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https://www.designforsocialchange.org/journal/index.php/DISCERN-J 

 

ISSN 2184-6995 

 

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 

International License. 

 

  

 

 

 

Heroic Journeys: on design for empowerment and narratives  

of social change 

 

Laura Santamaria, Ksenija Kuzmina  

 

 

Published online: November 2024 

 

To cite this article:  

Santamaria, L., Kuzmina, K. (2024). Heroic Journeys: on design for empowerment and narratives  

of social change. Discern: International Journal of Design for Social Change, Sustainable Innovation  

and Entrepreneurship, 5(2), 103-121. 

 

 

  



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Heroic Journeys: on design for empowerment and narratives of social change 

Laura Santamariaa, Ksenija Kuzminab 

 
aRoyal College of Arts, School of Communication, London, UK. laura.santamaria@rca.ac.uk 
bLoughborough University London, Institute for Creative Futures, London, UK. k.kuzmina@lboro.ac.uk 
 

Abstract 

Can empowerment be designed? Designers often claim to empower the people and communities they 

work with, yet there is little critical discourse on how empowerment is defined, facilitated and achieved  

in social design projects. This paper draws on social and political theories to redefine empowerment  

within design for social change, positioning it as a political activity to address power imbalances and  

foster individual and collective potential. To guide best practices in design-led interventions, we present 

four Design for Empowerment (DfE) principles grounded in Empowerment Theory and introduce Heroic 

Journeys, a conceptual framework co-created with community organisers and social designers through 

participatory design workshops. This approach facilitates the implementation of power analysis and 

narrative techniques to uncover diverse stories of change, advocating for design practices that are 

transformative, inclusive, and responsive to the contextual complexities of design for social  

change projects. 

 

Keywords: Design for empowerment, Power analysis, Change narratives, Design projects 

 

Introduction 

Empowerment is a foundational concept in design for social change, where projects aim to co-create 

solutions to social issues, reduce inequalities, and enhance quality of life. These projects are often 

considered vehicles for individual and collective empowerment, fostering civic leadership and broader 

participation in public life (Björgvinsson, Ehn & Hillgren, 2010; Noel, 2023; DiSalvo, 2012).  

 

However, while all social change work is inherently political, not all is genuinely empowering. The design 

literature reflects this disparity, with some instances where empowerment is grounded in political theories 

of change, particularly those centred on emancipation and social justice (Rezai & Erlhoff 2021), contrasted 

with others where the term ‘empowerment’ is used superficially (Lundmark & Jonsson 2021; Volpi et al. 

2024), lacking thorough analysis of its achievement (Zamenopoulos et al., 2021; Avelino, 2021), or where 

underlying design assumptions and biases, such as those related to gender norms, social practices and the 

interconnected dimensions of power and tensions that emerge with ‘expert design’ in community settings 

are not openly addressed (Mazé, 2019; Costanza-Chock, 2020). When these factors are overlooked, we risk 

unintended consequences such as the reinforcement of existing power structures – including designers’ 

privilege and power to shape society (Santamaria, 2023) – that stem from well-meaning but flawed social 

design interventions, and, at its worst, resulting in project failure (Avelino & Wittmayer 2016).  

 

Moreover, the planning and reporting of empowerment often fail to reflect its complex developmental  

and political nature (Avelino, 2021). For instance, frameworks like the Theory of Change, widely adopted  

in design for social change (Simeone et al., 2023), tend to perpetuate hegemonic positions by fixing 

agreements, expectations, and outcomes rather than functioning as adaptive tools for ongoing reflection. 

As Mulgan (2023) highlights, the term ‘theory’ itself can be alienating in specific social design contexts, 

evidencing issues of control and exclusion. While such tools favoured in design projects may satisfy 

management and funders’ metrics, they are frequently disconnected from empowerment’s core  



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principles and language (Avelino, 2021). There is a critical need for greater awareness, transparency, and 

accountability regarding how empowerment agendas are assumed in social design projects, what kind  

of empowerment is being supported, and how the strategies to facilitate design-led empowerment  

have emerged. 

 

In this paper, we revitalise the discourse on empowerment in design for social change, placing its  

inherently political nature at the forefront. We advocate for a deliberate, open and strategic positioning 

when projects aim to foster and articulate empowerment through design, emphasising the importance  

of adopting empowerment constructs and language when planning, evaluating, and reporting on 

empowerment within and across disciplines and practices. 

