “[t]hat he condescended to the 
Germans—that he became reichsdeutsch.”28 Elsewhere, Nietzsche often repeats 
what he thinks of his fellow compatriots with characteristic irony and acerbic 
wit, especially when he discusses questions of health, climate, and nutrition as 
metaphors in relation to the development of the self: “The slightest sluggishness 
of the intestines is entirely sufficient, once it has become a bad habit, to turn a 
genius into something mediocre, something ‘German.’ The German climate alone 
is enough to discourage strong, even inherently heroic, intestines.”29 Aside from 
these caustic remarks, Nietzsche always admired the true, original spirit of Wagner 
and his music, as he writes that “All things considered, I could not have endured 
my youth without Wagner’s music. For I was condemned to Germans.”30 In 1888, 
during his last year of lucidity, Nietzsche composed two whole books contain-
ing both praise and criticism of Wagner and his aesthetic and artistic tastes: The 

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49NIETZSCHE THE AUTOBIOGRAPHER

Case of Wagner and Nietzsche contra Wagner. In essence, then, Nietzsche’s relation-
ship with Wagner was more than mundane love-hate; it was the consummation, 
at least for Nietzsche as he wrote many years earlier in his first book The Birth of 

Tragedy, of identifying the “Dionysian artist . . . with the primal unity, its pain and 
contradiction.”31 

Ecce Homo itself is a very well-crafted and stylized autobiography despite 
Nietzsche’s inability to publish it during his own lifetime, perhaps due to his 
incapacitation so soon after writing it as well as the pronouncements present in 
his other late writings31 that were certain to stir controversy amongst would-be 
readers. Still, little of his work was read while he was still alive anyway, and Ni-
etzsche knew all-too-well how those few who did read his books consistently 
misunderstood and clouded them with half-truths and downright lies. Therefore, 
the problem of misinterpretation stands at the forefront of his autobiography and 
may have been the very reason he decided to embark upon writing it. One can 
conceive of the work as his own kind of apology or testimony in front of the jury 
of humanity and, specifically, his audience, an appropriate metaphor considering 
his posthumous fame. Furthermore, Nietzsche thought of himself as an “artistic 
Socrates” without his namesake’s emphasis on reason and Apollonian restraint.33 
Just as Socrates in Plato’s dialogue the Apology thought it was “right for me . . . to 
defend myself first against the first lying accusations made against me and my fol-
lowers, and then against the later accusations and later accusers,”34so Nietzsche felt 
the time had come for him to “confront humanity with the most difficult demand 
ever made of it . . . for I have not left myself ‘without testimony.’”35 At the outset 
of Ecce Homo, unfairly indicted and constantly taken out-of-context as an author 
and philosopher by the majority of his readership, Nietzsche feels the urgent 
need to justify coming up with a defense of his own views by justly affirming his 
identity for all time, exclaiming “Hear me! For I am such and such a person. Above 

all, do not mistake me for someone else!”36 It is unfortunate how little this demand 
was heeded, for the irony of how his own sister bowdlerized his writings after his 
mental collapse becomes all the more apparent in light of the above statement.37 
His actual views were properly assessed with a decent degree of accuracy only after 
his death and the coming of the Second World War. But in his lifetime, Nietzsche 
himself was well aware of his own obscurity and untimeliness to the point that, 
right from the beginning of Ecce Homo, he believed that “one has neither heard 
nor even seen me” and that his fame had not arrived yet as “some are born posthu-
mously.”38 These are certainly prophetic statements concerning the reputation he 
would acquire soon after his death. 

The structure of Ecce Homo is dependent on Nietzsche’s penchant for irony, 
contradiction, and sardonic wit. It is divided into a preface and four distinct sec-
tions, all bearing mockingly self-congratulatory designations: “Why I Am So 

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL50

Wise;” “Why I Am So Clever;” “Why I Write Such Good Books;” and “Why I 
Am a Destiny.”39 Nietzsche, of course, did not mean to inflate his own ego with 
the christening of these different sections; Nietzsche commentator Thomas Stein-
buch warns those who jump to hasty conclusions about Nietzsche’s supposed 
pomposity that “if an ideology of affirming self-importance has been found here, 
this is only the projection of an authoritarian society’s own obsessive focus on 
figures of domination and its need to believe in the monolithic action of author-
ity.”40 Rather, as French philosopher Georges Gusdorf says, Nietzsche as a writer 
and, more importantly, as an autobiographer is here straining “toward a complete 
and coherent expression of his entire destiny.”41 In other words, no one knows 
Nietzsche better than Nietzsche himself. 

