









































© Mayeaux, The Digital Literature Review, 12 (5), 70–83.

doi: 10.33043/4z9c28b8. Shared with CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 License.

ABSTRACT

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This essay explores the persistent sense of alienation experienced by Black 

individuals and migrants, comparing James Baldwin’s Stranger in the Village and 

Teju Cole’s Black Body. Both writers highlight how racial and cultural othering 

continue despite societal progress, showing how Black people and migrants are 

scrutinized, stereotyped, and pushed to the margins. Baldwin’s account of being 

treated as an exotic outsider in a Swiss village parallels Cole’s reflections on the 

racialized gaze in modern America, revealing how Blackness is still seen as foreign. 

The essay also examines how the media reinforces these reductive portrayals, 

the lasting psychological toll of historical trauma, and the pressures of forced 

assimilation. Additionally, it critiques cultural appropriation, where dominant groups 

profit from Black and immigrant cultures while disregarding the people behind 

them. Drawing from scholarly and literary sources, this analysis emphasizes the 

importance of awareness and solidarity in challenging systemic racism and fostering 

a more inclusive society. Ultimately, it calls for a shift in how we tell these stories—

one that moves beyond stereotypes and truly acknowledges the humanity and 

belonging of Black individuals and migrants, both in America and abroad.

The Enduring Alienation of Black Bodies and 
Migrants: A Comparative Analysis of James 
Baldwin’s “Stranger in the Village” and Teju 
Cole’s “Black Body”
Victoria Mayeaux

http://doi.org/10.33043/4z9c28b8


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Introduction: Literature as a Reflection of Racial and Migrant Alienation 

In 1951, civil rights activist and American writer James Baldwin visited a remote 

village in Switzerland as the sole Black man. A few years later, in 1953, he published 

an essay titled “Stranger in the Village” where he reflected on those years he lived in 

Leukerbad. His essay established the effects of American racism on the Black body as 

it compares to outside countries. Decades later, Nigerian American writer Teju Cole 

visited the same village and later published his own 2014 essay, “Black Body.” By writing 

about the parallels between Baldwin’s experiences and his own in both Switzerland 

and America, Cole highlights the enduring legacy of racial othering, despite advances 

in societal progress. The conversation between both writers illustrates how literature 

has long served as a mirror reflecting the social realities of its time, offering powerful 

insights into issues of identity, belonging, and exclusion. Particularly, Teju Cole’s literary 

exploration reveals how societal perceptions of race render Black bodies as foreign—

within and outside of their own countries—underscoring the challenges of identity and 

belonging faced by migrants, which will only continue without the proper implementation 

of change. However, it is important to note that the comparison between these two 

essays is not an attempt to conflate the experiences of Black individuals with those of 

other migrants, but rather to illustrate the resonance between their experiences. 

The Alienation of Black Bodies and the Politics of Visibility 

The alienation experienced by Black individuals, both as migrants and within their 

homelands, is intensified by societal perceptions and stereotypes. In “Black Body,” Teju 

Cole observes, “To be a stranger is to be looked at, but to be Black is to be looked at 

especially” (Cole, 13), illustrating how race magnifies the scrutiny and othering of Black 

Americans. This assertion emphasizes that while all migrants may experience the feeling 

of being viewed as outsiders, Black individuals face an additional layer of scrutiny tied 



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to their race. Their very existence and presence in a space are often politicized, viewed 

not as individuals but as symbols of difference. The constant gaze is dehumanizing, and 

the inability to escape the racialized identity imposed upon them fosters alienation. 

Similarly, Baldwin’s “Stranger in the Village” recounts his dehumanizing experience in 

a Swiss village, where he was treated as a “living wonder” rather than a fully realized 

human being. This perception reduces Baldwin to an exotic spectacle, robbing him of 

his individuality and complexity. He is seen not as a person with his own experiences 

and history but rather as an object of fascination, a symbol of difference that reinforces 

societal boundaries.  

