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The vampire figure is used within goth-

ic literature tradition as a metaphorical 

representation of the unknown, encapsu-

lating the fears of the given society from 

which the piece of literature derives. This 

essay investigates the connections between 

the evolution of the vampire, more specifi-

cally in Le Fanu’s novella Carmilla and Bram 

Stoker’s Dracula, both of which depict the 

violent hunt of the homosexual, vampiric 

figure within society. This piece exposes the 

gothic depictions of homophobic societies 

and reveals the ways in which homophobic 

violence still remains a prevalent issue with-

in the contemporary world.

Clare Nee, Siena College

The Haunt of Injustice: 
Exploring Homophobia in 
Vampire Literature

Vampire literature uses the terrifying, super-

human creature as a fictional means to build 

upon the very human quality of anxiety. The 

vampire is a literary metaphor of the un-

known, a force that has the ability to consume 

mortal lives and create immortal beings. Since 

the beginning of time, humans have thought 

themselves to be superior to their surround-

ings: to animals, the environment, etc. In a 

fictional world in which vampires exist, how-

ever, the human is no longer the dominant, 

most powerful being. Thus, the concept inflicts 

fear which permits the construction of the 

hunt in vampire literature. The classic texts of 

Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu’s Carmilla and Bram 

Stoker’s Dracula reinforce the notion that the 

vampire encapsulates societal anxieties about 

the “uncontrollable,” one that pertains to sexuality and transforms these narratives into cultural 

hauntings. While some people may believe that vampire literature are composed of merely silly, 

“make believe” stories, the truth is that they act as platforms to address serious social issues—such 

as homophobia—that still haunt our society. Carmilla and Dracula portray the hunts for and vio-

lent deaths of homosexual vampires to underscore the normalized marginalization of homosex-

uals, a cultural haunting that extends into modern society. This essay seeks to expose the gothic 

depictions of homophobic societies to reflect the ways in which people have viewed



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homosexuality as something dangerous which threatens the power of the heteronormative hier-

archy. The textual analysis of the history of this narrative begins with the examination of Le Fanu’s 

Carmilla then transitions into Stoker’s Dracula to unveil the disturbing cultural haunt of the ho-

mophobic brutality inflicted upon the LGBTQ community within society even still today.

 Carmilla presents the taboo topic of female desire through the fluidity of the homosocial 

and homosexual nature of the relationship between Carmilla and Laura that deviates from the 

heteronormative society. These desires seamlessly unravel throughout the story without much 

verbal discussion since they were not socially permissible during this time period. Adrienne Ant-

rim Major supports this sentiment in her article “Other Love: Le Fanu’s Carmilla as Lesbian Goth-

ic.” She unpacks the depiction of love within this novella and the anticipated social response to 

the women’s relationship. Major writes, “... it poses a paradigm of feminine power and lesbian love 

that might well create terror in the hearts of his contemporaries…” (151). Major emphasizes the 

problematic response of society to homosexuality and later describes the public’s perception of 

queer desire as perversion, which encapsulates the demonization of homosexual individuals and 

sets the stage for the homophobic cultural hauntings. 

 Major also addresses the portrayal of love within Carmilla as malevolent, yet argues that 

Carmilla and Laura’s relationship offers Laura a position of power because it deviates from the tra-

ditional structure of relationships in which women were inferior. One particular scene that shows 

this within the novella is when Laura and Carmilla discuss the human fear of death, which Laura 

recognizes as universal to all humans. Carmilla responds, “But to die as lovers may—to die togeth-

er so that they may live together. Girls are caterpillars while they live in the world, to be finally but-

terflies when summer comes; but in the meantime there are grubs and larvae…” (27). This quote 

exemplifies the sinister tone that the character of Carmilla adopts because it shows death in the 

context of lovers as a state that is embraced, or rather idolized. It is important to note that death 

as lovers is the only true way that this lesbian couple would be able to be together during the 19th 

century since openly homosexual relationships were not permitted. The comparison of women 

to insects metaphorically represents the lack of power that women have within society. Carmilla 

advocates, in a rather dark way, for Laura to die with her because the choice of death would be a 

final assertion of agency and power through their refusal to conform to the heteronormative soci-

ety around them. Thus, the notion of sexuality transforms into a supernatural context as the heter-

onormative society haunts these individuals with torment and suppression to conceal this part of 

their identity.