The very title of the autobiography is a not-so-subtle proclamation of his 
stance toward Christianity if one knows him well, neatly borrowed from Pilate’s 
words to Jesus in the Gospels and refashioned to suit Nietzsche’s own purposes. 
Kaufmann articulates astutely what Nietzsche intended to mean with this title: 
“Here is a man! Here is a new, different image of humanity: not a saint or holy 
man any more than a traditional sage, but a modern version.”42 In addition to all of 
this, the title and the work itself represent, at bottom, a conscious revolt against 
idealism and a rebellion against traditional moral injunctions coming from Chris-
tianity that exhort man to be something altogether different from what he truly 
is. This spirit is best encapsulated in a passage contained within The Twilight of the 

Idols, another work written by Nietzsche in the same year as Ecce Homo:

Let us finally consider how naïve it is to say: “Man ought to be such and 
such!” Reality shows us an enchanting wealth of types, the abundance of 
a lavish play and change of forms—and some wretched loafer of a moral-
ist comments: “No! Man ought to be different.” He even knows what man 
should look like, this wretched bigot and prig: he paints himself on the 
wall and comments, “Ecce Homo!”43

The subtitle of Ecce Homo, “How One Becomes What One Is” represents 
no less of a significant choice on Nietzsche’s part. To attain the supreme goal of 
human life, which is self-transformation from the lowest depths to the ultimate 
heights of human existence (to the “fullness of life,” as Nietzsche would say), 
one should not even have to recall it to consciousness. No other person should 
imprint their own imperative or command on the individual; every person is 
their own master and commander. Hence, a strong individualism was foremost 
in Nietzsche’s mind at the time he was writing his autobiography. Furthermore, 
Nietzsche himself is very permissive of every misstep traversed on the path of 
life and every mistake or folly defective human beings undeniably commit in one 
way or another: “From this point of view even the blunders of life have their own 
meaning and value—the occasional side roads and wrong turns, the delays, ‘mod-

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51NIETZSCHE THE AUTOBIOGRAPHER

esties,’ seriousness wasted on tasks that are remote from the task.”44 Nietzsche’s 
primary existential task of transforming Schopenhauer’s will to negate all exis-
tence into something more positive, a will to affirm reality as it is, represented a 
paradigmatic shift in the psychology of motivation. Instead of dwelling on petty 
“thoughts and feelings of renunciation and vindictiveness,” Nietzsche thought that 
humans should refocus their efforts on unconditional acceptance, “willing that 
nothing be otherwise than it is,” the opposite of decadence; only then will the single 
individual have the power to become what he or she truly is or wants to be.45 The 
paradox Nietzsche formulates here is the expression of gratitude for the life that 
is given to us no matter how much inescapable suffering we must bear in our lives 
without any hope or prospect of release from it. He of all people practiced what he 
preached, so to speak, by his unconditional acceptance of his fate beyond anyone’s 
mere imagining; indeed, his “formula for greatness in a human being is amor fati 
[love of fate]: that one wants nothing to be different, not forward, not backward, 
not in all eternity. Not merely bear what his necessary, still less conceal it—all 
idealism is mendaciousness in the face of what is necessary—but love it.”46 

The style of Ecce Homo, like all decent autobiographies, is inseparable from 
the oddities and quirks of its author. That autobiographical style paints, above all, 
a self-portrait, has been established as axiomatic by a number of critics who opine 
that the autobiographer “in writing his story artfully defines, restricts, or shapes 
his life into a self-portrait.”47 Nietzsche’s own unique style and its literary merits 
have been amply discussed and imitated by other writers, even those who are not 
philosophers. The linguistic elements of his style act as his own kind of outlet for 
conveying complex philosophical ideas and a very unique train of thought. Ni-
etzsche’s development of the aphorism is a notable trait among his writings, for 
he epigrammatically condenses into a few words the inherent profundities and 
contradictions in life that make his aphorisms difficult to decipher at times. For 
instance, multiple interpretations exist for a famous expression of his that has now 
become almost proverbial:  “Whoever fights monsters should see to it that in the 
process he does not become a monster. And when you look long into an abyss, the 
abyss also looks into you.”48 Besides wanting his readers to think with subtlety, 
Nietzsche’s purpose in employing his own style is “to communicate a state, an in-
ward tension of pathos, by means of signs, including the tempo of these signs” and 
to express the “most delightful and daring nuances of free, free-spirited thought.”49 
His use of the word “tempo” to describe style is reminiscent of his interest in 
music and his insistence that “it be cheerful and profound like an afternoon in 
October.”50 But he maintains that making “good style in itself ” a goal of writing 
is a “pure folly,” for style without substance or content is meaningless and smacks 
of pure idealism in lacking any basis in reality, the likes of which Nietzsche would 
not tolerate.51

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL52

Nietzsche’s thinking best typifies what one may call a poetic philosophy. In-
deed, Nietzsche’s books, with Thus Spoke Zarathustra and Ecce Homo being the 
most representative of this kind, are replete with symbols and metaphors in a 
type of poetic meter often contained within prose. Nietzsche’s unique contribu-
tion to philosophy may be solidifying the equation of philosophy with poetry, or 
philosophy and art, or philosophy and music, rather than the stale didacticism of 
traditional academic philosophy typically presented in the universities. Ecce Homo 
channels the inward expression of Nietzsche’s soul into poesy and is his method 
of developing a metaphor of self. This can undoubtedly be accomplished since, as 
autobiographical theorist James Olney says, “philosophy, being of the nature of 
poetry, is validated in experience in the inner world of thought and emotions, in 
the understanding of one’s self.”52 Nietzsche’s metaphor of himself in his autobi-
ography and other writings (for what else could his written corpus be other than 
one long autobiography?) hearkens back to a classical notion of divinity, a being 
who reckons himself to be a “genius of the heart . . . the tempter god and born 
pied piper of consciences whose voice knows how to descend into the netherworld 
of every soul,” including his own.53 There is no coincidence, then, that Nietzsche 
adopts the name of the founder of Zoroastrianism, Zoroaster or Zarathustra, as 
his mouthpiece for communicating states of mind that seem to originate from 
“high mountains” which no man ascends or from the deep places of the world 
to where no foot descends.54 The ideas Nietzsche presents to the reader through 
metaphor, such as the eternal recurrence, the will to power, and the Übermensch, 
are meant to connect the familiar elements of life with unfamiliar and frightening 
territories that humans are often afraid to tread upon. Ecce Homo, therefore, can 
only venture into terra cognita by using a metaphor “through which we stamp our 
own image on the face of nature, allow[ing] us to connect the known of ourselves 
to the unknown of the world.”55 

