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ABSTRACT

Migration is a phenomenon that requires individuals to shift their identity to 

incorporate new cultures, creating a split between the individual’s ethnic identity 

and national identity. Acculturation to a new environment requires migrants to 

solidify a new identity, often adopting a combination of their past lives and their 

new lives. In the context of Social Identity theory by Henri Tajfel, each migrant 

has the ability to choose how they categorize themselves and create groups. 

The book American Street by Ibi Zoboi contextualizes the migrant experience to 

America as a struggle to find their place and acceptance in a community. Using 

Social Identity Theory, this paper aims to prove that the protagonist, Fabiola 

Toussaint, is able to find peace as a Haitian American citizen, incorporating both 

of her homes into her identity. By embracing her multiple identities, Fabiola 

unites her family from both worlds and learns to accept herself.

© Carter, The Digital Literature Review, 12 (3), 43–57.

doi: 10.33043/y9535cb4. Shared with CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 License.

Post-Migration and Embracing Identity 
Multiplicity
Kaira Carter

http://doi.org/10.33043/y9535cb4


44 | Carter

   In each culture, there are unique traits and traditions that set it apart from other 

cultures across the world. Within these social constructs, each individual develops an 

identity to reflect the culture they live in. This representation allows individuals to feel 

a sense of belonging and harmony, creating meaning and community worth cherishing 

(Deaux 280). However, for those who permanently migrate to new countries, their ethnic 

identities no longer reflect social expectations, driving them to adopt a new national 

persona. This new national identity often differs from their ethnic identity, requiring 

migrants to rapidly adapt to their new situation. Between ethnic identity and national 

identity, each migrant has to decide how to incorporate their old selves into their 

new selves and find acceptance as a mixture of both. Without the ability to adhere to 

each part of their identities, they will feel incomplete or inauthentic as an individual. 

Migrants finding belonging in their new home depends on their ability to blend their social 

identities and categorize themselves as bicultural individuals who derive support from 

their cultural traditions, spiritual beliefs, and family bonds. 

In 2017, Haitian-born author Ibi Zoboi wrote her debut novel American Street about 

immigrants in the United States having to grapple with several social identities while 

adapting to new surroundings. As one of the finalists for the National Book Award for 

Young People’s Literature, this novel follows the US-born Haitian protagonist, Fabiola 

Toussaint, raised in Haiti with her Haitian-born mother. Wanting to leave Haiti to live with 

their American family, Fabiola tries to enter America with her undocumented mother, 

who is arrested at the airport and put into a detainment center. Fabiola is forced to 

immigrate alone. Struggling to leave behind her mother and country to assimilate into 

Detroit’s isolated, fast-paced society, Fabiola turns to her American-born cousins to help 

her acculturate while also remembering to preserve her Haitian heritage to find a sense 

of happiness. While immigrants to the United States can identify as Americans, they 

can’t escape their past cultural identities. Throughout the novel, Fabiola connects her 



The Digital Literature Review | 45

spiritual beliefs to the people in her life, finding guidance and comfort from her origins. 

Her cousins and Aunt Jo take care of her and teach her how to survive in downtown 

Detroit, even introducing her to their family businesses: Loan sharking and drug dealing. 

Because of their Haitian backgrounds and because they have a single mother who cannot 

work an official job due to medical issues, the Toussaint family has to support each 

other by any means necessary. Fabiola finds strength and offers support by praying for 

her family, cooking nutritious Haitian cuisine, and inviting her family into her religious 

practices. Even though Fabiola must adopt new behaviors as an American citizen, such 

as attending a public school and prioritizing money, she does not abandon her ethnic 

identity as a Haitian. Instead, she recontextualizes her ethnic identity in a way that 

sustains her national identity. By engaging with both of her identities, Fabiola finds peace 

and acceptance with her choices throughout the novel and feels connected with her 

Haitian mother, the person she dedicates herself to rescuing from confinement. The novel 

culminates in an impossible choice between two families: Her American family or her 

Haitian mother. Accepting both worlds as a crucial part of herself, Fabiola finds a solution 

that allows her to unite both, even at the expense of financial security.

The author of American Street, Ibi Zoboi, is a Haitian immigrant to the United States 

who writes about migrant experiences, striving to bring awareness to her audiences 

about violence and oppression in America. American Street is her break-out novel and 

National Book Award finalist, and it was the first step toward accomplishing her goal. 