 

First, we briefly present the historical roots of empowerment theory and its fundamental principles.  

We review foundational social and political theory concepts, which are being adopted for empowerment 

research and practice in community development and organising. Second, we explore various 

manifestations of empowerment in design, using examples from seminal politically engaged design 

literature. The purpose is to problematise understandings and practices of empowerment in design and 

discuss correlations to broader literature. Third, we propose four ‘design for empowerment’ principles for 

our literature analysis. Last, we present ‘Heroic Journeys’, a conceptual framework for implementing these 

principles within social design projects. The framework was co-developed with designers and community 

organisers through three participatory workshops to create common ground between design and other 

disciplines focused on social transformation and change.  

 

In sum, we propose a novel design for empowerment approach that positions social design as a form  

of political activity focused on empowerment processes, understood as journeys of transcendence (of the 

psychological and systemic barriers) implied in human development, the process of expanding people’s 

freedoms and opportunities, improving their well-being, and enabling them to lead fulfilling lives. 

 

On power and empowerment  

The broader literature from community psychology, political theory and psychology offers 

conceptualisations and language on empowerment that can inform social design. 

 

Empowerment theory 

The concept of empowerment has its roots in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly within discourses of 

oppression and emancipation (e.g. Alinsky 1971; Freire 1971). Seen as vital to social justice, empowerment 

enhances autonomy and self-determination by fostering self-efficacy, supportive relationships and 

advocacy for individual and collective interests. This made it a focal point for rights and environmental 

activists, policymakers and the helping professions as a post-modern approach to challenging the status 

quo. These conceptualisations and ideas also influenced design (e.g., Papanek, 1971). In the 1980s, Julian 

Rappaport (1987) formalised the concept, defining empowerment as a process by which individuals, 

organisations, and communities gain mastery over their lives. Community psychology adopted it as a 

central tenet, emphasising power distribution and gaining control through collective action and community 

engagement. The 1990s and 2000s saw the concept broadened by scholars like John Friedmann and Robert 

Chambers, who incorporated political and economic dimensions, highlighting the role of structural changes 

and participatory methods (1992). Feminist scholars, including Patricia Hill Collins (2000), introduced 

intersectionality, exploring how overlapping systems of oppression (e.g., race, gender, class) impact 

individuals’ experiences of power and empowerment. Marc Zimmerman (2000) further advanced the 



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understanding of empowerment as a values-based, structured approach with the formulation  

of Empowerment Theory, comprising the following fundamental principles: 

 

1. Enhancing possibilities: Empowerment expands individuals’ and communities’ capacity  

to take action and effect change. An increase in personal, interpersonal, and political power. 

2. Community focus: Where mediating structures, like community organisations, play a critical  

role in facilitating empowerment. 

3. Reflexivity: Developing a critical awareness of personal values and the socio-political environment, 

understanding and shifting power dynamics to gain equity and justice. 

4. Emphasis on language and narratives: Personal and communal narratives are potent resources. 

Empowerment-oriented language can shift perspectives, revealing fresh solutions. 

5. Operative principle: Fostering self-efficacy and community change, promoting environments where 

individuals feel capable and supported in action. 

Further, Zimmerman (2000) usefully organised empowerment processes and outcomes at three levels: 

individual, organisational and community (Table 1). Thus, Empowerment Theory provides a robust 

framework for organising knowledge, ensuring its relevance beyond temporary trends (Rappaport,  

1995; Zimmerman, 2000). Consequently, it has been widely adopted across many disciplines, including 

community organising (Speer & Hughey, 1995), due to its flexibility for application (Joseph 2020). 

 

Table 1:  Empowerment levels of analysis (Zimmerman, 2000). 

 

Levels of analysis Process (“empowering”) Outcome (“empowered”) 

Individual Learning decision-making skills Sense of control 

Managing resources Critical awareness 

Working with others Participatory behaviours 

Organisational Opportunities to take part in decision-making Effectively compete for resources 

Shared responsibilities Networking with other organisations 

Shared leadership Policy influence 

Community  Access to resources Organisational coalitions 

 Open government structure Pluralistic leadership 

 Tolerance for diversity Residents’ participatory skills 

 

Power analysis  

Empowerment Theory holds that power is dynamic and expandable (Rappaport, 1987). Therefore, 

identifying power dynamics within a specific context is essential both before and during interventions 

aimed at redistributing or shifting power. In this section, we review and synthesise key theoretical concepts 

adopted by disciplines focused on social change as a foundation for conducting effective power analysis. 

