





































 

 51 

 
 
 
 
 
https://www.designforsocialchange.org/journal/index.php/DISCERN-J 
 
ISSN 2184-6995 
 
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 
International License. 

 

  

 

 
 
3D woven denim as an exemplary design manufacturing technique  
to shape sustainable fashion ecosystems 
 
Sterre de Jager, Holly McQuillan, Ingrid Mulder 
 
Published online: November 2024 

 
To cite this article: 
De Jager, S., McQuillan, H., & Mulder, I. (2024). 3D woven denim as an exemplary design 
manufacturing technique to shape sustainable fashion ecosystems. Discern: International Journal  
of Design for Social Change, Sustainable Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 5(2), 51-68. 

 

 
 

  



 

 52 

3D woven denim as an exemplary design manufacturing technique  
to shape sustainable fashion ecosystems 

 
Sterre de Jagera, Holly McQuillana, Ingrid Muldera 

 
aDelft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands. s.l.dejager@tudelft.nl;  

h.l.mcquillan@tudelft.nl; i.j.mulder@tudelft.nl 
 

Abstract 

Today’s fashion industry is marked by rapid production, early disposal and low-quality materials, 

resulting in environmental harm and social injustice. Denim production involves a resource-intensive 

and extended supply chain with entrenched design practices, leading to substantial pre-consumer 

waste. To address these issues, emerging design manufacturing techniques hold promise for 

fostering alternative sustainable fashion ecosystems yet remain largely underexplored by the 

industry. The current work focuses on 3D weaving, an innovative niche design manufacturing 

technique that enables the production of near-complete garments, facilitating zero waste and 

reducing labour-intensive steps at the cut-and-sew stage. Employing a qualitative approach 

informed by the literature and empirical research with denim industry professionals, this study 

investigates the potential of this novel design manufacturing technique in the context of systemic 

change beyond merely introducing technological advancement as an intervention in the existing 

industry. The analysis reveals four fundamental components: industry-led change, relocalisation, 

reimagining denim design roles and consumer communication. These key components, synthesised 

with the literature, are discussed respectively. We illustrate how the niche design manufacturing 

technique can shape novel fashion ecosystems by providing an exemplary concept which concerns 

the collaborative establishment of a small-scale local supply chain for 3D woven denim garments. 

Through this example, we aim to ignite discussions on a further reimagining of the fashion industry, 

utilising similar alternative lenses that prioritise sustainability over ultra-speed, high efficiency and 

mass production in alignment with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 9 (Industry, 

Innovation and Infrastructure), 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and 17  

(Partnerships for the Goals). 

 

Keywords: Local production, Sustainable fashion innovation, Systemic change,  

Zero waste, 3D weaving 

 

Introduction 

With brands driving mass-produced, trend-driven and seasonal fashion, a constant fast fashion cycle 

is perpetuated, in which clothing is rapidly produced and disposed of (Niinimäki et al., 2020). In 

denim, fashion brands have sought to reduce market risks and enhance profitability by shifting their 

apparel manufacturing to lower-income countries (McCormick et al., 2014). This strategic move 

allows them to optimise costs while disguising the resource-intensive, complex and geographically 

dispersed supply chain involved in denim production and the accompanying significant social and 

environmental implications (Bick et al., 2018). Moreover, consumer attitudes have shifted, 

prioritising price over clothing heritage, so that impulsive and fast purchases of low-priced, 

disposable fashion dominate the landscape (Allwood et al., 2006; Niinimäki et al., 2020). 

 



 

 53 

Over the past decades, it has become evident that the linear economic model in the fashion 

industry, characterised by high resource consumption, significant pre- and post-consumer waste  

and social injustice, is unsustainable (Niinimäki et al., 2020). To address the issues embedded in the 

‘make-take-waste’ system, the concept of a circular economy, which aims to close energy and 

material loops, thereby eliminating waste and pollution, has gained significant attention. However, 

the fundamental design of denim products raises a crucial question, as its aesthetic expression has 

remained unchanged over the past 150 years. Conventional patternmaking for garments generates 

significant pre-consumer waste, with estimates suggesting that 10%–15% of the fabric is discarded 

during this design process (Enes & Kipöz, 2019). The cut-and-sew stage accounts for 15.6% of a 

garment’s overall environmental impact throughout its lifecycle (Wennberg & Östlund, 2019), and 

this pre-consumer waste is often immediately sent for incineration or to landfill (Enes & Kipöz, 2019; 

Niinimäki et al., 2020). The persistence of such practices can be viewed as a design flaw, where the 

significance of introducing changes from the design stage is reinforced due to approximately 80% of 

a garment’s environmental footprint being solely determined during this stage (Östlund et al., 2020). 

Exposing this design flaw becomes even more critical with the growing enforcement of the EU 

Extended Producer Responsibility policy, such as the 2023 Dutch enactment, which emphasises 

transparency, waste management, eco-design and product redesign (Ministerie van Infrastructuur 

en Waterstaat, 2023). The current work addresses the subsequent need to reassess the design and 

manufacturing processes associated with this long-standing and current fashion staple. 