 



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 Further addressing gender and sexual agency, vampire literature works with familial struc-

tures to reflect cultural hauntings. The incorporation of the familial structure enforces the cruciali-

ty of power dynamics within the microcosm of the private sphere to reflect the larger macrocosm 

of disparity between male and female power. In the article “Repossessing the Body: Transgressive 

desire in ‘Carmilla’ and Dracula,” Elizabeth Signorotti compiles the variation of interpretations 

that scholars have formed regarding sexuality within Carmilla and Dracula. Signorotti further 

describes the implications of homosexual relationships within a heterosexually dominated society. 

She explores the notion of power dynamics within the family, particularly between Laura and her 

father. Signorotti states that the “... lesbian relationship defies the traditional structures of kinship 

by which men regulate the exchange of women to promote male bonding” (607). This quote rein-

forces the objectification of the female within the heteronormative society, which gave males the 

familial power to control women through marriage. As with sexual dynamics, gender dynamics 

further exemplify the social haunting of marginalized people.

 The relationship that is created between these two women threatens the very reassurance 

of male power within this traditional scope. This is particularly evident within the novella when 

Laura’s father and the General reflect upon the death of his daughter. The General proclaims, “... 

inveighing against the ‘hellish arts’ to which she had fallen victim… and his wonder that Heaven 

should tolerate so monstrous an indulgence of the lusts and malignity of hell” (49). The use of re-

ligion permits the General to invalidate the relationship of Laura and Carmilla by denoting it to an 

“indulgence of the lusts.” He regards female desire as something that detracts from the normality 

of human beings. Moreover, he portrays the homosexual vampire, Carmilla, as an evil “other” that 

corrupts the conditions of society and robs him of his own power. This displays another instance in 

which homophobic beliefs haunt the society in which these relationships exist and, furthermore, 

causes these individuals to suffer in turn.

 After Carmilla is demonized for her sexuality and involvement with the daughters of these 

men, she is hunted by the male alliance who seek vengeance and the restoration of their own 

power and control within the world. They claim that an eye for an eye is the only true way to re-

store justice, or at least what they believe is a just society. The notion of justice, however, is skewed 

by the homophobic undertones that haunt these individuals. Some critics argue whether the 

General’s daughter even died, or if this is merely symbolic of the death of her purity. Signorotti 

quotes Sian Macfie’s perspective regarding lesbian relationships and blood in her article, arguing 

that it is not death that takes the General’s daughter away from him but rather the notion of the 

“psychic sponge” and lesbianism as a consumption of her youth and purity (610). Moreover, she 



Digital Literature Review 4
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loses all value within society, ultimately leaving her undesirable by men. Macfie states that “... close 

female bonding and lesbianism are conflated with notions of the unhealthy draining of female 

vitality” (qtd. in Signorotti 610). Critics argue that lesbianism threatens the very nature of the social 

exchange of women, which gave men power over their daughters. The metaphor of vampirism 

in relation to lesbianism unveils the homophobic perspective of same-sex relationships produc-

ing an impurity of blood. This belief echoes the homophobic presumptions and beliefs that have 

haunted our society, which was particularly evident during the AIDS crisis within America during 

the 1980s. Furthermore, the relationship between the society in which this text was written and 

our modern world reflects the homophobic trepidations regarding same-sex relationships and 

the purification of the body, as well as the cultural haunting that these beliefs constructed. 

 Despite how much power has been attributed to Carmilla and her ability to steal all of 

Laura’s vitality, the hunt ends with the sacrificial persecution of this homosexual vampire. It be-

comes abundantly clear, however, through Le Fanu’s description of Carmilla’s death that there are 

some overlaps between Carmilla as a vampire and as a human being. In the final scene of her life, 

Le Fanu writes, “... a sharp stake driven through the heart of the vampire, who uttered a piercing 

shriek at the moment, in all respects such as might escape from a living person in the last ago-

ny” (70). In this final scene, the end of Carmilla’s life emphasizes her human-like qualities, such as 

the ability to feel pain. Le Fanu contrasts the characters of Laura and Carmilla to depict the two 

binary identities that women could obtain within this society: the victim or the monster. In Julie 