Other than by examining stylistic considerations, Ecce Homo can be touted as 
an epitome of autobiographies by explaining how it fulfills the necessary precon-
ditions of the autobiographical model established previously by the Confessions 
of Augustine and Rousseau, both of whom are taken to be “central figures” in the 
autobiographical tradition.56 In fact, Ecce Homo goes beyond these requirements by 
striving only to seek the truth rather than preach to “improve mankind” or con-
vince people to conglomerate into some sort of ideological sect.57 Religious ideas, 
like many moral prejudices, are to Nietzsche mere vagaries of the masses:

[T]here is nothing in me of a founder of a religion—religions are affairs 
of the rabble; I find it necessary to wash my hands after I have come into 
contact with religious people.—I want no “believers”; I think I am too ma-
licious to believe in myself; I never speak to masses.—I have a terrible fear 
that one day I will be pronounced holy: you will guess why I publish this 

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53NIETZSCHE THE AUTOBIOGRAPHER

book before; it shall prevent people from doing mischief with me.58

Ecce Homo, however, was not published until eight years after the author’s death, 
and it did not prevent his faithful friend in life Peter Gast from proclaiming at 
Nietzsche’s funeral, “Holy be thy name to all coming generations.”59 The prohi-
bition against readers not to accept the author’s conclusions without question or 

debate is why Nietzsche’s autobiography may be considered more modern than, 
say, Augustine’s Confessions. It does attempt to aim for some kind of “truth,” or a 
perspective concerning the truth. But as a more-or-less open question, it inten-
tionally leaves the reader pondering whether or not Nietzsche succeeds in this 
endeavor. Nietzsche admits and even encourages objections to be raised against any 
proposition encountered in his autobiography. This is what Gusdorf meant when 
he said that “in autobiography the truth of facts is subordinate to the truth of the 
man, for it is first of all the man who is in question.”60 Thus we are here analyzing 
more of the man himself rather than any “truths” he happens to be discussing at a 
particular point in time. Therefore, Ecce Homo is as appropriate a title as any for an 
autobiography of this superior caliber. 

Nietzsche’s autobiography does not merely chronicle his life events, although 
he does perform this function at various points throughout the book. In fact, 
Nietzsche goes so far in the third section of Ecce Homo, “Why I Write Such Good 
Books,” as to chronologically self-evaluate each of the major books he has written 
throughout the course of his career, beginning with The Birth of Tragedy. Accord-
ing to Jean Starobinski, “every autobiography . . . is a self-interpretation” and Ni-
etzsche’s is no exception.61 Here he situates his first book in the context in which 
it was first conceived, when Nietzsche served briefly as a medical orderly in the 
Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871.62 He writes, “taken up with some degree of 
neutrality, The Birth of Tragedy looks quite untimely: one would never dream that 
it was begun amid the thunder of the Battle of Wörth. Before the walls of Metz, 
in cold September nights, while on duty as a medical orderly, I thought through 
these problems.”63 That is, he reflected on the mode of tragedy in ancient drama 
and poetry just as he was confronting the tragedy of having to tend to wounded 
soldiers as they were returning from the front. Therefore, his self-consciousness 
as a writer is once again not merely apparent but actual. Not only this, but he is 
acutely aware of the general cultural and intellectual trends of his day. He reserves 
praise only for a few select authors, such as Stendhal and Fyodor Dostoyevsky. 
The first he calls “one of the most beautiful accidents of my life” and the second 
he refers to as “the only psychologist, incidentally, from whom I had something 
to learn.”64 What Nietzsche thinks of his contemporaries and which of whom he 
holds in either high regard or contempt is fascinating in itself and as a source of 
literary and philosophical criticism.

In addition to tackling the problem of himself qua himself in his autobiog-

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL54

raphy, Nietzsche possessed a keen sense and critical eye for the problems facing 
his culture and humanity in general. This brings the reader to Nietzsche’s method 
of Kulturkritik as a way of “strengthening” his affirmation of life “in the face of 
unending waves of desire for renunciation and revenge that threatened to engulf 
him.”65 “Warfare” was Nietzsche’s metaphor of threatening to attack what he often 
called decadence, or any ideology or societal milieu which was life-negating or that 
obstructed our attempts to overcome our petty weaknesses. Christian morality was 
one example of what he thought best exemplified this trend; another was nihilism, 
a symptom of the decay of the spirit of individuality and fortitude that strongly 
characterizes the Übermensch.66 Furthermore, author Jill Ker Conway’s definition 
of a “secular hero” is in close kinship with Nietzsche’s program of cultural critique: 
“the forces which drive the action of [the hero’s] life are not the classical fates but 
the war of the individual against society.”67 This is only partially true of Nietzsche, 
for he accepted both fate and war as prerequisites for living well, as “givens” in 
human existence. Nietzsche says of himself that “attacking is one of my basic 
instincts” and “the strength of those who attack can be measured in a way by the 
opposition they require: every growth is indicated by the search for a mighty op-
ponent—or problem; for a warlike philosopher challenges problems, too, to basic 
combat.”68 Thus his warlike sentiment was not really literal so much as philosophi-
cal. To warfare’s logical extremes, he took the whole of Western Europe to task 
for its sense of entitlement and its positivist insistence that man was “progressing” 
as a species: “higher types are indeed attained, but they do not last. The level of 
the species is not raised.”69 Of note, he finds no comparison between the man of 
modernity and the man of former times: 