 

Alternative approaches are increasingly being explored to mitigate pre-consumer waste in garment 

design and production. The innovative niche design manufacturing technique of 3D weaving has 

disruptive potential and remains somewhat underexplored. 3D weaving can generate complex 

textile-based forms while weaving by utilising contemporary jacquard machinery (i.e. looms) to 

produce multi-layered, locally varied textile structures. By incorporating woven ‘seams’ into the 

structure, cutting open specific layers can generate larger fabric pieces that would typically require 

the joining or sewing of separate panels. As a result, the garment’s form and function is integrated 

into its textile design, reducing the need for machining, minimising material wastage and 

streamlining the lay-up process (McQuillan, 2020). Figure 1 presents a simplified overview of the 

fabrication process and its potentially disruptive qualities to demonstrate how the 3D weaving 

approach facilitates a more sustainable manufacturing process. The technique generates a unique 

aesthetic through a radically different approach to pattern creation and output, challenging the 

enduringly uniform appearance of denim over the past decades. Considering alternative 

perspectives allows for questioning not only the conventional methods of textile design and 

manufacturing but also how they might enable entirely new ecosystems. This opens an opportunity 

to fundamentally reimagine the fashion industry, diverging from the paradigm of large-scale and 

hyper-efficient global production. 

 



 

 54 

 
Figure 1: Simplified overview of the 3D weaving process and its potentially disruptive qualities. 

 

Therefore, the current research aims to understand how a novel design manufacturing technique 

can shape more sustainable models for fashion through a systemic lens rather than relying solely  

on technological interventions within the existing fashion ecosystem, with the overall aim of 

fostering a debate on envisioning alternative pathways to industry transformation. 

 

Related work 

The next section introduces related work on 3D weaving and on systemic approaches toward  

fashion transitions, as well as on-demand production and relocalisation of supply chains.  

The section concludes by identifying a knowledge gap. 

 

3D weaving 

Notably, researchers and professionals in textiles and fashion are increasingly intrigued by the 

possibilities of 3D weaving, as exemplified by the work of McQuillan (2020), who has conducted 

experiments in creating zero-waste garments using weaving techniques, such as a T-shirt and 

trousers. Similarly, Vroom’s (2022; as cited in McQuillan et al., 2023) 3D woven denim jackets 

demonstrated promise for more sustainable denim design (see Figure 2). However, limitations 

within currently available looms prevented them from achieving complete zero-waste goals at this 

early research stage. Furthermore, Weffan’s (Slater, 2023) endeavour to establish a consultancy for 

3D woven garments and Unspun’s development of a specialised loom for automating 3D weaving, 

alongside their recently secured funding of $32 million to support expansion (Ewen, 2024), show  

a commitment to advancing this innovative technique. It is crucial to note that the current 

exploration of 3D weaving remains primarily within the realm of research, concentrating on 

material-driven design and production process enhancements. This emphasis overlooks  

its potential for broader transformation within the fashion industry. 



 

 55 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2: A 3D woven denim jacket designed by Vroom (2022). 

 

Related work in systemic approaches toward fashion transitions 

Numerous initiatives have addressed the present challenges within the fashion industry and 

achieved transformative goals through a comprehensive, systemic perspective. One prominent 

example is Mistra Future Fashion, an European Union (EU)-funded project congruent with the EU’s 

ambitious objective of establishing a fully circular fashion system by 2050 (European Commission, 

2022; Wennberg & Östlund, 2019). Mistra Future Fashion investigates the promotion of sustainable 

consumer behaviour, policy change and enhancement of recycling processes for post-consumer 

textiles, thereby facilitating the transition from a linear to a circular and sustainable industry 

(Wennberg & Östlund, 2019). However, absent from this comprehensive approach is the 

incorporation of innovative and distinct techniques that hold the potential to play a pivotal  

role in steering the fashion industry towards alternative, reimagined holistic design  

manufacturing systems. 

 

Recently, the Ellen MacArthur Foundation published The Jeans Redesign, a resource offering 

guideline for redesigning jeans that conform to circular economy principles. This report outlines 

specific design requirements for achieving goals related to durability, material selection, labour, 

ecosystem well-being and user empowerment through repair knowledge, as well as services, 

recyclability and traceability (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2023). However, a significant aspect of 

the textile industry’s journey towards circular economy goals remains unaddressed: the generation 

of pre-consumer waste during the cut-and-sew process. Consequently, the systemic approach 

employed in the report can be deemed not yet ‘fully complete’. 

 

On-demand production and relocalisation 

Given the lack of transparency and unethical practices in today’s outsourced fashion supply chains, 

relocalisation is imperative. As Amed et al. (2019; 2022) emphasise, brands must reevaluate their 

growth strategies to suit specific geographic contexts better. Additionally, the problem of 



 

 56 

overproduction - a staggering 30%-40% of all apparel (Magnusdottir, 2020) - stemming from  

brands creating consumer demand necessitates a shift towards on-demand production. On-demand 

production is well-suited for micro-manufacturing environments, where responsive, local demand-

driven manufacturing is practical. This manner of production aligns with previous initiatives in 

reshoring textile production in the UK (Postlethwaite et al., 2022), emphasising the importance  

of establishing innovative, localised centres through reshoring efforts. 

 

Due to its streamlined supply chain and integrated design manufacturing process, 3D weaving  

is well suited for micro-manufacturing and on-demand contexts. Exploring upskilling is essential for 

navigating the challenges of a forward-thinking industry (Postlethwaite et al., 2022). Establishing 

newly situated design-to-consumer models could serve as a foundation for further exploration of 

methods like 3D weaving, focusing on automation, efficient 3D prototyping, on-demand production 

and precise sizing requirements.  