In an interview with PBS Books, Zoboi explained she was born in Port-Au-Prince, like 

Fabiola, and immigrated to America with her mother at the age of four to Bushwick, New 

York. The area she grew up in was prone to violence and drug use, causing her mother 

to restrict her from going outside. As a result, Zoboi grew up in front of the television, 

consuming as much media as she could (PBS Books). She explains her reason for placing 

the setting of American Street in West Side Detroit was because it reflected the Bushwick 



46 | Carter

she had to grow up with. The event that motivated her to publish American Street was 

“the murder of a black boy and the media haranguing of his Haitian-Dominican-American 

friend” (Jean-Charles 45). As someone who grew up in the crosshairs of violence, 

Zoboi decided to represent migrants and marginalized groups who face persecution 

because of racial judgment and their inability to escape their ethnic identities. After 

American Street’s success, she published several more books such as Nigeria Jones, 

Pride, (S)kin,Punching the Air, and many more. American Street helps provide a migrant 

perspective about the difficulties of categorizing oneself in a new environment and 

finding an accepting community to rely on.

Zoboi’s novel received extensive review and praise for making migration studies 

and an assimilation text accessible for young adult readers, who often struggle to 

relate to migrants. In Laurel Niedospial’s review on Popsugar, they state, “While a 

different writer might have fallen into the trap of making America be the ideal, Zoboi 

manages to describe the difficulty of living in the US while still making authentic and 

dynamic characters who have grown up there.” As a Haitian immigrant to the United 

States herself, Zoboi understands first-hand the hardships involved in leaving one’s 

country behind for one that is supposedly better. Zoboi depicts the American Dream 

as an unrealistic standard and presents the struggles migrants face as they adapt to 

a new culture. Another review from Tiffany Rhoades on Girl Museum also takes notice 

of Fabiola’s multiple identities and her dedication to integrating into Detroit’s harsh 

environment. They emphasize that the book creates an emotional attachment between 

Fabiola and the reader, creating a personal experience. Rhoades states, “I was proud 

as she learned how to write a proper research paper and received her first ‘A’ in an 

American school … I also became enamored with her traditional practices as she prayed 

to the ilwas, made a Haitian-influenced Thanksgiving dinner, and told her cousins about 

life in Haiti.” These reviews show that even if the American Dream is not accessible 



The Digital Literature Review | 47

to everyone, immigrants in the United States can find success. Fabiola’s journey is not 

just one of hardship; she learns to be courageous and take steps toward the life she 

wants most. Her dedication to her family and her bicultural identity gives her a sense of 

purpose in her new life that the American Dream never offered her.

Before determining whether multiculturalism is an approachable method for 

integration, it is imperative to understand how human beings define themselves and what 

creates effective social groups. Social Identity Theory, originally established by Henri 

Tajfel and his colleague John Turner in the early 1970s, is a method used to define and 

categorize an individual. This theory utilizes social categorization and social identity to 

explain why and how social groups are created (Tajfel 254). Social categorization is when 

like-minded individuals with similar qualities or goals come together. These qualities and 

goals help the group identify and compare themselves to other groups. Tajfel explains 

that “Social identity will be understood as that part of an individual’s self-concept which 

derives from his knowledge of his membership of a social group (or groups)” (254-255). 

Social identity is how someone defines themselves in relation to others, thus creating 

communities of people. 

As established in the definition, individuals can be parts of several groups and 

determine for themselves what represents them. This can incorporate multiple cultures 

and beliefs should the individual choose to accept culturally diverse practices into their 

everyday lives. What determines whether a social group is successful is equally important 

to identify. In a later article published in 1985, Tajfel teamed up with John Turner to 

research the factors determining if a group fulfills its purpose and gets along with other 

groups. A social group naturally determines its success by comparing itself to alternate 

groups, also known as out-groups. If conditions are better in their group, members will 

have higher self-esteem and a sense of belonging. When conditions are worse in their 

group, members will have worse self-esteem and will likely leave the group or start 



48 | Carter

conflicts with an opposing group (Tajfel, Turner 16). The difference in social status 

between groups is what creates issues with out-groups, leading to disputes over social 

identity and how to properly categorize oneself.

Social identity theory applies to all ethnic groups because ethnicity is a 

categorization used for identification and relatability. Because identity is malleable and 

can be changed to conform to a new social standard, assimilationist and multiculturalist 

texts are often about how to shift from one identity to another, or how to bridge the 

gaps between the two cultures (Carpio 16–17). However, conflict often plagues migrant 

groups, preventing them from finding self-esteem and acceptance in their host country. 