 

Power, a complex and historically contested concept, is difficult to define. More recently, political theorists 

such as Lukes (2005), Haugaard (2021) and Gaventa (2021) have argued that it is more beneficial to 

integrate theories into ‘dimensions’ through which to momentarily focus on various aspects of power  

such as agency, structures, systems of thought and social ontology.  

 



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For example, the literature shows that conceptualisations such as ‘power over’, ‘power to’, ‘power with’ 

and ‘power within’ developed and refined by scholars in the fields of social and political theory are 

increasingly being adopted by various disciplines concerned with social transformation and justice 

(Pansardi & Bindi 2021), including design (Zamenopoulos et al., 2021). ‘Power over’ – often associated with 

domination – can manifest in many ways, such as influencing others’ beliefs about their abilities and 

shaping self-perception, rights, and capabilities. ‘Power to’ (Arendt 1958) involves the ability to act, 

beginning with the awareness of the possibility of acting and developing skills and capacities for change. 

‘Power with’ refers to collective action or agency; this concept relates to how individuals facing domination 

can collaborate, build shared understanding, and take collective action. Mary Parker Follett is often 

credited with its early conceptualisation; she contrasted it with ‘power over,’ emphasising the psychological 

and political power derived from unity (Eylon, 1998). ‘Power within’ (Starhawk, 1987) represents the 

confidence, dignity and self-esteem that comes from recognising one’s situation and potential to address  

it. Individual empowerment allows people to represent their interests responsibly and self-determinedly, 

cultivating self-knowledge, self-confidence, and the ability to understand and claim their rights. 

 

Lukes’ ‘three dimensions of power’ – visible, hidden and invisible – is a helpful typology for analysing power 

in political decision-making and democratic participation (Lukes, 2005; Gaventa, 2006). Visible power refers 

to the formal rules, structures, authorities, institutions, and procedures of political decision-making, 

including how those in positions of power use these procedures and structures to maintain control. Hidden 

power controls who gets to the decision-making table and what gets on the agenda. These dynamics often 

exclude and devalue the concerns and representation of less powerful groups. Invisible power shapes 

meaning and defines what is acceptable, setting psychological and ideological boundaries of participation 

by subtly influencing how individuals think about themselves and their place in the world. It defines what  

is expected, acceptable and safe, perpetuating exclusion and inequality through socialisation, culture, and 

ideology processes. Empowerment, therefore, involves identifying mechanisms of oppression and control 

embedded within established social norms, roles and narratives and building our abilities to challenge these 

assumptions (Gaventa & Cornwall, 2008).  

 

The importance of narratives in empowerment and change 

The psychology and political science literature underscores the critical link between narratives and 

empowerment. Narratives are essential for sensemaking, allowing us to internalise and externalise change 

experiences (Nardon & Hari, 2021). Sharing stories helps identify power dynamics, positions of power, and 

disempowerment. Firstly, disempowering narratives—shaped by cultural norms, upbringing, and religion—

can be actively reimagined. By reshaping the stories we tell ourselves, we can foster personal 

transformation and build power through a strengthened self-concept (Wilson, 2011). This involves going 

through a (self)transcendence process: overcoming internal and external limitations and embracing 

vulnerabilities to reach one’s full potential. As Reed (2008) suggests, this journey leads to heightened self-

awareness, inner power and more profound personal engagement. This perspective aligns with Foucault’s 

(1979) assertion that power restricts possibilities and acts productively, enabling self-development and 

resistance to dominant discourses. Hayward’s (1998) concept of “de-facing power,” inspired by Foucault, 

emphasises that freedom from oppression lies in redefining boundaries and shaping new possibilities for 

ourselves. Narratives of change, therefore, document the journey toward greater autonomy, inner 

strength, and improved social, cultural and environmental conditions (Zigler, 2004; Kawai et al., 2023). 

 

Finally, storytelling’s impact surpasses intellectual arguments or theoretical transformation models (Alho, 

2023). Narratives carry transformative power: to engage, mobilise, and spread alternative values and views 

that challenge the status quo discourses (Foucault, 1979). Stories foster solidarity and create pathways for 



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collective empowerment. By shifting mindsets and amplifying voices, stories of change hold the potential  

to drive meaningful and enduring transformation. 