 

The examined related work suggests a gap. Effectively transforming the fashion industry demands  

a departure from current production practices and requires the redesign of multiple interconnected 

system facets (Murphy, 2022), redistribution of power dynamics, covering of actual costs and 

redefining perceptions of what is considered ‘fashionable’. The related work shows elements of 

importance in moving towards a more sustainable fashion system, either through addressing circular 

economy approaches focused on closing loops in later stages or through systemic design approaches 

in general aspects of the textile system. However, explicitly investigating how these different 

approaches tie in together and how interconnected system elements can be leveraged to exhibit the 

potential of niche innovative methods like 3D weaving towards reaching a window of opportunity 

(Geels, 2002) has not yet been illustrated. The necessary considerations and steps remain unclear, 

especially within the context of the ubiquitous yet rigid and deeply entrenched denim industry, 

presenting a significant gap to explore.  

 

Given the unsustainable nature of the present fashion industry and the growing demands for 

transparency, on-demand production and circular economy practices, the current work explores 

alternative models that respond to these needs rather than current fast fashion principles. As 3D 

weaving emerges as a promising example for displaying how emergent techniques can stimulate 

more sustainable fashion models, critical components to unlock its potential will be clarified  

within the context of systemic change. 

 

Methodology 

The current study employs a qualitative approach that combines the literature and empirical 

research with various experts in the denim industry, incorporating both semi-structured and 

unstructured interviews, as well as co-creative sessions. The research addresses the question:  

What critical components are essential to unlock the potential of 3D weaving for alternative  

fashion design-to-consumer models in the denim industry? 

 

The literature review informed the setup of semi-structured interviews with denim industry 

professionals. We maximised opportunities for unstructured interviews in casual settings, allowing 

for spontaneous interactions, by bringing a sample 3D woven structure by Vroom (2022) to present 



 

 57 

the technique (see Figure 3), while benefiting from the principal researcher’s familiarity with  

the semi-structured questions. 

 

 
Figure 3: Sample of a 3D woven denim structure. 

 

Based on the findings, we conducted an expert session with the research team to distil the key 

components necessary for fostering new fashion ecosystems. To mitigate the influence of the 

principal researchers’ subjective interpretation, the findings were cross-referenced with the existing 

literature and scrutinised by the research team. Following Guest and McLellan (2003), a thematic 

analysis was performed, applying inductive codes to the qualitative data and clustering them to 

identify themes and patterns. 

 

The analysis revealed critical considerations for implementing novel sustainable fashion models and 

informed how 3D weaving can be systematically leveraged for its potentially disruptive capabilities, 

providing insights for the industry. Additionally, co-creative sessions were held with industry 

professionals during a field visit. The previous considerations and the results of co-creative sessions, 

which were analysed in keeping with Sanders and Stappers (2012), were translated into a design. 

The design illustrates how emerging techniques can stimulate more sustainable fashion models from 

fashion design to consumer, particularly in the form of a local 3D weaving ecosystem. The 

Netherlands, where the research was initiated, serves as a relevant exemplary context due to its 

specialised knowledge in 3D weaving and established partnerships within the local textile industry. 

The House of Denim, a Dutch foundation interviewed in the study, could serve as another leverage 

point, as it already supports innovation through collaborations with researchers, brands and mills  

in the Dutch denim community. 

 

We used the collected data according to Table 1, which demonstrates an overview of the research 

activities of the broader study in chronological order. However, the research relating to a user study, 

autoethnographic research and an additional interview was used solely to validate the proposed 

local 3D weaving ecosystem. These activities are part of a larger study on fostering sustainable 

fashion models and will be discussed in future publications. 

  



 

 58 

Table 1: Overview of qualitative research methods. 

 

Towards sustainable fashion ecosystems 

Figure 4 displays the four key components – industry-led change, relocalisation, reimagining denim 

design roles and effective consumer communication – found essential for unlocking the potential  

Data collection 
method 

Research source Duration Data analysis 

1.  Literature 
review 

A broad range of empirical and theoretical 
articles selected. 

- 

Integrative review 
(Kutcher & 
LeBaron, 2022), 
deductive analysis 
for interview 
themes. 

2.  Semi-structured 
interviews 

Industry experts at Kingpins Show: denim 
designers and brands, mills, sustainable 
material experts, traceability and 
certification experts, House of Denim and 
3D weaving experts (n = 15). 

20–90 minutes 
Interpretivist, 
inductive coding, 
thematic analysis. 

3.  Unstructured 
interviews 

Denim designers, representatives from 
Tonello and members from the 
educational field associated with two UK 
universities present at the Blackhorse Lane 
Ateliers (a UK-based denim mill) during an 
event (n = 18). 
 
Denim design and history professional  
(n = 1). 

 
10–30 minutes 
over 4 hours 
 
 
Approximately 
8 hours 

Interpretivist, 
inductive coding, 
thematic analysis. 

4.  Co-creative 
sessions and 
semi-structured 
interviews 

Industry experts during a field visit to 
Diamond Denim by Sapphire, a vertical 
denim mill based in Lahore, Pakistan 
(n = 8). 

60–120 
minutes 

Interpretivist, 
inductive coding 
and thematic 
analysis according 
to “Analysis 
(clustering) on the 
wall” (Sanders & 
Stappers, 2012). 

5. Semi-structured 
interviews 

Users of 3D woven denim jacket (n = 20). 45–60 minutes 
Interpretivist, 
inductive coding, 
thematic analysis 

6. . In-depth auto-
ethnographic 
research 

Users of 3D woven denim jacket (n = 10). 4 weeks 

Deductive analysis, 
autoethnographic 
research diary; 
interpretivist, 
inductive coding, 
thematic analysis. 

7.  Semi-structured 
interview 

Expert in supply chain traceability (n = 1). 60 minutes 
Interpretivist, 
inductive coding, 
thematic analysis. 



 

 59 

of 3D weaving through implementing alternative fashion models in the denim industry, with some 

components addressing multiple topics. 