Mankind does not represent a development toward something better 
or stronger or higher in the sense accepted today. “Progress” is merely a 
modern idea, that is, a false idea. The European of today is vastly infe-
rior in value to the European of the Renaissance: further development 
is altogether not according to any necessity in the direction of elevation, 
enhancement, or strength.70

But Nietzsche is hopeful that Renaissance virtu will be found again in the form of 
the Übermensch, who says “Yes to life even in its strangest and hardest problems.”71 
Nietzsche’s eponymous protagonist in Thus Spoke Zarathustra seems to be confi-
dent of the success of man’s endeavor of self-overcoming when he says and then 
asks his disciples, “Man is something that shall be overcome. What have you done 
to overcome him?”72 According to the doctrine of eternal recurrence, “that is, of 
the unconditional and infinitely repeated circular course of all things,” great people 
will again walk upon the earth, and mankind will be composed of those who say 
“yes” to suffering even in the most extreme cases.73 

Through the act of writing his autobiography, Nietzsche manages to unearth 

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55NIETZSCHE THE AUTOBIOGRAPHER

features of existence that hitherto humanity has not had the courage to ques-
tion. He acknowledges how daily existence can be a painful struggle and people 
often almost capitulate or give into despair, denying reality as it is. But these are 
struggles everyone undergoes. And Nietzsche admires most of all “anyone who 
manages to experience the history of humanity as a whole as his own history” or 
vice versa.74  Ecce Homo engages in the exploration of the most questionable as-
pects of human existence and therefore concerns not just Nietzsche but humanity 
in general. Thus, Nietzsche’s autobiography, which ostensibly touches upon Man 
in the singular, becomes the autobiography of Man in the plural, the plurality of 
Men. In this way, “the autobiographical is transformed. It is no longer the writer’s 
own experience: it becomes everyone’s. He is no longer writing about himself: he 
is writing about life.”75 

Having surveyed the field that Nietzsche tills in his autobiography and other 
writings, can the reader critique Ecce Homo on its own terms? There is no other an-
swer to that question other than the affirmative. Even though the autobiography 
is exceptional among its kind, there are still places where it could have used im-
provement or even redaction. His tendency to overestimate his significance in the 
grand scheme of things may border on egotism, but if one thoroughly acquaints 
himself with most, if not all, of Nietzsche’s writings, having read them two or 
more times, then this will not be an encumbrance. Nietzsche’s constant references 
to his own Thus Spoke Zarathustra can become tiresome to the reader and inter-
rupt the flow of reading and deeply experiencing the autobiography. In addition, 
female readers will not be pleased with some sections that appear to be wholly 
contemptuous of women. Nietzsche’s apparent misogyny is controversial amongst 
many readers, but one may point to other places where he may not be so critical of 
the other sex. Interestingly, he never really treated women as inferior in real life; he 
befriended many women such as the Russian intellectual Louise von Salomé, in 
whom Nietzsche found unrivalled inspiration and whose poem Prayer to Life Ni-
etzsche set to music in a composition for piano and voice entitled Hymnus an das 

Leben, meaning “A Hymn to Life.”76 Therefore, the disconnect between some of 
his words and his behavior can be best explained by how Nietzsche said of himself 
in Ecce Homo, “I am one thing, my writings are another matter.”77 

Despite these numerous flaws, is there still a reason to read Nietzsche? The 
ultimate answer to this question may depend upon a person’s interests and incli-
nations, but Nietzsche’s importance and influence in the history of philosophy 
cannot be overstated. He was a fascinating individual with equally interesting 
ideas worthy of the highest rank; likewise, his peerless wit and intelligence show-
cases his originality as a thinker. There is a distinctive level of self-awareness and 
humanness in his writing, most especially in his autobiography. Nietzsche’s Ecce 

Homo encompasses a broad range of experience and insight into human psychol-

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL56

ogy. He gave a useful criterion of what it means to have a vision that is relevant 
to the scope of autobiography: “Gradually it has become clear to me what every 
great philosophy so far has been: namely, the personal confession of its author 
and a kind of involuntary and unconscious memoir.”78 Importantly, the most one 
can gain from reading Nietzsche is something no individual can take away from 
another: self-understanding and personal growth.

Appendix 1:

Wildman, Wesley. “Photograph of Nietzsche with his Mother.” 2010. Pro-

found Atheism. Web. 8 December 2013.

1 Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Gay Science: With a Prelude in Rhymes and an Appendix of Songs. 
Trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Random House, 1974, 181.

2 Nietzsche, Friedrich. Basic Writings of Nietzsche. Trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Modern 
Library, 2000, 657.