 

In Table 2, we summarise the dimensions of power discussed in this section, along with the corresponding 

pathways to empowerment proposed in the broader literature. These insights can inform and structure 

efforts toward empowerment in design for social change. 

 

Table 2:  Dimensions of power and practices towards empowerment. 

 

References 
Dimensions 

of power  
Definition 

Ways to empowerment 

Wilson (2011) 
Hayward (1998) 
Starhawk (1987) 
 

Power within A person’s sense of self-worth and 
self-knowledge. 

Raising consciousness and 
awareness of self. 
Enhancing capabilities and 
autonomy. 

Arendt (1958) Power to The unique potential of every 
person to shape their life and 
world. 

Becoming aware that it is possible to 
act and progress towards acting. 
Developing skills and capacities and 
realising that one can effect change. 

Follett (1924) 
Boulding (1989) 

Power with Finding common ground among 
different interests to build 
collective strength. 

Joining with others through building 
shared understandings, planning 
and taking collective action. 

Follett (1924) Power over Influencing what others think they 
can do or even imagine as possible. 
It extends beyond physical or 
verbal domination to affect how 
people view themselves, their 
rights, and their capabilities. 

Fostering collaboration and unity, 
where differences are openly 
acknowledged and reconciled 
through creating new, shared 
solutions that respect and 
interweave differing desires and 
perspectives. 

Lukes (2005) 
Gaventa (2003) 

Visible power Making and enforcing the rules. Trying to change policymaking's 
‘who, how and what’ so the process 
is more democratic, accountable, 
and responsive to diverse needs. 
Visible power is countered with 
political advocacy strategies and 
seeking access to formal decision-
making processes. 

Invisible 
power 

Shaping meaning, values and what 
is ‘normal’. 

Reimagining social and political 
culture and raising consciousness to 
transform the way people perceive 
themselves and those around them 
and how they envisage future 
possibilities and alternatives. 

Hidden 
power 

Setting the agenda. Strengthening organisations and 
movements of marginalised people, 
building collective power and 
leadership to redefine political 
agendas, and raising the visibility 
and legitimacy of issues, voices and 
demands that have been silenced. 



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Frameworks such as Just Associates’ Power Matrix (Miller et al., 2006), the Powercube (Gaventa, 2021) and 

Collins’ (2000) Matrix of Domination are good examples of theory-informed tools that have adopted these 

concepts. They are used for power analysis, planning and assessment of empowerment projects. 

 

 

 

Figure 1: Powercube.net, a resource for understanding power relations in social change. 

 

Towards design for empowerment 

We now discuss the dimensions of power and ways to empowerment derived from broader literature 

(Table 2) in correlation to the design for social change praxis focused on empowerment. Insights of our 

analysis are then presented as a set of Design for Empowerment principles for best practice. 

 

Empowerment in design for social change 

Seminal literature in design for social change discusses self-empowerment and the professional assistance 

that enables individuals and communities to overcome feelings of powerlessness and lack of influence. It 

helps them recognise, mobilise, and use their resources to accomplish their objectives (Schneider et al., 

2018). It also reveals how these concepts are entangled with the broader political aims of the socially 

oriented design projects. For example, community-based projects have been conducted to enhance 

democratic participation in design, moving beyond traditional approaches and assisting individuals and 

communities in controlling design processes, solutions, and outcomes (Rezai & Erlhoff, 2021). The Design 

Justice Network’s pivotal work (Costanza-Chock, 2020) centres marginalised communities in the design 

process by empowering them to lead projects in collaboration with activist groups rather than imposing 

designs on them. This approach draws on Collins’ (2000) Matrix of Domination theory, recognising the 

hidden ‘power over’ within designed systems and the embodied experience of disempowerment. It views 

these experiences as crucial motivations for action, where empowerment is understood as the capacity to 

resist and challenge these hidden power hierarchies. 