 

 
 

Figure 4: Four critical components unlocked the potential of the 3D weaving technique towards 

systemic change. 

 

The industry-led change component emphasises the necessity for proactive and coordinated efforts 

within the denim industry to drive sustainable transformation, fostering collaboration and 

incentivising brands to initiate change rather than solely relying on shifting consumer behaviour. 

Relocalisation involves shifting production and sourcing practices to local or regional contexts, 

aiming to reduce mass production cycles, lower the transport footprint, enhance transparency, 

ensure supplier autonomy, employ micro-manufacturing contexts and support self-sustaining  

local economies. Reimagining denim design roles highlights the importance of redefining the 

responsibilities of denim designers within the context of manufacturing, embracing a holistic, 

creative and multidisciplinary approach that integrates sustainability considerations into the design 

process. Effective communication with consumers is crucial for successfully utilising 3D weaving 

practices in the denim industry in alternative fashion models of implementation in a transparent and 

informative manner to raise awareness, educate consumers about sustainable choices and enable 

higher trust in the sustainable information conveyed. We elaborate on each critical component and 

its sub-elements in the next section. 



 

 60 

 

Industry-led change (1): The need for industry-led, collaborative measures 

Through the literature research and the interviews conducted in this study, it was found that overall, 

consumers need to recognise fashion as a practical and meaningful necessity rather than objects  

of short-lived pleasure (Allwood et al., 2006; Niinimäki et al., 2020). However, relying solely on 

changing consumer behaviour through sustainability narratives to disrupt the fast fashion ecosystem 

was found to be insufficient. An example is the prevalence of unverified sustainability claims by 

many brands, which has resulted in greenwashing practices and, subsequently, consumer scepticism 

(Marrucci et al., 2021). The findings of the expert interviews match this connotation. 

 

Another finding from the expert interviews is that most consumers are currently not inclined to pay 

a higher price for sustainable garments, as stated by the denim mill Diamond Denim by Sapphire, the 

denim designers from Endrime and Wrangler and the Blackhorse Lane Ateliers owners. The study 

reaffirmed that consumers cannot be easily categorised, and even those with a higher perception of 

sustainable awareness can find themselves making consumption choices based on price rather than 

sustainability considerations, pointing to a value–action gap (McDonald et al., 2012). Similarly, 

Niinimäki (2010) suggests that the abundance of cheap clothing deters consumers from buying 

pricier options, while misaligned expectations around eco-fashion between brands, designers and 

consumers may also contribute to this gap. 

 

The interviews with industry experts revealed that consumers are not solely responsible for driving 

demand in the fashion industry. Fashion brands play a pivotal role by constantly fuelling the market 

for new cycles and seasonal trends, resulting in mass-produced and overstocked items, with 

marketing techniques employed to stimulate the psychological needs of the consumer. Moreover, 

mills were found to be highly responsive to and dependent on the demands of fashion brands, 

yielding to their influence in every decision they make. This dynamic persists even when mills 

actively strive to invest in sustainable technology and practices on their own accord. Despite  

their efforts, the ultimate authority lies with brands, exerting significant control over supply  

chain choices and operations. 

 

While brands retain significant control over supply chains, the current study revealed that a small 

and tightly knit community of modern denim mills and designers associated with established denim 

brands actively collaborate and are willing to invest in sustainable practices. This level of 

collaboration within a small community is unique in the textile industry and present behind the most 

globally spread fashion staple. By leveraging this collaborative mindset and the shared commitment 

to sustainability among this group of modern denim mills and designers, innovative approaches and 

alternative models for denim can be explored. 

 

Relocalisation (2a): De-growth 

Globalisation often leads to a decrease in centralised manufacturing clusters as labour-intensive 

processes are outsourced to various subcontracting chains in countries with lower associated costs, 

resulting in a dispersion of economic activities. The resulting problems, such as overproduction, 

transparency, unregulated work environments, cultural appropriation and a high distribution 

footprint in garments, show the need for localising supply chains. While some advocate the concept 

of “de-growth” as a beneficial solution for the environment, it may not provide practical strategies 



 

 61 

for redefining the fashion industry. The interviews with industry professionals showed that the 

notion of de-growth fails to motivate proactive measures towards change. This is due to the 

perceived absence of clear benefits, with many believing it would ultimately result in diminished 

business opportunities. It was also clear that any incentive implemented is recommended not to 

undermine the powerful hedonistic and psychological enjoyment derived from fashion at the 

consumer end (Environmental Audit Committee, 2019). Hence, a more favourable approach would 

involve considering the relocalisation of structures across the globe, forming new self-sustaining 

economic ecosystems. This argument suggests that future leading fashion brands could proactively 

optimise the value chain by focusing on two key aspects: nearshoring and automation.  

 

Relocalisation (2b): Micro-manufacturing, on-demand production and autonomy through locality  

The interviews conducted with the denim mills and a 3D weaving expert also revealed that apart 

from facilitating the exploration of innovative production methods, 3D weaving has the potential  

to support process automation in micro-manufacturing contexts. By consolidating multiple steps in 

traditional supply chains, such as weaving, cutting and sewing, into a single process (i.e. a highly 

reduced number of steps), 3D weaving could serve as an example of localised innovation hubs that 

integrate design and manufacturing. This aligns with McQuillan’s (2020) approach to zero-waste 

system design in a similar context. Moreover, local material opportunities could be explored. By 

bringing users, makers and the production process closer while integrating their values, a stronger 

symbolic bond could be formed between garments and consumers, potentially leading to a desirable 

shift in consumer behaviour, such as extended garment use (McQuillan et al., 2018). Accordingly, 

exploring how 3D weaving could enable on-demand approaches in local contexts and establishing  

a system for user participation could be valuable. It is important to note that 3D weaving alone may 

not provide a comprehensive solution for system change, relocalisation and user involvement, but 

it could serve as an initial case example, potentially initiating a catalysing effect in the  

broader industry. 