Miess’ article entitled “Celebrating the Female Monster: Undead Housewife and Likeable Lamia,” 

she expresses that women had the scarce options of either being “... the passive victim or, if she 

chooses not to inhabit that role, she is figured as the inhuman mythological female monster” 

(236). Moreover, Le Fanu intentionally creates the dichotomy between Laura and Carmilla to con-

struct a cautionary tale. In this sense, if one chooses to be a “monster” through the embracement 

of one’s own lesbian sexuality, that person will face marginalization and social death. Whether the 

woman’s death comes figuratively or literally, men remain in power within the heteronormative 

patriarchy, a haunting reality that still exists in today’s world. 

 Twenty-six years after Carmilla was published, Bram Stoker’s Dracula evolved and added to 

the genre of vampire literature. Stoker continues with the concept of “otherness” in society within 

vampire literature by approaching the topic of homosexuality in a drastically different way than Le 

Fanu. Many scholars critique this novel for being Stoker’s way of reinstating the heteronormative 

beliefs of Europe during this time period, especially since it was published merely two years after 

Stoker’s close friend, Oscar Wilde, was persecuted for being a homosexual (Clark 167-68). This is 



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particularly evident throughout the novel with Stoker’s incorporation of female dialogue in the 

form of letters. Mina and Lucy share a homosocial bond, emphasizing their intimate connection, 

in which they often forcefully convey that their only purpose as women is to serve the men within 

a marriage. In a letter to Mina, Lucy writes, “My dear Mina, why are men so noble when we women 

are so little worthy of them?” (Stoker 73). This quote speaks volumes to the societal perception of 

women as inferior to men within the public and domestic spheres, and it also illumines the en-

forced heterosexual nature of relationships, which persists as a cultural haunting. 

 The examination of this text raises questions about Bram Stoker’s own sexuality, suggest-

ing that he hid behind these traditional structures in order to hide his homosexual relationship 

with Henry Irving (Primuth 17). In the article “Vampires Are Us,” Richard S. Primuth explores not 

only the sexuality of the character Dracula, but also of Stoker. The author argues that Stoker used 

Oscar Wilde’s letters to Lord Alfred Douglas as a means of inspiration for his unconventional style 

of text. Primuth explains that, “at a time of extreme repression and fear for gay people, using their 

characters as a metaphor for their own hidden sexuality was an outlet for self-expression” (17). 

With that being said, whether or not Stoker himself was gay is left unknown. It is apparent, how-

ever, that he used his knowledge of heteronormative structures to create a homosexual vampire 

as the demonized “other” within the novel.

 Stoker writes Dracula as an exotic being who lives in complete and utter isolation to reflect 

the haunting marginalization of the LGBTQ community within society. Dracula traps Jonathan 

Harker merely to have connection with other human beings; however, Stoker’s tainted description 

of Dracula portrays him as predatory rather than lonely. Stoker describes Dracula’s hands as “...

rather coarse—broad, with squat fingers. Strange to say, there were thin hairs in the center of his 

palm… nails were long and fine and cut to a sharp point” (25). This quote highlights the dramatic 

dehumanization of Dracula as the “other,” attributing animalesque qualities to him to emphasize 

his predatory nature. This description creates a notion of disgust and repulsion within the readers 

at the sight of Dracula, exploiting the uncanny resonance connects the human world to the su-

pernatural. 

 As the text continues, Harker discovers that there are sexy female vampires who live with-

in the shadows of Dracula’s castle, and they try to seduce him. Dracula bursts into the room and 

exclaims, “How dare you touch him, any of you… This man belongs to me! Beware how you med-

dle with him, or you’ll have to deal with me” (Stoker 50). This shows his intense level of infatuation 

with Harker and is the first example in which he establishes sexual ownership over him. Dracula 

also claims that he has the ability to love, which directly implies his homosexual intentions with-



Digital Literature Review 6
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in his relationship with Harker. The article “Metaphor into Metonymy: The Vampire Next Door,” 

written by Jules Zanger, explores the function of the female vampires within Dracula’s castle as 

a haunting of the European past traditions. Zanger asserts that they serve no purpose except to 

exist as symbols of “... proper Victorian ladies, remaining properly at home while the master of the 

house goes forth to do solitary battle against the forces of virtue” (18). He argues that the wom-

en are merely objects of past traditional images of the heteronormative household. Thus, there 

emerges a familial dynamic of power within the household similar to the one that is established 

within Carmilla. It differs, however, in the sense that this structure actually favors the homosex-

ual vampire. The women are necessary to the plotline of the story and act as “mediators” to the 

homosexual undertones that Stoker intends to convey (Craft qtd. in Schopp 235). With that being 

said, the women exist simply to make the homoerotic undertones less abrasive within the text, 

since that would have been socially unacceptable during the turn of the 19th century. 