 



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Another significant body of work examines how design fosters participation in agonistic pluralism (Di Salvo, 

2012), a democratic approach emphasising dissensus over consensus (Mouffe, 2002). By facilitating ‘lively 

agonistic encounters’ among diverse stakeholders (DiSalvo & Meng 2021), this work advocates for building 

‘power to’ by creating public spaces where multiple voices are heard and conflict is managed civilised 

(Kraff, 2019). This work acknowledges hidden power hierarchies, yet it does not seek to resist them but  

to reveal them by making them hierarchized, performed, and debated (Bjorngvisson et al., 2010).  

 

Still, some social design studies question the transferability of the democratically driven approaches to 

power and empowerment in non-Western contexts (Kraff, 2019) or where it could threaten the survival of 

marginalised communities (Gautam & Tatar, 2022). Instead, these studies focus on particular attention to 

building ‘power within’, for example, by revealing the strengths and assets of the dependent marginalised 

communities (Gautam & Tatar, 2022) or cultivating a community’s craft capabilities rather than aligning 

their making practices with the market system. In this way, those previously silenced gain voice and agency 

through creative acts that leave lasting impacts on the world (Marques Leitão & Marchand, 2018; von 

Busch & Pazarbasi, 2018). However, while design literature emphasises approaches to developing 

capabilities, the focus is often on building external (skills/material) rather than internal 

(cognitive/psychological) capabilities and resources. We argue that design empowerment  

focused on developing people’s self-knowledge and (self)transcendence is overlooked.  

 

Finally, social designers claim self-empowerment by reflecting on their practice, such as embracing an 

alternative view to the pre-established aim of building ‘power with’ in each project (Popplow, 2021) and 

frameworks to explore positionality (Noel, 2023). We observe how design work that draws on feminist 

(Place, 2023; Costanza-Chock, 2018), indigenous (Tunstall, 2020; Sheehan, 2011) and critical perspectives 

inherently situates itself in the concepts of domination, colonisation, and patriarchy. Social designers like  

Di Salvo (2012) and Gautam and Tatar (2022) propose new participation configurations, identifying central 

issues and developing processes and resources to facilitate this. In these instances, designers explicitly 

discuss power dynamics or setting empowerment goals (Schneider et al., 2018). They recognise that 

designers possess ‘power over’ other stakeholders, particularly at the outset of a project (which underlies 

and influences the different types of power relations that emerge throughout a project) and at the end 

stages of evaluation and reporting (when outcomes and impact accounts are produced).  

 

Despite the undeniable intentions of ‘designing for empowerment’ being expressed in many ways within 

design for social change, such discussions remain rare. Notably, many claims of empowerment in design 

literature lack theoretical grounding and consistent language with the broader empowerment literature 

(Zamenopoulos et al., 2021; Avelino, 2021). Consequently, most designs for empowerment activity appear 

disconnected from the wider context of social change and transformation work, negatively affecting design 

interventions' credibility and limiting interdisciplinary collaboration opportunities (Avelino, 2021).  

 

While recognising the various forms of power is crucial for understanding dynamics and guiding design 

interventions, the design literature lacks theory-based tools for comprehensive power analysis. The 

methodologies that are significantly lacking are those that expose invisible and hidden power and 

formulate strategies to address these complexities. Adopting empowerment language, conceptualisations, 

and analysis tools from broader literature would facilitate discussions on power and empowerment in 

design projects, structuring objectives and making these concepts accessible to designers and stakeholders. 

 

 

 



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Design for empowerment principles 

Drawing from design and broader literature, we propose four principles that position Design for 

Empowerment as a political activity and provide guidelines for best practices. These principles are 

grounded in Empowerment Theory values—enhancing possibilities, community focus, reflexivity, operative 

principles, and emphasis on language and narratives—and informed by relevant constructs from political 

theory (in Table 2). 

 

DfE 1. Implementing power analysis to inform strategies 

There is a need to understand power distribution in the project context to set empowerment goals and 

report on the nature and level of change. This involves acknowledging our positionality and identifying the 

power dynamics at play through critical discussions of power manifestations (power within/to/with/over, 

visible/invisible/hidden power). Such power analysis is crucial to inform empowerment goals, strategies 

and tactics for change. It also helps to address the politics of participation by paying attention to the 

asymmetries between stakeholders based on formal authority/power, wealth, social status, gender, age, 

prior knowledge and self-confidence (Cornwall & Coelho, 2007). This approach ensures the inclusion of 

diverse perspectives, providing equal opportunities to contribute to decision-making processes.  