 

The Blackhorse Lane Ateliers, operating as a smaller-scale, locally based denim mill in London, has 

demonstrated that more significant control over the supply chain can be achieved within this 

locality. Notably, their recent adoption of Tonello’s ozone and laser machines and their autonomy  

in fabric selection highlight independence from their client brands’ influence.  

 

Relocalisation (2c): Ethics 

While reshoring outsourced manufacturing may seem promising, it carries ethical risks. Bringing 

production back without careful planning could harm overseas businesses and workers, endangering 

their livelihoods. Although retraining programmes are suggested, it remains unclear who will hold 

responsibility, what they would include or which markets workers could be retrained for. 

Additionally, “rebuilding” can be misleading, as many former industrial districts no longer exist, 

requiring new supply chains to be created from scratch. Instead of abruptly withdrawing from 

existing arrangements, a collaborative approach involving knowledge transfer and partnerships  

with overseas mills could be pursued. Cultivating immaterial resources such as knowledge, design, 

information and logistics could stimulate and prevent the decline of traditional manufacturing 

industries in industrial districts and help form new economic, decentralised models.   

  



 

 62 

Reimagining denim design roles (3a): 3D CAD modelling and reconnecting design and manufacturing 

In recent times, denim designers have become increasingly aware of the rising prominence of 

emerging 3D software, which offers notable cost-effectiveness and creative freedom. They 

acknowledge that this development will likely change their work methodologies significantly. 

Anticipated shifts in priorities and company initiatives are already on the horizon. The use of 3D 

prototypes will redefine the sampling process. Furthermore, brands are expected to redirect their 

attention towards core products and embrace the concept of capsule collections, emphasising on-

demand, true-to-size production.  

 

Incorporating 3D weaving as part of currently evolving design roles can be seen as an opportunity 

within the denim industry, as it coincides with emerging perspectives. However, denim designers 

have highlighted the challenges of adapting to new tools, innovative manufacturing methods  

and 3D prototyping, especially when there is a significant disconnect from the production process. 

Traditionally, denim design has been relatively detached from manufacturing, suggesting a need for 

future integration. A report addressing the reshoring of supply chains to the UK, co-authored by one 

of the interview participants, calls for the establishment of open-access labs, Living Labs and 

networked collaborative manufacturing models (Postlethwaite et al., 2022). These initiatives could 

provide the necessary upskilling opportunities to meet the challenges of a forward-looking industry. 

Establishing such models could provide a platform for further exploring methods like 3D weaving in 

the context of automation, efficient 3D prototyping, on-demand production and accurate  

sizing requirements.  

 

Reimagining denim design roles (3b): Education reorganisation 

There is increasing recognition that educational restructuring is necessary to keep pace with  

the evolving role of denim design. In the UK, universities and prominent denim designers have 

acknowledged this need and are actively promoting the challenge of redesigning education by 

introducing integrated master’s programmes tailored to this purpose. The significance of 

educational restructuring is evident in other instances, such as fashion designers pursuing double 

major programmes to cultivate cross-disciplinary skills and drive innovation (Faerm, 2018). The 

University of Leeds has provided another notable example of educational involvement in fashion 

design through the establishment of a collaborative research centre dedicated to 3D weaving, 

supported by the European Regional Development Fund (University of Leeds, 2023). Weffan,  

a 3D weaving expert interviewed in this study, has previously partnered with this centre. In the 

Netherlands, the team of innovative fashion design researchers is growing in the context of 

industrial design engineering. For the Dutch denim and fashion market, this notion could be an 

opportunity for similarly partnering industry and education with the innovation centre of Leeds.  

 

The success of a denim designer extends beyond technical skills. It is crucial for students and 

established designers to join transdisciplinary programmes that offer a strategic balance between 

building new skills, integrative design manufacturing methods and unique storytelling. This 

equilibrium between the ‘what’ and the ‘how’ enables future denim designers to effectively 

translate societal trends and emotional values into fashion design trends in alignment with the 

evolving nature of the industry (Faerm, 2018).  

  



 

 63 

Consumer communication (4a): Communication strategies 

Reliable communication is crucial to support consumer understanding and the acceptance of new 

sustainable products and models. In this study, the literature findings and interviews with industry 

experts further reestablished this topic of importance. There is limited knowledge regarding the 

precise reporting and communication of sustainability efforts within fashion brands (Watanatada  

& Mak, 2011; Yan et al., 2010). This scarcity of knowledge is compounded by the lack of a 

standardised definition of sustainability at the EU level (Marrucci et al., 2021). Furthermore, Chan 

and Wong (2012) suggest that fashion consumers are often unfamiliar with the availability of 

sustainable fashion, indicating the need for relevant information to be easily accessible. Without 

sustainability knowledge, many people still rely on environmental messages by fashion brands 

regarding this topic at the time of purchase (Teona et al., 2019). Consequently, with the upcoming 

EU-wide Green Claim Directive (European Parliament, 2023) prohibiting misleading environmental 

claims, attention could shift to developing effective communication strategies. 