 The heteronormative frame within this story uses the binary contrast of gender to make 

the homosexuality less explicit between the men. Andrew Schopp’s article “Cruising the Alter-

natives: Homoeroticism and the Contemporary Vampire” explores the transformative evolution 

of the vampire and the ways in which its purpose changes to reflect the cultural anxieties and 

hauntings (231). Many scholars, like Schopp, believe that “the vampire product creates a space for 

performing alternatives to social/cultural mandates, and the act of reading allows the reader to 

participate in, and contribute to, the use of the space” (235). In the case of Dracula, however, this 

belief does not apply. While some critics argue that the importance of vampire literature is the 

product of fictional space created to address social injustices, the space created within Dracula 

reveals the reinforcement of homophobic perceptions. Thus, while more modern-day literature 

reflects progression towards the use of fiction as a means to right the wrongs within society, it is 

evident through the animalistic depiction of the “other” within European society that homosexu-

ality will result in the marginalization and cultural haunting to which Dracula is subjected. 

 After Jonathan escapes from Dracula’s castle and returns home, the homosocial group of 

men—Van Helsing, Seward, Morris, and Arthur—make it their conquest to track Dracula down and 

slay him. With the assistance of Mina, they are successful in this endeavor. They have condemned 

Dracula as an evil monster and refuse to allow him to assimilate into their traditional English 

culture due to his foreign origins and sexuality. This condemnation leaves him susceptible to be-

ing pushed out on the margins of society. The group, however, does not even allow him to exist 

on the margins of society, because they will not stop until the hunt is completed and Dracula is 

dead. Nina Auerbach’s Our Vampires, Ourselves describes the complex relationship between this 



Digital Literature Review 7
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overarching group of men. She argues that Dracula solely preys on the important women within 

Jonathan’s social group because “... Mina is only a pawn in his battle against the men. Stripped of 

his power of combination, catalyzing homoerotic relationships in which he cannot participate, this 

vampire loses his story, for he has no confidante willing to hear it” (82). This shows the deep level 

of isolation inflicted upon Dracula, which subsequently results in the unfortunate deaths of many 

individuals within this social group. Dracula goes against the traditional nature of homosocial re-

lationships because he seeks to pursue a homosexual relationship with Jonathan Harker. What is 

also important to draw from this quote is Auerbach’s acknowledgement of the lack of a narrative 

that we, as readers, receive from Dracula. Thus, the reader is simply left with the tale that is told 

through the homophobic perspectives of the men, who are too afraid to go against the societal 

norms to allow themselves to view Dracula not as an “other” haunted by societal anxieties, but as 

a man. 

 In the context of society, vampire literature reflects the current conditions and injustices 

that haunt our society. Through the literary examples of Le Fanu’s Carmilla and Bram Stoker’s 

Dracula, the social injustices regarding homosexuality and homophobia within society prevail. 

What is particularly interesting about both works is the lack of narrative of the homosexual vam-

pires. Carmilla never has the opportunity to tell her story, and neither does Dracula. One can 

infer that these narratives would have constructed a more empathetic and sympathetic view of 

these characters as a way to re-humanize them. But alas, the world may never know. One critique 

claims that internal vampiric dialogue “... described from within is transformed from a code of 

hegemonic anxiety to a signifier of cultural change” (Miess 235). These narratives, however, are in-

tentionally left out to reflect the cultural hauntings and oppression via silence of the marginalized 

“other” within society: those belonging to the LGBTQ community. 