This reducing of identity to racial difference does not only affect Black people 

but also extends to immigrants from many ethnic backgrounds. The process of othering 

frequently targets migrants, focusing intently on their cultural, linguistic, or religious 

distinctions; all become points of scrutiny in American society. Baldwin’s own reflections 

on being perceived as an object of fascination in Leukerbad—an almost entirely White 

village—resonate with contemporary accounts of migrant experiences in America. He was 

othered because he was racially, culturally, and linguistically different.  

The Role of Media and Stereotypes in Perpetuating Alienation 

Media outlets, for example, perpetuate this sense of alienation for migrants through 

their frequent representation of refugees from the Middle East and Africa, labeling 

them as “waves” or “crises” due primarily to the colors of their skin, cultures, and 

religions. This reductive language indicates “that the media is still manufacturing consent 

with regards to immigration coverage” (Okoye) in a way that supports biased, racist 

perspectives and agendas. In doing so, the media itself removes migrants’ individuality 

and diminishes them to a single, dehumanized group, and it is a phenomenon that points 

out many shared challenges of identity and belonging that affect a large number of Black 



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Americans and migrants. In an interview with Francois Bondy, Baldwin speaks on the 

harm of spreading similar reductive narratives about non-White Americans through media 

outlets and textbooks, commenting: 

If we could tell the truth about what happened to Indians, what happened to the 

Black man in America, and get rid of all those terrifying myths which are all over TV, and 

books and textbooks, if we could tell the truth about what our real relationship was to 

the Mexicans, for example, then we would begin to use a tremendous potential, and it 

might begin to save the world. (Baldwin and Bondy, 18) 

As Baldwin suggests, reductive narratives alienate and reinforce social hierarchies 

and “terrifying myths” that privilege the White Americans in power who cannot let go 

of their hatred for those who are not like them. It’s evident that these insights on the 

media’s role in shaping racialized perceptions of marginalized groups remain relevant 

today, as the same reductive narratives used to justify slavery and segregation in the past 

are now wielded against contemporary immigrant communities, such as the non-White 

immigrants who cannot escape their connection to labels like “waves” and “crises.”  

The Psychological Toll and Historical Trauma of Alienation 

A similar sense of reduction to one’s race or foreignness is echoed by Nigerian author 

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie in her TED Talk, “The Danger of a Single Story,” where she 

recalls a personal encounter with microaggressions. Adichie describes how, after moving 

to the U.S. for college, her roommate was astonished that she spoke fluent English and 

didn’t listen to tribal music, reflecting how stereotypes based on incomplete knowledge 

lead to misperceptions. Adichie explains, “The single story creates stereotypes, and 

the problem with stereotypes is not that they are untrue but that they are incomplete” 

(Adichie, 13:11). These stereotypes limit how people see others and prevent them from 



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understanding the complexity of their identities, reducing them to narrow, often harmful 

narratives.  

This idea that stereotypes are incomplete captures how Black individuals as well 

as migrants are often judged based on the limited understanding others have of their 

backgrounds, cultures, and experiences. Together, these insights reveal how societal 

labeling and reductive narratives not only alienate Black individuals but also migrants 

from all backgrounds. These narratives reinforce the “otherness” of such groups, making 

it difficult for them to integrate fully into society. This alienation and the challenges that 

come with navigating a world shaped by stereotypes highlight the deep complexities of 

belonging and identity. American immigrants, just like Adichie, must constantly negotiate 

their sense of self within a society that frequently fails to see them for who they truly 

are. 

Furthermore, such enduring racial stereotypes are linked to historical trauma, 

leading to the psychological toll of displacement for Black individuals. Baldwin reflects 

on this in “Stranger in the Village” when he writes that the children who shout slurs at 

him “have no way of knowing the echoes this sound raises in [him]” (Baldwin). These 

moments of casual racism carry a deep and cutting weight, tying Baldwin’s personal 

experience to the broader historical trauma experienced by Black Americans under 

systemic prejudice. Such instances aren’t just individual affronts—they are reminders of 

centuries of racial subjugation, with each insult or prejudice echoing the pain of history 

and time. The constant exposure to this dehumanization accumulates over time, leaving 

a profound psychological impact, particularly in terms of alienation. In “Black Body,” 

Teju Cole builds on this idea, observing that “the Black body comes pre-judged, and 

as a result, it is placed in needless jeopardy” (Cole, 13). This insight underscores how 

Black Americans face heightened vulnerability due to the stereotypes attached to their 

bodies. Because of this, Black individuals are often seen as threats or dangers, regardless 



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of their personal characters or intentions. This, in turn, can expose them to further 

discrimination and violence.  