  

Consumer communication (4b): ‘Just Zero Waste’ is insufficient 

Sustainability information about 3D woven garments needs to encompass material choices, origin, 

chemical usage and labour practices to build consumer trust. As many industry and user participants 

reported, consumer scepticism may stem from awareness of greenwashing. Trust erodes when  

a brand’s sustainability claims conflict with its actual practices, leading to perceptions that 

sustainability efforts are merely reactive to consumer demand (Ellen et al., 2006). Regarding  

3D woven denim, collaborating with value-driven brand partners and ensuring full transparency 

across the supply chain is crucial. 

 

Consumer communication (4c): Economic factors 

Consumers can be willing to pay more for well-supported sustainable garments but may still resist 

excessively unreasonable prices, as noted in the literature and in the industry discussions with 

Diamond Denim by Sapphire and Blackhorse Lane Ateliers (Chan & Wong, 2012). Beyond 

affordability, sustainable products can gain value through design and quality (Camacho-Otero et al., 

2019). A favourable combination of low price and appealing design might lead to a preference for 

garments that reflect sustainable fashion attributes but are in fact not sustainable. However, the 

latter indicates a strength of 3D woven garments, forming a distinct product category due to their 

unique visual appearance compared to traditional denim, making them not easily replaceable.  

 

Some consumers seek to construct an ethical identity, fulfilling psychological needs and a desire for 

self-expression. Consumers perceive an advantage in a socially responsible lifestyle when purchasing 

branded products they associate with sustainable activities (Niinimäki, 2010). This suggests that the 

unique visual appeal of a 3D woven garment could be effectively combined with a compelling and 

transparent sustainability narrative. However, this sustainable narrative needs to address all life 

cycle stages – from design decisions to garment disposal. Making consumers part of the decision-

making process by bringing them closer to the origin of their garments through local production and 

adapting marketing content to be informative and educational in terms of sustainability could help 

build stronger relationships between stakeholders and begin to encourage responsible  

consumption habits. 

 



 

 64 

These findings represent important considerations for the industry as a whole and demonstrate  

how techniques can contribute to systemic change. 

 

Exemplifying an alternative fashion ecosystem through 3D weaving denim 

To showcase the transformative potential of innovative design manufacturing techniques, the 

findings have been translated into the design of an alternative, local fashion ecosystem for 3D 

woven denim situated in the Netherlands. Central to this design is the idea of new forms of 

collaboration, where relevant ecosystem actors find and support one another. Figure 5 presents  

a simplified overview of these actors, where 3D weaving serves as the focal point of the local 

research lab. The stakeholders displayed include governmental and non-governmental actors, 

educational institutions, denim brands and denim suppliers. 

 

 
Figure 5: Simplified collaborative ecosystem structure to foster pathways  

to alternative fashion ecosystems. 

 

To turn vision into action, ecosystem actors need access to the strategies required to navigate  

the complexities of redesigning the fashion industry. An essential first step is identifying other 

stakeholders within the local context to be explored and within the broader industry. Engaging  

in dialogue with stakeholders through immersive fieldwork, where both systemic change and 

perceptions of the innovative technique are addressed, will enable the identification of critical 

components for transformative leveraging. 

 



 

 65 

In this novel ecosystem, only small-scale, fully transparent and vertical production (from spinning  

to final garment) takes place, adhering to the highest sustainable production standards at every 

production step. The concept reflects considerations of material, environmental, financial, technical, 

ethical, communicative, consumer, educational, governmental, business and circular aspects. 

Through the collaboration, denim brands are granted access to the distinctive 3D weaving technique 

under certain conditions, incentivising them to pursue and drive local, sustainable and transparent 

practices. However, the ecosystem could serve as a starting point for brands to adopt holistic 

approaches encompassing various operations, catalysing forward-thinking and localised design 

strategies beyond 3D woven denim as a singular product category. 

 

To clarify the actions needed to establish the collaborative ecosystem structure, the design includes 

a comprehensive road map with specific, actionable steps1. This road map guides actors through the 

actions of co-creating a 3D woven denim ecosystem dispersed on a timeline, highlighting practical 

aspects such as funding, branding, retail, certification, knowledge partnerships and consumer 

communication. An additional overview further specifies the responsibilities of each ecosystem 

actor2. This road map offers resources to help stakeholders define roles and collaborate in leveraging 

innovative techniques to reimagine the industry, serving as a pioneering example rather than  

a universal blueprint. 

 

Conclusions and recommendations 

The current work explores leveraging emerging fashion design manufacturing techniques to shape 

novel and sustainable fashion ecosystems. In recognition of the adverse environmental and social 

effects of modern fashion production, we underscore such techniques’ broader significance beyond 

technical innovation in driving meaningful transformation. This study combines empirical research 

from the denim industry with a review of the literature to identify four key components for 

implementing innovative fashion models. The work focuses on the niche technique of 3D weaving  

as an exemplary case for addressing the industry’s prevailing challenges through its zero-waste,  

on-demand and local production capabilities, fundamentally challenging traditional denim design 

practices and enabling reimagining of supply chains. The findings inform the creation of an 

exemplary local, sustainable and collaborative fashion ecosystem centred around 3D woven denim 

in the Netherlands, as part of a broader study exploring additional vital aspects of developing 

alternative fashion ecosystems. 