 While it is true that Western society has moved in a more progressive direction towards 

equality of LGBTQ rights, the unfortunate reality for many of these individuals is that they are still 

greatly oppressed. The homophobic hunt that continues today and haunts our world exemplifies 

this oppression and can be seen in incidents like the Pulse Nightclub massacre where 49 indi-

viduals lost their lives. Unfortunately, this is merely one example within the American society of 

mass murder that was targeted at the LGBTQ community. The FBI revealed that there has been 

a steady incline of hate crimes against this community over the past fifty years, with a specific 

emphasis on the years of 2014-2017 in which the hate crimes against this community of individu-

als rose approximately 3% (Hauck 1). In 2017, the FBI reports that there were 1,130 incidents of hate 

crimes reported against the LGBTQ community, a majority of which were targeted at gay men 



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(Hauck 1). These are solely the incidents that are reported and documented, which is indicative 

that there are likely to be even more incidents of violence that go unreported. Fear, violence, and 

hatred are perpetuated within these tragic events of the modern world and accentuate the cul-

tural haunting of homophobia. The increase in violence and marginalization against the LGBTQ 

community urgently calls for societal action and expulsion of these homophobic mindsets that in-

fect our society and culture. Both Carmilla and Dracula remind readers of the homophobic mind-

set that haunts our society and create a linear history of the transgressive marginalization against 

homosexuals within society. The power of these works derives not from what they lack, but rather 

what they stand for: an acknowledgement of the history of violence and hatred towards these in-

dividuals. They manifest these notions in terms of vampire literature to create a response of resis-

tance towards these mentalities and a deconstruction of the injustice that continues to haunt our 

world.



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Works Cited

Auerbach, Nina. “Dracula: A Vampire of Our Own.” Our Vampires, Ourselves, The University 

of Chicago Press, 2006, pp. 61–94. 

Hauck, Grace. “Anti-LGBT Hate Crimes Are Rising, the FBI Says. But It Gets Worse.” USA 

Today, Gannett Satellite Information Network, 1 July 2019, www.usatoday.com/story  

news/2019/06/28/anti-gay-hate-crimes-rise-fbi-says-and-they-likely-under 

count/1582614001/.

Lark, Damion. “Preying on the Pervert: The Uses of Homosexual Panic in Bram Stoker’s 

Dracula.” Horrifying Sex: Essays on Sexual Difference in Gothic Literature, edited by 

Ruth Bienstock Anolik, McFarland & Company Inc., 2007, pp.151-166.

Le Fanu, Joseph S. Carmilla. 1872. Anodos Books, 2017.

Major, Adrienne A.“Other Love: Le Fanu’s Carmilla as Lesbian Gothic.” Horrifying Sex: 

Essays on Sexual Difference in Gothic Literature, edited by Ruth Bienstock Anolik, 

McFarland & Company Inc., 2007, pp.151-166.

Miess, Julie. “Another ‘Gendered Other’?: The Female Monster-Hero.” Horrifying Sex: 

Essays on Sexual Difference in Gothic Literature, edited by Ruth Bienstock Anolik, 

McFarland & Company Inc., 2007, pp. 233-247.

Primuth Richard S. “Vampires Are Us.” The Gay & Lesbian Review Worldwide, no. 

2, 2014, p. 17. EBSCOhost, ezproxy.siena.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost. 

com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsgao&AN=edsgcl.363792542&site=eds-live.

Schopp, Andrew. “Cruising the Alternatives: Homoeroticism and the Contemporary Vam-

pire.” Journal of Popular Culture, vol. 30, no. 4, 1997, pp. 231–43. EBSCOhost, ezproxy.

siena.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&d-

b=mlf&AN=1998076518&site=eds-live.

Signorotti, Elizabeth. “Repossessing the Body: Transgressive Desire in ‘Carmilla’ and Drac-

ula.” Criticism: A Quarterly for Literature and the Arts, vol. 38, no. 4, 1996, pp. 607–32. 

EBSCOhost,ezproxy.siena.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.

aspx?direct=true&db=mlf&AN=1996067329&site=eds-live.

Stoker, Bram. Dracula. 1897. Barnes & Noble Books, 2003.



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Zanger, Jules. “Metaphor into Metonymy: The Vampire Next Door.” Blood Read: The Vam-

pire as Metaphor in Contemporary Culture, edited by Joan Gordon and Veronica 

Hollinger, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997, pp.17-26.