Large immigrant groups with common traits and beliefs tend to be viewed as threats 

to a host country’s culture, preventing the two ethnic groups from forming peaceful 

relations (Schwartz 344). In many cases, immigrants who try to integrate into a host 

society have to accept new ethnic labels that place them into a stigmatized social 

group, such as when an Afro-Caribbean native is labeled as “Black” in American society 

(Deaux 276). Zoboi focuses on conflicts between different nationalities and ethnicities 

in her book, emphasizing the Haitian struggle to immigrate to America and assimilate 

into their society. In trying to compete with a powerful, opposing culture, the Haitian 

American community is plagued with low self-esteem and feels as though they have 

to fight to belong. Fabiola’s oldercousins and Aunt Jo represent this struggle, and they 

feel alienated as a result, unable to find support from locals or financial opportunities. 

Because they could not find a stable source of income, the family resorts to becoming 

loan sharks and drug dealers to survive. While a part of their social group and struggle, 

Fabiola also represents the combination of American and Haitian culture. Instead of 

feeling resentful toward anyone in particular, she attempts to create bridges to cross 

the gaps between their ethnic and national cultures. Creating these bridges and finding 

similarities in her social groups are what allow her to integrate into society as a bicultural 



The Digital Literature Review | 49

individual and allow her family to follow in her footsteps. 

One of the first ways Fabiola bridges the gap between her ethnic and national 

identities is through spiritual association: Drawing connections between the people in 

her life and the spiritual lwas that guide her. These lwas play a significant role in the 

Haitian religion known as Vodou. Laënnec Hurbon, a Haitian professor who studies Haitian 

religion and culture, explains Vodou as a social hierarchy of spirits (lwas) with God 

serving as the leader of all spirits. He states, “They represent a transformation of ethnic 

groups into families of divinities and constitute a genuine pantheon. God is recognized 

as the ‘great master’ who leaves to the lwa, the secondary divinities, the task of dealing 

with earthly matters” (6). To interact with the guardian spirits, there are manbo, or 

priestesses, and Vodou practitioners who conduct ceremonies to communicate with the 

lwas (7). Each family usually inherits one or two lwas who guide and represent them. In 

American Street, Papa Legba, also known as the leader of the lwas and the “master of 

crossroads,” is Fabiola’s lwa who helps show her what choices she has in front of her. 

(6–7). Once Fabiola realizes that Papa Legba is guiding her, she realizes that her life is 

surrounded by spiritual guardians who take the form of the people in her life, offering 

their advice. 

In Chapter 21, after interacting with several outside characters and spiritual guides, 

she finally puts everything together, connecting her two worlds through spiritualism. For 

instance, the book states: 

“If the old man at the corner called Bad Leg is Papa Legba in the flesh, if Dray with 

his eye patch and gold cross is Baron Samedi, if Donna with her makeup and pretty 

things is Ezili and, with her scars, Ezili-Danto, then Chantal and Pri can be my spirit 

guides, too, as Ogu, the warrior, and one-half of Les Marassa Jumeaux, the divine 

twins who stand for truth, balance, and justice. Maybe even Kasim represents a lwa 

if I look hard enough. They are all here to help” (Zoboi 214).



50 | Carter

By identifying recurring archetypes in her life, she feels better prepared to confront 

challenges and take action to appease the lwas. These associations also help fill in what 

is no longer present for Fabiola: Her mother. On the page before, Fabiola wonders to 

herself what her mother wouldsay to her if she were there. After discovering her cousins 

are the drug dealers responsible for killing a minor at a block party, Fabiola hides away 

in her mother’s nightgown, breathing in the scent of home. The confusion caused by 

the discovery brings her to a crossroads and a monumental decision. Should she turn in 

her cousins in exchange for her mother’s freedom or ally with criminals and become the 

manifestation of a falsified American Dream? When tasked with an impossible scenario, 

recontextualizing her life to that point through spiritual guidance is what allows her 

to preserve both. Her morally gray decision becomes black and white: sacrifice Dray, 

Donna’s abusive boyfriend, to the police. As the manifestation of death itself and having 

a hand in local drug dealing, Dray becomes the key Fabiola needs to liberate her home, 

her cousin Donna, and her mother from entrapment. Though the results of her decision 

would later become a devastating trade-off, Fabiola’s spiritual upbringing allows her to 

find resolution in her new circumstances and determine where her loyalties lie: With her 

family. 