3 Ibid., 658.

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57NIETZSCHE THE AUTOBIOGRAPHER

4 Kaufmann, Walter. Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist. 4th ed. Princeton: Princeton 
University Press, 1974, 22.

5 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 677.

6 Ibid., 680.

7 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 678.

8 Kaufmann, Nietzsche, 22.

9 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 682.

10 Ibid., 684.

11 But Nietzsche commentator Thomas Steinbuch suggests that Nietzsche’s extravagant claim 
of being a Pole could be symbolic of the fact that the normal process of German “socializa-
tion never fully took hold in him” (40). Indeed, Nietzsche’s criticism of his own nationality 
and the German people is practically ubiquitous elsewhere in his writings. See Steinbuch, 
Thomas. A Commentary on Nietzsche’s Ecce Homo. Lanham: University Press of America, 
1994, 40.

12 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 681; Kaufmann, Nietzsche, 22. 

13 Kaufmann, Nietzsche, 56.

14 Ibid., 42.

15 Ibid., 42-43.

16 Quoted in Kaufmann, Nietzsche, 45.

17 Kaufmann, Nietzsche, 14.

18 Ibid., 1.

19 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 695f.

20 Kaufmann, Nietzsche, 26.

21 Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Will to Power. Ed. Walter Kaufmann. Trans. Walter Kaufmann and 
R. J. Hollingdale. New York: Random House, 1967, 59.; Kaufmann, Nietzsche, 24.

22 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 735.

23 Ibid., 692-693.

24 Ibid., 693f.

25 Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Portable Nietzsche. Trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Penguin 
Books, 1982, 565.

26 Kaufmann, Nietzsche, 30.

27 Ibid., 34.

28 That is, a German Nationalist; Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 704.

29 Ibid., 696.

30 Ibid., 705.

31 Ibid., 49.

32 For example, The Antichrist.

33 Ibid., 659.

34 Plato, The Apology, in Great Dialogues of Plato, ed. Eric H. Warmington and Philip G. Rouse, 
trans. W.H.D. Rouse. New York: New American Library, 1999, 424.

35 Plato. Complete Works. Ed. John M Cooper. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL58

1997, 18a; Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 673.

36 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 673.

37 Kaufmann, Nietzsche, 8.

38 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 673, 715.

39 Ibid., 656.

40 Steinbuch, Thomas. A Commentary on Nietzsche’s Ecce Homo. Lanham: University Press of 
America, 1994, 25.

41 Gusdorf, Georges. “Conditions and Limits of Autobiography.” Trans. James Olney in Auto-
biography: Essays Theoretical and Critical. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980, 35.

42 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 660.

43 Nietzsche, Portable Nietzsche, 491.

44 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 710.

45 Steinbuch, A Commentary, 8.

46 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 714.

47 Howarth, William L. “Some Principles of Autobiography.” New Literary History 5.2 (1974): 
365.

48 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 279.

49 Ibid., 721, 230.

50 Ibid., 707.

51 Ibid., 721.

52 Olney, James. Metaphors of Self: The Meaning of Autobiography. Princeton: Princeton Univer-
sity Press, 1981, 322.

53 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 423.

54 Nietzsche, Portable Nietzsche, 122.

55 Olney, Metaphors of Self, 32.

56 Olney, James. Memory & Narrative: The Weave of Life-Writing. Chicago: The University of 
Chicago Press, 1998, 217.

57 Nietzsche, Portable Nietzsche, 502.

58 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 782.

59 Ibid., 782f.

60 Gusdorf, “Conditions and Limits,” 43.

61 Starobinski, Jean. “The Style of Autobiography.” Trans. Seymour Chatman. In Olney, Autobi-
ography, 73-83.

62 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 726.

63 Ibid.

64 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 700; Nietzsche, Portable Nietzsche, 549.

65 Steinbuch, A Commentary, 60.

66 Nietzsche, Will to Power, 9.

67 Conway, Jill K. When Memory Speaks: Exploring the Art of Autobiography. New York: Vintage 
Books, 1998, 9.

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59NIETZSCHE THE AUTOBIOGRAPHER

68 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 688.

69 Nietzsche, Will to Power, 363.

70 Nietzsche, Portable Nietzsche, 571.

71 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 562.

72 Nietzsche, Portable Nietzsche, 124.

73 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 729-730.

74 Nietzsche, Gay Science, 268.

75 Spender, Steven. “Confessions and Autobiography.” In Olney, Autobiography, 117.

76 Nietzsche, Basic Writings, 752f.

77 Ibid., 715.

78 Ibid., 203.

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To deny the doctrine of divine simplicity 

is to walk dangerously close to an 

anthropomorphic and empty conception of 

God as one being among many beings.

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61

Editor’s Note: The following paper draws extensively from an Aristotelian-Thomistic 

background, which is a system that is intricately built on itself. Thus, this paper—which 

addresses the concept of Divine Simplicity—cannot be properly understood without 

first understanding the arguments which precede it in the Summa theologiae. If this 

paper were fully to explain the arguments to defend the premises it assumes—various 

metaphysical realities, the existence of God, and so forth—it would be far too long to 

publish. When possible, the author has provided references to the arguments in favor of 

the assumptions he makes in the course of the paper. The interested reader is encouraged 

to examine the works of Edward Feser, a prominent contemporary Thomistic scholar. His 

book Aquinas: A Beginner’s Guide is an excellent source of information on this matter 

and explains this paper’s metaphysical assumptions in a way that is far beyond what is 

possible here.