 

Given the limitations within the timeframe of the current research, it is advisable to expand the 

scope of investigation by exploring local contexts beyond the Dutch market, incorporating diverse 

geographic, political, socioeconomic and cultural considerations. Future research could delve deeper 

into establishing knowledge exchange partnerships with current fashion suppliers to facilitate an 

ethical transition towards localised and self-sustaining ecosystems worldwide. Furthermore, 

exploring alternative economic models for driving industry-led change that depart from the current 

capitalist system might offer more unconventional solutions to sustainability concerns beyond 

relying on new product creation, profitability and reputation. Additionally, testing on-demand 

production models locally can yield insights into personalised, made-to-measure principles and 

 
 
 



 

 66 

enhance consumer engagement, fostering stronger emotional connections to garments. Further 

exploration of 3D woven zero-waste design opportunities in textile industries outside denim or 

fashion, such as architectural and automotive textiles, is also recommended. 

 

Existing knowledge about resource and energy usage in denim production – for instance due to high 

transport footprints, commonly used materials and resource-intensive supply chain steps – 

highlights the need to reconsider production methods. 3D weaving could serve as a less energy-

intensive option by preventing unnecessary fabric production, reducing the number of supply chain 

steps and facilitating local production. However, we recommend conducting a lifecycle assessment 

(LCA) in the future to compare the two approaches. 

 

We demonstrate how fashion ecosystems can emerge by integrating novel techniques within local, 

on-demand and collaborative contexts to reduce pre- and post-consumer waste while enabling 

small-scale sustainable fashion production infrastructures close to consumers. With elaborate critical 

considerations and an exemplary design with actionable steps, aimed at opening avenues for future 

investigation and advancement in the field beyond 3D weaving, the current research particularly 

contributes to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 9 (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure),  

SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals) (United 

Nations Secretary-General, 2024). 

 

References 
Allwood, J. M., Laursen, S. E., Malvido de Rodríguez, C., & Bocken, N. (2006). Well dressed? The present and 

future sustainability of clothing and textiles in the United Kingdom. Institute for Manufacturing, 
University of Cambridge. https://tinyurl.com/2s4hdh5b 

Amed, I., Balchandani, A., Beltrami, M., Berg, A., Hedrich, S., & Rölkens, F. (2019, February 19). Fashion on 
demand. McKinsey & Company. https://tinyurl.com/3hce25jb 

Amed, I., Berg, A., Balchandani, A., André, S., Devillard, S., Straub, M., Rölkens, F., Grunberg, J., Kersnar, J.,  
& Crump, H. (2022). The state of fashion 2023: Holding onto growth as global clouds gather. McKinsey 
& Company. https://tinyurl.com/2jerk2jw 

Bick, R., Halsey, E., & Ekenga, C. C. (2018). The global environmental injustice of fast fashion. Environmental 
Health, 17, Article 92. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7 

Camacho-Otero, J., Boks, C., & Nilstad Pettersen, I. (2019). User acceptance and adoption of circular offerings 
in the fashion sector: Insights from user-generated online reviews. Journal of Cleaner Production, 231, 
928–939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.162 

Chan, T., & Wong, C. W. Y. (2012). The consumption side of sustainable fashion supply chain. Journal of 
Fashion Marketing and Management, 16(2), 193-215. https://doi.org/10.1108/13612021211222824 

Ellen MacArthur Foundation. (2023). The jeans redesign. Ellen MacArthur Foundation. 
https://tinyurl.com/yd4bh8va 

Ellen, P. S. Webb, D. J., & Mohr, L. A. (2006). Building corporate associations: Consumer attributions for 
corporate socially responsible programs. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 34(2),  
147–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070305284976 

Enes, E. & Kipöz, Ş. (2019). Turkey fashion industry’s cut-and-sew waste problem and its waste management 
strategies. Tekstil ve Mühendis, 26(113), 97–103.https://doi.org/10.7216/1300759920192611311 

Environmental Audit Committee. (2019). Fixing fashion: Clothing consumption and sustainability: Sixteenth 
Report of Session 2017–19. UK Parliament. https://tinyurl.com/3dnybp6v 

European Commission. (2022, March 30). Green Deal: New proposals to make sustainable products the norm 
and boost Europe’s resource independence [Press release]. https://tinyurl.com/2p9ukyxf 

European Parliament. (2023, March 22). ‘Green claims’ directive: Protecting consumers from greenwashing.  
https://tinyurl.com/38b5h43p 

Ewen, L. (2024, July 31). Weaving tech company scores $32M to decarbonize fashion supply chains. ESG 
Dive. https://tinyurl.com/4jcu6pmc 

https://tinyurl.com/2s4hdh5b
https://tinyurl.com/3hce25jb
https://tinyurl.com/2jerk2jw
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.162
https://doi.org/10.1108/13612021211222824
https://tinyurl.com/yd4bh8va
https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070305284976
https://doi.org/10.7216/1300759920192611311
https://tinyurl.com/3dnybp6v
https://tinyurl.com/2p9ukyxf
https://tinyurl.com/38b5h43p
https://tinyurl.com/4jcu6pmc


 

 67 

Faerm, S. (2018). The shifting role of the fashion designer. In K. Vaidya (Ed.), Fashion design for the curious:  
Why study fashion design? The Curious Academic Publishing. https://tinyurl.com/4husrtkp 

Geels, F. W. (2002). Technological transitions as evolutionary reconfiguration processes: A multi-level 
perspective and a case-study. Research Policy, 31(8–9), 1257–1274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-
7333(02)00062-8 

Guest, G., & McLellan, E. (2003). Distinguishing the trees from the forest: Applying cluster analysis to thematic 
qualitative data. Field Methods, 15(2), 186–201. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822x03015002005   

Kutcher, A. M., & LeBaron, V. T. (2022). A simple guide for completing an integrative review using an example 
article. Journal of Professional Nursing, 40, 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2022.02.004 