Similarly, migrants of all backgrounds—especially those who are non-White—face 

challenges rooted in racial and national stereotypes. These stereotypes, often leading 

to alienation and violence, shape the migrant experience in ways that parallel the 

racialization of Black bodies. A striking example of this is “the rapid escalation of 

racial violence that followed 9/11 [that] normalized an atmosphere of racial terror” 

(Rana), fueling a nation-wide growth of anti-Muslim racism and Islamophobia. Innocent 

immigrants who merely shared the faith of the terrorists were vilified, subjected to 

hate crimes, and labeled as threats to a country they had no role in attacking. Despite 

this being just one extreme instance in a long history of racial stereotyping, it does 

not stand alone as an isolated incident; in fact, it is simply one more tragedy added 

to the many others in American history which has led to the exclusion and persecution 

of migrants. It is clear that racial bias, historical trauma, and exclusionary practices 

create a shared vulnerability between Black Americans and immigrant communities. 

These experiences reveal the significant toll that systemic racism and prejudice exact on 

marginalized groups, preventing them from being seen as fully human. As a result, both 

Black Americans and migrants are frequently treated as outsiders where their sense of 

belonging is consistently questioned.  

In Baldwin’s “Stranger in the Village,” he reflects on the loss of cultural and 

ancestral roots for Black Americans, stating, “I am told that there are Haitians able to 

trace their ancestry back to African kings … the signature on the bill of sale” (Baldwin). 

Meanwhile, many Black Americans cannot say the same; that history was lost to time and 

stolen by terrors of the past, bleeding into the present. This difference highlights the 

disconnect that Black Americans feel from their heritage due to the traumatic history of 

slavery, which forcibly severed their ties to their African roots. Slavery erased much of 



76 | Mayeaux

their history, rendering it difficult for them to trace their cultural lineage.  

Likewise, immigrants from various ethnicities and nationalities experience a similar 

sense of dislocation when they migrate. Forced to leave behind their cultural traditions 

and identities in search of a new life, many immigrants face pressure to assimilate 

into the dominant culture of their new home. For example, many Mexican immigrants 

and their children face pressure to abandon Spanish in favor of English, often being 

discouraged from speaking their native language in schools, workplaces, and public 

spaces. This pressure stems from a broader societal expectation that assimilation 

into American culture requires the rejection of one’s native language, as it creates 

discomfort for the mostly White, prejudiced Americans who dislike when someone of a 

different race and nationality engages in a language and culture that they do not. Non-

conformity terrifies them. To those with this particularly poisonous ideology, what cannot 

be understood becomes other, and what becomes other soon becomes a threat. Thus, 

Mexican-Americans—like many other immigrants—are often given two choices: assimilate 

or face the consequences of their non-conformity.  

Whether for Mexican Americans or for immigrants hailing from other countries, 

the process of forced assimilation often creates a feeling of displacement, as their 

roots are either erased or made invisible. As the scholar Nandini Sahu notes, “One of 

the most significant traits of the immigrant existence is the striking balance between 

the two worlds―the homeland and the adopted one” (Sahu, 145). This struggle is not 

simply a matter of learning a new language or adjusting to different customs; rather, 

it is a continuous negotiation of identity, where immigrants must navigate the tension 

between preserving their cultural heritage and integrating into a society that often 

demands conformity. For many, the homeland represents deep-rooted traditions, 

values, and a sense of belonging, while the adopted country offers new opportunities 

but often at the cost of cultural loss. This balancing act can lead to a fractured sense 



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of self, as immigrants attempt to retain their original identity while also trying to 

avoid marginalization in their new environment. The expectation to assimilate can be 

especially challenging when dominant cultural narratives portray foreign traditions as 

inferior or outdated, further alienating immigrant communities and reinforcing the 

erasure of their heritage. Or, sometimes, their roots and customs are stolen from them 

and appropriated to fit another’s standards, and an entirely new loss of culture occurs.  