The second instance where she blends her ethnic and national identities to find 

solace in her new home is in Chapter 23 when she helps her family prepare a Haitian 

American-style Thanksgiving dinner. In this section, Fabiola sees her aunt “holding her 

head as if about to pass out” (229). Having suffered from a stroke in the past, Fabiola’s 

aunt is unable to maintain the level of power and control she had in the past, making her 

feel incapable of holding together the family, even for holiday events like Thanksgiving. 

Fabiola, recognizing this pain, takes it upon herself to bring the family together, despite 

her unfamiliarity with the holiday and the foods commonly prepared. Rather than letting 

the task daunt her, her passion spurs her forward. The kitchen connects Fabiola with 



The Digital Literature Review | 51

her mother and the ingredients bring her comfort. She says, “I’m at peace here in this 

kitchen—seasoning, chopping, and stirring pots. I pour every prayer and blessing into the 

dishes” (230). By comparing cuisine to religion, she is also incorporating her protective 

Vodou practices, meant to fend off misfortune and create harmony in the household. The 

tension caused by the drug deals and Dray in the past chapters fade into the background 

as Fabiola blesses her household in a moment that is “like a hug from God.” Once the 

meal is prepared and the family is together, they each take turns commenting on how 

Fabiola’s presence helped heal the sense of helpless separation their family created. The 

unified moment is thanks to the warmth she feels for her family, and the Thanksgiving 

meal helps her to express her dedication. In her “thunderstorm” of emotions, Fabiola 

finds strength in the familiar and the new as her cousins and aunt embrace her (231). 

The scene concludes with the cousins realizing that Fabiola stewed the turkey, a common 

tradition in Haitian cuisine, rather than cooking it whole. They accept the shift in 

tradition and Fabiola as a new, experimental individual who brings warm memories. Her 

American family comes together to comfort her and support her for who she is, accepting 

her traditions even when they deviate from what they are used to. Her country’s food 

brings them all together and helps contextualize Fabiola’s unique talents and blessings.

Haitian food, like what was served during the Thanksgiving dinner, has a vibrant 

history of cultural identities forging together into a melting pot of internal and external 

cultural influences. For instance, according to an article about the history of Haitian 

cuisine, the indigenous tribe known as the Taino set the spicy foundation for Haiti’s food 

culture, inventing barbecue and open-air cooking practices. Once the European settlers 

colonized Haiti and introduced African slave workers, they introduced their unique 

cuisine, introducing ingredients like coffee, sugar, cacao, okra, and gumbo (Louis-Jean 1). 

With Spanish and Arab migration to Haiti, more cooking styles permeated in the Haitian 

culinary world. Fabiola’s history and bloodlines, derived from countless global sources, 



52 | Carter

prove that she has experienced identity multiplicity and integration since she was born, 

having incorporating European, African, American, and indigenous influences. 

The final chapter of the book brings Fabiola’s family together one final time to 

mourn the loss of their collective American Dream. Fabiola, taking up her mother’s role 

as a mambo, a priestess, conducts restorative ceremonies to help her family move on 

from their losses and misfortune:  

“We are all in white. Even Pri has shed her dark clothes and now wears a white 

turtleneck and pants. I had wrapped my cousins and aunt in white sheets after 

making a healing bath of herbs and Florida water for each one, and let them curl 

into themselves and cry and cry. This is what Manman had done for our neighbors 

who survived the big earthquake. The bath is like a baptism, and if black is the color 

of mourning, then white is the color of rebirth and new beginnings. Our brown skins 

glow against our sweaters, pants, and head scarves. We are made new again” (Zoboi 

321). 

The ritual helps Fabiola and her family remember that not all is lost and that they still 

have their lives before them. Even after losing their home to crime and violence and 

watching their companions perish because of impossible choices, they still have each 

other and are allowed to heal each other. Pri’s decision to cast away her masculine 

persona demonstrates her desire to be present, ready to be vulnerable with her family 

as a way to offer support. However, she still wears pants rather than a skirt or dress, 

recognizing who she is and staying true to herself. Fabiola’s recollection of her mother 

after the 2015 earthquake that devastated her previous home in Port-au-Prince shows 

that she has witnessed first-hand what it is like to see an entire existence crumble before 

her into something that can never be restored. Rather than giving into despair, she leans 

into her upbringing and her mother’s comforting role to bring hope. In this baptism 

scene, the whole family recognizes that what they desire in their lives is not a new 



The Digital Literature Review | 53

nationality or the American Dream; rather, they seek solace in each other and peace from 

the world that offers them nothing but hardship. Despite the chaos surrounding them, 

Fabiola knows how to pave the way for a new future: Open-minded understanding and a 

strong community. Because of her continuing connection to her past life, Fabiola can find 

resolution not only for herself but her entire family as they each choose to move forward 

to the future. 