 

DfE 2. Setting clear empowerment aims and goals 

Empowerment approaches stress the importance of community focus, where mediating structures (like 

community organisations) play a critical role in facilitating empowerment (Rappaport, 1987). This means 

exercising transparency and accountability in setting agendas and acknowledging the work’s positionalities 

and other political aspects. This implies engaging with those involved from the initial stages of the project 

to discuss and negotiate expectations openly, defining the designer and the institution’s role in catalysing 

change, and co-developing empowerment goals and strategies together. There should be clarity about 

what these might look like at individual, organisational and community levels (Zimmerman, 2000). Evidence 

of the empowerment process should be captured throughout the project, ideally in narrative form in the 

voices of those involved. 

 

DfE 3. Focusing on human development: the empowerment process is a journey of transcendence 

We conceptualise the empowerment process as a journey of transcendence by which individuals and 

communities are supported to overcome physical and psychological obstacles. Developing ‘power within’  

is prioritised as a necessary condition for building ‘power to’ and ‘power with.’ While internal and external 

dimensions of power interact dynamically, the focus should be on developing individuals’ capacity as 

‘agents of change’ by helping individuals and communities recognise their strengths, value their knowledge, 

and understand their capacity to address their own needs and create solutions (Just Associates, 2015).  

This involves fostering self-leadership, discovering personal meaning and purpose, and building strong 

community relationships.  

 

DfE 4. Adopting empowerment language and narrative methods as catalysts of change 

Communal narratives and personal stories are powerful resources that significantly impact human 

behaviour (Rappaport, 1995). Narratives provide valuable insights into how people understand unfolding 

events, enabling individuals and groups to articulate their experiences, identify negative assumptions and 

behaviours, and frame/reframe understandings (Rappaport, 1995). Narratives are also meant to contest 

and subvert dominant discourses by disseminating new knowledge, serving as sources of both power and 

resistance (Prilleltensky, 1994; Gaventa, 2003). Therefore, it is essential to create opportunities for diverse 

narratives to emerge, where individual and collective experiences of empowerment can be articulated as 

transformational journeys. It is also necessary to adopt empowerment language and accessible tools such 



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as metaphors to facilitate sensemaking, identify values and power dynamics, and spot available resources. 

 

Heroic Journeys, a conceptual framework for empowerment by design 

While the principles presented above help us to organise knowledge, we align with McGee and Pettit’s 

(2019) view that theory often remains inaccessible and of little practical use to those working on the 

frontlines of social change and the need to integrate academic theory with methodologies developed  

from the grassroots.  

 

Accordingly, we engaged in participatory research through a series of workshops (Figure 2) to co-develop 

an accessible framework grounded in Design for Empowerment principles to support the empowerment 

process in social design projects in a manner that is both legitimate and democratic. Our research design  

is informed by the question: “What kind of framework can support the implementation of design for 

empowerment principles in social design projects?” 

 

 

 

Figure 2: Heroic Journeys framework development. 

 

Methodology 

Abiding by DfE 4 (adopting narrative devices), our starting point was identifying a relevant narrative device 

reflecting the DfE principles and values. We were inspired by the familiar narrative structure of the Hero’s 

Journey, popularised by Joseph Campbell in his book The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949). This 

archetypal story structure, derived from ancient myths from diverse cultures, has universal appeal because 

it captures the key themes in individual self-development and maturation. It comprises four phases: 

departure from the familiar, initiation’ through challenges and learning, unification symbolising 

transformation, and return with newfound wisdom or resources to benefit the community. As such, The 

Hero’s Journey parallels the empowerment process, where overcoming internal and external challenges 

leads to personal growth, self-knowledge and a sense of purpose. 

 

The framework was developed through iterative co-creation workshops (Sanders & Strappers, 2008) to 

bridge research and practice for social change and empowerment through a collaborative inquiry. As such, 

we followed purposive sampling, inviting participants with experience in design for social change and 

community organisers from Citizens UK (see Table 3). These participants shared an interest in 

understanding the perspectives of the ‘other’. They had similar levels of experience in their respective 

fields of social change practice, which helped mitigate the potentially damaging effects of knowledge–



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power relations (Moreno-Cely et al., 2021). Citizens UK organisers adopt a ‘broad-based’ approach to 

community organising, a political methodology rooted in civil society and based on the concept of power 

(Bunyan, 2018). They aim to identify and empower citizen leaders to mobilise their communities around 

issues they care about. Similarly, social design practitioners and researchers are committed to participatory 

principles and building stakeholder networks that co-create public value.  