The doctrine of divine simplicity is one of the central aspects of St. Thomas 
Aquinas’ thought, without which one can easily descend into a philosophi-

cally bankrupt form of anthropomorphic theism. It claims that God1 is supremely, 
entirely one, and not composed whatsoever of any parts on any metaphysical 
level. It is a consequence of the arguments to establish God’s existence, which 
demand that he hold a status of priority above all other things and that he have 
dependence on nothing else; thus God cannot depend on something else to join 
together various parts to make him what he is. As the first mover and first cause 
of all things outside himself, God cannot be causally posterior to any other thing, 
since that would require God to be affected by that which has no existence and no 
action without God’s own power to create and to sustain. This doctrine has several 
important consequences, and it will be beneficial to see how it informs Aquinas’ 
entire conception of the nature of God.

In order to understand this doctrine, we must first understand what it means 
to be composed. The fundamental relationship in Thomistic philosophy is that of 

Jonathan Phillips

Divine Simplicity: The 
Centerpiece of Aquinas’ 
Doctrine on God

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actuality and potentiality.2 When we examine anything existing in the world—a 
tree, for example—the tree is said to be actually existing, or existing in a state of 
completeness as a tree, as opposed to something in the process of becoming a 
tree. But in order for the tree to change and to become something else, we must 
acknowledge another aspect of being: potentiality. In the case of the tree, the tree 
can potentially become a table if it is cut down and used to build one. Thus the 
tree is actually a tree and potentially a table in this example. More generally, the 
tree is potentially a multitude of things such as whatever a person could make out 
of it or whatever into which it could decay by natural processes.

Furthermore, potentiality is not actuality. If a tree is potentially a table, it has 
the capacity to change into a table. But if a tree is actually a table, it is already a 
table—and not a tree after all. So, if we were to say that potentiality is actuality, 
this would mean that having the capacity to change into a table is the same thing 
as being a table, which is false. Potentiality is not nonbeing, or otherwise it would 
be impossible for the tree which is potentially a table to become actually a table; 
this is because if the capacity or potentiality of the tree to become a table does not 
exist at all, then the tree cannot become a table as its capacity to do so does not 
exist. Potentiality is therefore a middle ground between nonbeing and actuality.

Actuality is a more fundamental mode of being whereas potentiality is a more 
contingent mode of being. Actuality refers to things that have real being, while 
potentiality refers to the ability to change, the capacity to come into being. Po-
tentiality requires actuality and depends on it in order to exist; potentiality has no 
independent actual existence without actuality. Indeed, the demonstration of the 
concept of potentiality above presupposes some actual being, the tree, which pos-
sesses the potentiality, the tree’s capacity to change into a table.

According to the doctrine of divine simplicity, God is one in all respects. In 
other words, God is not a composite of actuality and potentiality. But if we are 
going to admit that in God, there is no such joining, then what is there? These two 
concepts describe all modes of being that are possible: something either actu-
ally exists or it potentially exists. In order to come to a greater understanding of 
what divine simplicity is per se, let us understand that Aquinas argues that God is 
purely actual, with no potentiality.3 This is because Aquinas argues that the world, 
as a contingent, caused, changing thing, necessarily implies the existence of some 
source and ground of being, something which is able to give it existence.4

It will be helpful to recall the general metaphysical point underlying the idea 
of divine simplicity: that God is the Supreme Being, the ultimate metaphysical 
reality and source of all other reality, and not dependent on anything else for his 
existence. Now, if something is composed of parts, then, unless those parts are 
joined together, the thing does not exist. It would be nonsensical to say, for exam-
ple, that a table, which is composed of a surface and legs, could exist without the 

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63DIVINE SIMPLICITY: THE CENTERPIECE OF AQUINAS’ DOCTRINE IN GOD

legs. Since something that does not exist cannot cause itself, as it cannot perform 
any operation without first existing,5 the thing would depend on something else to 
join those parts together so the composite being could exist. Therefore, all com-
posite beings require some logically prior agent to join together those things of 
which the being is composed.6 This means that any composite being cannot be the 
source and ground of all existence since the composite being requires a prior cause 
to produce the combination that results in the composite; thus if God were com-
posed of actuality and potentiality, he would require some being to exist before 
him—either temporally or metaphysically—in order to join his actuality to his 
potentiality, or to bring him, as the composite, into being, serving as the source of 
his existence. But this is incoherent given Aquinas’ Five Ways; God is the ultimate 
source of existence, so the being which is supposedly prior to God would then be 
the true God. This true God would need to be simple rather than composite for 
the reasons we have just seen.

If we accept the notion that God is simple, then several important things fol-
low. When we speak of God’s goodness, justice, or power, we are referring to the 
same thing considered under different aspects; since there are no parts in God, 
God does not “have” things like power or goodness. Rather, God is power and 
goodness. While this may appear rather counterintuitive, it is important to under-
stand that God’s attributes are not the same as ours—our attributes are particular 
and distinct things which are different from each other, but God’s attributes are 
the consequences of his possessing in himself the fullness and plenitude of being. 
Thus God is completely good because, in a Thomistic metaphysical analysis, being 
and goodness are the same,7 and evil is a lack of goodness and therefore of being. 
God is omnipotent because he, as the first being and as pure actuality, enjoys being 
to the greatest degree and cannot be limited by any privation of being or any lack 
of perfection. God’s attributes, therefore, are not distinct, but all refer equally to 
the supreme unity which is God.