Vodou, as a healing and connecting religion for Haitian individuals, offers comfort 

and connections to Haitian migrants in their new homes. By cultivating a community 

and practicing their religious beliefs, they embrace their ethnic identities alongside 

their national identities, similar to how Fabiola embraces Vodou and invites her family 

to participate in her rituals to purify them. This can be seen in a 2009 scientific study 

of Haitian communities coming together to practice Vodou in Montreal and inviting 

locals to join them. In Hadrien Munier’s article about this study, they state, “As the 

migrant defines himself or herself within this socio-cultural construction of belonging, 

two dimensions are important to this process. The first establishes Haiti as a reference 

point for identity that is constructed and shared in the diasporic community. Secondly, 

adherents develop a ‘dividual’ self through the practice of Vodou” (27). What they mean 

is that Haitian migrants use Vodou as a way to comfortably and successfully integrate 

into their host culture, allowing themselves to become part of a like-minded social group 

and retaining their ethnic background in a safe environment. Their practice educates the 

local inhabitants, encouraging cultural exchange and open-mindedness. For instance, 

one participant named Carline grew up in Montreal and was experiencing financial 

troubles. Her family encouraged her to consult a Vodou practitioner. After taking their 

advice, she overcame her troubles and found a community of caring individuals, leading 

her to become a convert (Munier 30-34). Vodou is a therapeutic practice for adherents, 

offering stability in an unfamiliar situation and leading to the reinvention of the self. The 



54 | Carter

baptism scene in American Street is an example of this reinvention, and it solidifies the 

family’s collective desire for a better life—not an American or Haitian one, but something 

in between. In becoming individuals, a unified family with shared ethnic backgrounds 

and shared goals, Fabiola finds the community she needs to feel accepted as a Haitian 

American.

American Street’s significance comes from its ability to confront racial conflicts 

migrant groups face in America and how material gain never trumps family and culture. 

The ending reflects this idea and leaves only one thing certain for the readers: Fabiola 

has her family, and they are going to continue the fight to belong. In a critical essay 

about American Street by Betsy Nies, she states, “The family drives down Joy Road, 

symbolizing a decision to abandon the American dream … Zoboi leaves unanswered how 

the family will survive …, she does indicate the importance of moving away from material 

gain as a value and toward spiritual and familial connections” (153). The American 

Dream—the concept that everyone has the freedom to pursue wealth and achieve 

their wildest dreams—proves to only be a dream for Fabiola and her family. Instead 

of ending with a struggle for wealth or turning against American ideals after Dray and 

Kasim’s deaths, Zoboi chooses to leave the ending open to interpretation. Ultimately, 

the audience needs to decide if their struggles throughout the novel were worth the 

outcome. What matters most in the end is Fabiola’s conviction to stand up for herself and 

her culture, showing the world what it means to be a proud Haitian American. Fabiola, 

“fortified by Vodou, love, and visions of community …, helps readers think of worlds 

in which her trials and tribulations … cease to exist” (Jean-Charles 47). Fabiola alone 

cannot improve American society and create acceptance; the people around her are 

the ones who decide if she has a place. Zoboi’s voice for girls like Fabiola is meant to 

push her audience to consider a world where migrant groups are not seen as invaders or 

threats—they are people.



The Digital Literature Review | 55

Ibi Zoboi and their first breakout novel American Street show that no one has 

to give up their history or their home to acculturate to a new place; their past lives 

and experiences are what give them strength. Fabiola’s journey to the United States 

teaches her that the skills she adopted from her mother in Haiti make her powerful 

and resourceful. She creates an entire Thanksgiving feast, asks the lwas for guidance 

to save her sisters from deadly drug dealers, and uses her knowledge of sacred rituals 

to guide them in mourning and restoration. By relying on her Haitian background as she 

developed as an American citizen, Fabiola found friends and a family to look out for, even 

rescuing her mother from detainment in prison. Home is not something that needs to be 

abandoned; rather, it should be incorporated into every new home, offering strength, 

esteem, and familiarity to those who face a vast new world.



56 | Carter

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