Cultural Appropriation and the Erasure of Identity 

Teju Cole’s “Black Body” addresses this particular aspect of such alienation against 

Black communities when he writes, “Throughout the culture, there are imitations of the 

gait, bearing, and dress of the Black body, a vampiric ‘everything but the burden’ co-

option of Black life” (Cole, 14). This highlights a frustrating truth: those who steal the 

culture of Black identity—in this instance, the majority points to White Americans—do so 

without bearing the burden of actually being a Black body. The appeal of it is embraced 

wholeheartedly, yet there remains a distance from the daily struggles of living in a 

society that marginalizes them. While Cole’s statement directly critiques the exploitation 

of Black culture, the sentiment extends to the experiences of immigrants from all 

backgrounds.  

Aspects of American immigrant culture—whether food, fashion, music, or art—are 

often celebrated or commodified, but the individuals behind these cultural elements 

remain marginalized and excluded. The culture is seen as desirable, something to 

be appropriated, yet the people who produce it are still treated as outsiders. This 

phenomenon is also reflected in Stuart Hall’s “What Is This ‘Black’ in Black Popular 

Culture?” where he discusses the existence of ethnic hierarchies in America. Hall 

explains, “America has always had a series of ethnicities, and consequently, the 

construction of ethnic hierarchies has always defined its cultural politics” (105). This 



78 | Mayeaux

statement highlights how both Black Americans and immigrants are positioned as 

outsiders in American society, even though their cultural contributions have shaped and 

enriched the nation.  

One such instance of this presents itself in the rising popularity of East Asian 

American entertainment in Western culture. Despite things like K-pop and anime 

becoming more prevalent in American households, many Asian American artists still 

struggle to receive recognition or to break into the mainstream U.S. entertainment 

industry. This is due in part to Hollywood’s decades-long streak of whitewashing Asian 

roles in movies and television, going so far as to cast White actors as Asian characters. 

Scarlett Johansson in the movie Ghost in the Shell is a prime example of this, as she was 

a White actress cast for the role of a Japanese woman. As it stands, this is not a singular 

occurrence; the upsetting truth is that it happens all the time with people of color in 

American media, and it remains yet another obstacle for non-White Americans and 

American immigrants alike. 

Time and again we see that the contributions of immigrants are overlooked in 

American society. Even more so, those who are non-White are further dismissed in favor 

of a dominant narrative that consistently frames both Black and immigrant Americans as 

“other.” This leads to American culture—and America itself—being enriched by that of 

migrants and Black individuals, yet that enrichment goes overshadowed and thankless. 

Unfortunately, sweeping it under the rug and claiming that it was always there is easier 

than admitting the truth of its origins. 

These simplified, often inaccurate representations reinforce both communities’ 

struggles with exclusion, marginalization, and misrepresentation. When their stories 

are told by others—when their food, art, music, style, and speech are stolen and 

appropriated—these individuals lose agency over how they are perceived and are left 



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with narratives that are incomplete at best and harmful at worst. Thus, their own 

narratives are now controlled by the dominant beliefs of American society. This process 

of reduction contributes to the erasure of both their personal identities and their 

cultural contributions. The result is a society that limits understanding and perpetuates 

harmful stereotypes, which further alienates marginalized groups. In this way, both 

Black Americans and migrants face similar challenges when it comes to maintaining their 

cultural identities while navigating systems that marginalize them. Their cultural richness 

is often commodified or misunderstood, leaving them in a constant state of tension 

between preserving their roots and assimilating into a dominant culture that does not 

fully accept them. 