One particular dilemma that this doctrine is extraordinarily helpful in resolv-
ing is that which is presented in the Euthyphro. Is goodness good because God 
wills it, or does God will something because it is good? Both seem to be unaccept-
able; the first would make goodness an arbitrary standard where God could will 
anything to be good, and the second would make a standard of goodness apart 
from God, so he would depend on this other standard for judgments of right and 
wrong.  If this were so, God would not be causally independent of all other things. 
Divine simplicity allows for a resolution of this problem: goodness is based in the 
divine nature, and God’s goodness is inseparable from and identical to God’s will. 
As God cannot change his goodness or being, so he cannot change his will for us; 
he always wills the good, in such a way that he cannot ever actively will that we 
do some action which does not accord with our nature. Thus what God wills for 

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us regarding morality is not some arbitrary or contingent desire which he could 
change at will. Rather, the case is that God must will that our actions accord with 
natural law. This is not to say that God is not still the standard for goodness, since 
goodness is determined by the final cause or end of something,8 and since God 
is the final cause of all creation, he is the ultimate standard and source of good-
ness without which nothing is good. But simplicity allows for the recognition that 
God’s will is immutable and identical to his goodness, so, as Edward Feser writes, 
“what is objectively good and what God wills for us as morally obligatory are re-
ally the same thing considered under different descriptions, and ... neither could 
have been other than they are.”9

I would like now to examine the doctrine of simplicity from a different angle. 
The philosopher Fr. Réginald Garrigou-Lagrange, O.P., writes the following re-
garding Aquinas’ First Way, the argument from motion or change, to demonstrate 
God’s existence:

In a series of essentially subordinate movers [a series of causes in which 
each depends on the one before it for its continued operation, so each acts 
as an instrument rather than on its own and indeed has no capacity for 
causation on its own, as a hand moves a stick which moves a rock which 
moves a leaf ] we must finally arrive at one which is its own principle of 
motion [change], and which can explain the entity [being] of its own ac-

tion. But that alone can explain the entity of its action, to which the action 
belongs intrinsically, not only as a potency [potentiality], but also as an act 
[actuality], and which, consequently, is its own very action, its very activity. 
Such a mover is absolutely immobile [unchangeable] in the sense that He 
has by and of Himself that which the others acquire by motion.10

This explanation is meant to show that God is pure actuality, unchangeable, 
and cannot have any mixture of potentiality. Any potentiality is a potentiality for 
something, to change into something, and it could be realized as an action or an 
activity of changing into something else or producing some change. And no po-
tentiality has a capacity to actualize itself, because potentiality has an intermediate 
character between being and nonbeing—the character of potential being—but 
anything which causes or performs actions must be actually existing in order to 
operate. But, if God is to terminate the regress of change that forms the basis for 
the First Way, he must be able to explain his own activity without reference to 
some higher source. This is only possible if God’s activity belongs to him as actual, 
not as potential. If it were to belong to him as potential, the question would arise: 
how does God operate at all, since operation, if it involves motion from potential-
ity to actuality, would seem to be dependent on some being to move the potential-
ity to actuality, as no potentiality can actualize itself ? The notion that God moves 
himself to actuality will not solve this problem, because if this motion of moving 

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65DIVINE SIMPLICITY: THE CENTERPIECE OF AQUINAS’ DOCTRINE IN GOD

himself to operate were also a motion from potentiality to actuality, the same 
question would arise regarding that motion: does God have it potentially or actu-
ally? Then, if it is granted that God has that motion as actual and is identical to it, 
then that aspect of God which is identical to this operation would more accurately 
constitute God, whereas the other aspects of “God” which are not identical to his 
operation would rather be secondary causes through which God acts.

Consider the following explanation. Suppose God performed the action of 
creation. Is the action of creation present in God potentially or actually? If it is 
present in God actually, then it is clear that God is his own operation. If it is pres-
ent potentially, then something must have moved God to perform this operation. 
This would either be another being, or it would be another operation from God. 
It cannot be another being, since God, by the conclusion of the First Way as the 
termination of the causal sequence of change, must be causally prior to every other 
being. It would then have to be another operation from God, at which point the 
same problem arises: is this operation in God potentially or actually? Each opera-
tion that is in God potentially raises this same question of how that operation 
comes about. In order to explain the existence of any of these operations, then, we 
must arrive at some first operation which is in God actually, and which God is. 
The other operations which this one explains are extraneous and not truly part of 
God himself, but rather are secondary causes on which and through which God 
acts. This is because they are logically posterior to the first mover, the true and 
real God, who is his operation. And indeed God is identical to all his operation, 
because any operation which is not identical to God would be a secondary cause 
through which God acts, as described above. Since God must be identical to his 
own operation, it follows that there can be no mixture of potentiality in God. Any 
potentiality is a potentiality for some operation, but God is actual and is identical 
to all his operation, so God’s operation is actual. Therefore, there can be no poten-
tial operation in God, so there can be no potentiality at all in God; God is purely 
actual.