Magnusdottir, A. (2020, May 13). How fashion manufacturing will change after the coronavirus. Forbes.  
https://tinyurl.com/y6wj9w4j  

Marrucci, L., Iraldo, F., & Daddi, T. (2021). Investigating the management challenges of the EU Ecolabel through 
multi-stakeholder surveys. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 26, 575–590. 
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-021-01866-5 

McCormick, H., Cartwright, J., Perry, P., Barnes, L., Lynch, S., & Ball, G. (2014). Fashion retailing – past, present 
and future. Textile Progress, 46(3), 227–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405167.2014.973247 

McDonald, S., Oates, C. J., Alevizou, P. J., Young, C. W., & Hwang, K. (2012). Individual strategies for sustainable 
consumption. Journal of Marketing Management, 28(3-4), 445–468. 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2012.658839 

McQuillan, H. (2020). Zero waste systems thinking: Multimorphic textile-forms. [Doctoral dissertation, 
University of Borås]. DiVa Portal, University of Borås. https://tinyurl.com/4cd7atwt 

McQuillan, H., Archer-Martin, J., Menzies, G., Bailey, J., Kane, K., & Fox Derwin, E. (2018). Make/use: A system 
for open source, user-modifiable, zero waste fashion practice. Fashion Practice, 10(1), 7–33. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/17569370.2017.1400320 

McQuillan, H., Voorwinden, M., Arts, B., & Vroom, B. (2023). The circular techno-aesthetics of woven textile-
forms: A material and process-driven design exploration. In K. Niinimäki & K. Cura (Eds.), Proceedings 
of the 5th PLATE conference: Product lifetimes and the environment (pp. 649–659). Aalto University. 
https://tinyurl.com/4t2y465c 

Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Waterstaat. (2023, 21 April). Besluit van 14 april 2023, houdende regels voor 
uitgebreide producentenverantwoordelijkheid voor textielproducten (Besluit uitgebreide 
producentenverantwoordelijkheid textiel). Staatsblad van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. 
https://tinyurl.com/34ybhbjm 

Murphy, R. J. A. (2022). Finding (a theory of) leverage for systemic change: A systemic design research agenda. 
Contexts: The Systemic Design Journal, 1. https:/doi.org/10.58279/v1004 

Niinimäki, K. (2010). Eco-clothing, consumer identity and ideology. Sustainable Development, 18(3), 150–162. 
https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.455  

Niinimäki, K., Peters, G., Bontempi, E., Perry, P., Rissanen, T., & Gwilt, A. (2020). The environmental price  
of fast fashion. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 1(4), 189–200.  
https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9 

Östlund, A., Roos, S., Sweet, S., & Sjöström, E. (2020). Investor brief: Sustainability in textiles and fashion. 
Mistra. https://tinyurl.com/3em44pjz 

Postlethwaite, S., Thiel, K., & Atkinson, D. (2022). Reshoring UK garment manufacturing with automation: 
Recommendations for government. Royal College of Art & Innovate UK KTN / Made Smarter. 
https://tinyurl.com/ys2nfmds   

Sanders, E., & Stappers, P. J. (2012). Convivial toolbox: Generative research for the front end of design.  
BIS Publishers. 

Slater, R. (2023, February 13). Stylus changemakers 2023: Five minutes with Weffan. Stylus. 
https://tinyurl.com/yn5bsnyc 

Teona, G., Ko, E., & Kim, S. H. (2019). Environmental claims in online video advertising: Effects for fast-fashion 
and luxury brands. International Journal of Advertising, 39(6), 858–887. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2019.1644144 

United Nations Secretary-General. (2024, 2 May). Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals. 
General Assembly Economic and Social Council. https://tinyurl.com/bdfy3sy4 

University of Leeds. (2023). 3D weaving innovation centre. https://3dweaving.leeds.ac.uk/  
Vroom, A. B. (2022, December 16). 3D woven denim jacket: Exploration and development of 3D weaving  

as a more sustainable way to produce a denim jacket. [Master’s thesis, Delft University of 
Technology]. TU Delft Education Repository. https://tinyurl.com/yn7kk4b5 

https://tinyurl.com/4husrtkp
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00062-8
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00062-8
https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822x03015002005
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2022.02.004
https://tinyurl.com/y6wj9w4j
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-021-01866-5
https://doi.org/10.1080/00405167.2014.973247
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2012.658839
https://tinyurl.com/4cd7atwt
https://doi.org/10.1080/17569370.2017.1400320
https://tinyurl.com/4t2y465c
https://tinyurl.com/34ybhbjm
https://doi.org/10.58279/v1004
https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.455
https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9
https://tinyurl.com/3em44pjz
https://tinyurl.com/ys2nfmds
https://tinyurl.com/yn5bsnyc
https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2019.1644144
https://tinyurl.com/bdfy3sy4
https://3dweaving.leeds.ac.uk/
https://tinyurl.com/yn7kk4b5


 

 68 

Watanatada, P., & Mak, H. (2011). Signed, sealed...delivered? Behind certifications and beyond labels. 
SustainAbility. https://tinyurl.com/45ammvx4 

Wennberg, M. V., & Östlund, Å. (2019). The outlook report 2011–2019: Mistra future fashion final program 
report. Mistra Future Fashion. https://tinyurl.com/2x2rx734 

Yan, R., Hyllegard, K. H., & Blaesi, L. F. (2010). Marketing eco-fashion: The influence of brand name and 
message explicitness. Journal of Marketing Communications, 18(2), 151–168. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2010.490420  
 

 

https://tinyurl.com/45ammvx4
https://tinyurl.com/2x2rx734
https://doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2010.490420