Unmasking Systemic Racism and the Power of Solidarity 

It must be said, however, that in order to address systemic racism and the 

challenges faced by marginalized groups, it is also essential to understand the deeper, 

often hidden forces that perpetuate exclusion and discrimination. James Baldwin 

addresses this, arguing that Black Americans cannot be set free “unless one is prepared 

to set the White people in America free … Free from their terrors, free from their 

ignorance, free from their prejudices and free, really, from the right to do wrong” 

(Baldwin and Bondy, 14). Baldwin’s assertion shows how systemic ignorance and prejudice 

don’t just hurt Black people—they hold back all of society. To really create change, 

these issues need to be addressed on a broader scale. Similarly, Teju Cole also discusses 

how racism has been able to cling onto life—or thrive, really—in America. He describes 

American racism as having “many moving parts, and has had enough centuries in which 

to evolve an impressive camouflage” (Cole, 15). This highlights the horrifying truth that 

racism isn’t always obvious; it can be hidden in everyday actions or policies, and that 

makes it even more difficult to fight.  



80 | Mayeaux

Even still, in a later interview of his own, Cole claims that “the fact is that if you 

have a voice, you try to find ways to be responsible to your voice” (Hodapp, 249). This 

is a reminder that everyone has a role to play, especially migrants, allies, and activists 

who can challenge harmful narratives and speak out for change. Despite it being an 

uphill battle, it must still, in the end, be a battle we are all willing to fight. Given this, 

it is essential to recognize the importance of “the development of critical consciousness 

[and] the restoration of connective solidarities and healing relationships” (Lang, 182) 

in repairing the fractured American system. Building connections and understanding 

between different groups is an effective tool to fight against alienation and create a 

stronger sense of belonging for Black Americans and migrants alike.  

Conclusion: The Path Forward in Addressing Systemic Racism 

Ultimately, the purpose of this essay is to highlight the ongoing challenges faced by 

both Black Americans and American immigrants, exploring how their experiences mirror 

one another, the reasons these challenges persist, and the ways society can address 

and correct the negative perceptions and attitudes directed toward them. In this vein, 

Adichie’s declaration on and against stereotypes, once again, finds a place here. When 

she asserts that “the single story creates stereotypes [and] emphasizes how we are 

different rather than how we are similar” (Adichie, 13:11), she highlights how stereotypes 

reduce people to a single, oversimplified narrative that ignores their full humanity. Both 

the Black experience and the migrant experience are often shaped by these stereotypes, 

where people are seen as "others" rather than as individuals with rich histories and 

complexities. Baldwin himself addresses this dehumanization once more, arguing that 

“the Black man insists … the White man cease to regard him as an exotic rarity and 

recognize him as a human being.” This need for recognition that Baldwin pleads for is 

something that applies to migrants just the same, especially those who are of a different 



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race. No matter where they come from, immigrants often face the challenge of being 

seen as outsiders or even threats—threats to American safety, the economy, and social 

status—with their identities shaped by the dominant culture’s view of them as different 

or lesser.  

It is evident that “despite the passage of time, shades of political progress, and 

the greater spatial and cultural mobility that Cole enjoys, the underlying racial fear 

and hatred that Baldwin interrogated still persists” (Gehlawat et. al., 59). Just as 

it was before, Teju Cole’s claim that “if you have a voice, you try to find ways to be 

responsible to your voice,” becomes imperative to implement when considering the path 

to activism and speaking out against prejudice. It serves as a reminder for people to take 

action, challenge stereotypes, and speak up against the discrimination faced by Black 

Americans and migrants. It underscores the critical importance of continually revisiting 

the conversation about race relations, as these issues still persist today—decades after 

“Stranger in the Village” was written and centuries after the founding of America. 

Moreover, it illustrates the importance of using literature as a tool through which we can 

carry on this dialogue. This essay itself seeks to do the same, adding to the conversation 

between Baldwin and Cole and many other scholars within migration and race studies. By 

engaging in this ongoing dialogue, both verbally and through literature, we can use our 

voices—responsibly, as Cole encourages—to advocate for a more inclusive society so that 

we may finally foster the change that is long overdue.



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