The importance of divine simplicity in this conclusion is that it allows a state-
ment in the vein of “God is identical to his operation” to be coherent. It is easy to 
imagine that one who is not familiar with the overall Thomistic system might un-
derstand this to mean that God is some vague impersonal force, but this is not the 
case. God is not merely an operation; rather, God is the supreme reality, and since 
there are no parts or composed things in him, he is identical to all of his attributes 
and operations. This is not a limiting view of God but rather a more expansive 
view; it allows God to exist in a mode that safeguards philosophical theology from 
anthropomorphism and from attempts to think of God as a sort of superhuman 
being, or one powerful person among other people. So, as Fr. Garrigou-Lagrange’s 
explanation of the First Way shows, God is his operation, but he is also his will 

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DIANOIA UNDERGRADUATE PHILOSOPHY JOURNAL66

and his power and his intellect. His existence is unlimited, depends on nothing 
else for its own being, gives existence to all other beings, and so is the foundation 
and first cause for all things.

Thus, as we have seen, simplicity is not merely an abstract consideration re-
garding some esoteric attribute of God; it is the foundation for our understanding 
of God, the universe, and moral living. To deny the doctrine of divine simplicity is 
to walk dangerously close to an anthropomorphic and empty conception of God 
as one being among many beings. The doctrine’s profound implications range from 
metaphysics to morality, and it is one of the greatest achievements of Aquinas’ 
philosophical investigation into the divine nature. It serves as a fitting centerpiece 
for the Thomistic philosophical edifice in its highest ascent to the inexhaustible 
mystery of God.

1 Aquinas begins in this philosophical section of the Summa theologiae without admitting 
any prior knowledge of God. He proceeds through strictly philosophical methods without 
making any reference to Christianity or the Bible, or any divine revelation at all. He makes 
passing references to other authors, including Biblical ones, but his argument is independent 
of these references.

2 These are sometimes referred to as act and potency, both meaning states of being, not actions 
or operations.

3 Unfortunately it is out of the scope of this paper to provide argumentation in defense of 
Aquinas’ Five Ways to demonstrate God’s existence, but I assure the reader that many de-
fenses exist and they are strong. Please see the editor’s note for more information.

4 As an aside, the question of whether the world came into being at a certain point in time does 
not in any way factor into Aquinas’ arguments for God’s existence.

5 See Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae, part 1, question 2, article 3, and Aquinas, De ente et 
essentia, chapter 4, as well as Feser, Aquinas, chapter 1, mentioned in the editor’s note.

6 For information on why it would be impossible for an infinite series of composite beings to 
join more composite beings together further and further down the chain, see the sources 
mentioned above in note 5.

7 This complex metaphysical topic is explored in Aquinas, Summa theologiae, part 1, question 5, 
articles 1-6.

8 See above in note 7, especially article 4 of that question.

9 Edward Feser, “God, Obligation, and the Euthyphro Dilemma,” October 26, 2010. <http://
edwardfeser.blogspot.com/2010/10/god-obligation-and-euthyphro-dilemma.html>

10 Garrigou-Lagrange, Réginald. God: His Existence and Nature, vol. 1. Trans. Dom Bede Rose. 
Mount Angel: B. Herder Book Co., 1955, 266.

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Author Biographies

Alexander Trimes

Alexander Trimes ’14 is majoring in English and minoring in Philosophy. 
He spent the fall term of his junior year studying abroad at Queen Mary, 
University of London, and hopes to teach English abroad following gradu-
ation. His academic interests include literary and cultural theory, as well 
as postmodern literature. As a long-term goal, Alexander plans to further 
pursue these interests through graduate study.

Francis Adams

Francis Adams ’15 comes from the small town of Dobbs Ferry, NY, and is 
currently pursuing a double major in English and Philosophy. His interests 
include literature and philosophy of all kinds as well as the various reli-
gions of the world. He plans to pursue graduate studies in some capacity, 
but hopes to make some money in the “real world” first—doing what, he 
has no idea. 

Gjergji Evangjeli

Gjergji Evangjeli ’14 is a senior with a concentration in Philosophy and 
Classics. He is interested in Ancient Greek philosophy, especially Plato 
and the synthesis of Philosophy and Theology evident in authors like St. 
Thomas Aquinas. He is curious about the paradigm shifts that have led 
to the philosophical and religious disconnect of most modern Western-
ers with classical philosophy and religion, particularly Christianity. Gjergji 
will be pursuing a 5th Year Master’s at BC next year, and is considering a 
Ph.D. afterwards. 

Anthony Cossette

Anthony Cossette ’14 is majoring in Psychology and minoring in Philoso-
phy. He is the current president of BC’s chapter of Psi Chi, the National 
Honor Society in Psychology, and is involved in a number of other extra-
curricular activities such as playing Alto Saxophone in the Boston College 
Pep Band at hockey and basketball games. His intellectual interests range 
from Cognitive Psychology and Neuroscience to History, Philosophy of 
Mind, Epistemology, Ethics, and Environmental Science. Anthony plans 
on taking a year’s sojourn or more from formal schooling to reassess his 
goals and hopes to attend graduate school in the near future.

Jonathan Phillips

Jonathan Phillips ’15 is a junior Philosophy major with an interest in me-
dieval philosophy, particularly that of St. Thomas Aquinas, and in the phi-
losophers who have continued writing in the tradition that he began. He is 
especially interested in their methods of arguing for the existence of God. 
He intends to go to law school after graduating from Boston College.

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