 

Table 3: Overview of research participants. 

 

Participants  Expertise of the participants  Workshops attended 

P1  Community organising, leadership, child culture, design    WS1 

P2 Designer, User researcher, services design, semiotics   WS1, WS2, WS3  

P3 Designer, Senior Design Researcher, has training in community 

organising  

WS1, WS2  

P4  Senior Lecturer, Storytelling  WS1  

P5  Senior service designer, community projects   WS1, WS2   

P6 Design researcher, social innovation, community projects    WS1, WS2 

P7 Senior Community Organiser, engaged in design projects   WS1, WS2, WS3  

P8 Community Organiser  WS1, WS2  

P9  Community Organiser  WS1, WS2  

P10 Senior Community Organiser, engaged in design projects  WS1, WS2  

P11  MSc Design Innovation student (with industry experience) WS3 

P12  MSc Design Innovation student (with industry experience) WS3 

P13  MSc Design Innovation student (with industry experience) WS3  

P14   Community Organising and design   WS1 

P15  Designer, service design   WS1 

P16 Designer and Community Lead  WS2 

 

Over a year, we conducted three online co-creation workshops with 16 participants (Table 3). Each 

workshop, involving 5-10 participants (with some participants attending more than one workshop 

highlighting their investment in the topic), focused on identifying, discussing and finding relationships 

between vital elements in the empowerment process grounded on DfE principles whilst parting from the 

Hero’s Journey metaphor as a foundational structure. Creative activities – e.g. playing with metaphors, 

personas, mapping, and scenario building (Figure 3) incorporated into the workshops facilitated both 

‘knowledge exchange’ and ‘knowledge creation’ between social designers, researchers and community 

organisers. This was done through dialogue, reflection (Reason & Bradbury, 2001) and collective meaning-

making in interaction (Bridges & McGee, 2011). The virtual setup of the workshops allowed easy access to 

the materials and interactive tools, including templates and Miro board, which enhanced participants’ 

engagement. Each workshop was video recorded and transcribed. Insights and outcomes from each 

workshop were synthesised by the researchers and shared back with the participants in the  

subsequent activity.  

 



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Figure 3: Workshop 1 – playing with metaphors of a ‘superhero.’ 

 

Building on the participants’ worldviews and lived experiences (Reason & Bradbury, 2001), each workshop 

attended to develop a particular aspect of the framework whilst contributing to its evolution.  

 

In Workshop 1, we explored the use of language, expanding the meaning of heroes and heroism as it 

relates to the context of community work and social change. In Workshop 2, we built on the emerging 

concept of ‘heroic journeys’ by envisioning and capturing how it would facilitate a journey of ‘obstacles 

transcendence’ through a series of ‘critical moments.’ In Workshop 3, we developed a scenario to 

understand the framework’s accessibility and applicability. We created probing questions as the best way 

to support each process stage. Finally, we synthesised and formalised the workshops’ outputs into the 

Heroic Journeys conceptual framework (Figure 5).  

 

Framework co-development process  

The first workshop aimed to critically reflect on the Hero’s Journey as the foundational structure  

and basic concepts concerning empowerment. The traditional notion of a ‘hero’ as patriarchal, male  

and characterised by physical strength and bravery was contested, but participants agreed on the notion  

of ‘heroism’ as a concept in its evolved understanding: emphasising selflessness, altruism, and service  

to others. 

“The idea of a hero or superhero, such as a professional hero, can be damaging. Push 

people into this position to save the world. Still, at the same time, we are not protecting 

them because they are invincible… which they are not… this is different to an everyday 

hero doing something for their community with any resources they may have… there are 

also alternative journeys, such as the heroine journey, which usually is a quest for 

wholeness and overcoming stereotypes.” (Participant WS1, community organiser) 

The idea of collective heroism also emerged, highlighting ‘the hero-ship of peer groups and the power  

of the collective and multiple heroes’ (participant WS1, designer) such as movements, organisations or 

communities that collaborate to tackle challenging social or political issues. In this context, we defined 

heroism as an attitude to embody courage, compassion, and moral leadership in overcoming adversity. 



115 
 

 

 
 

 

Figure 4: Workshop 1 Miro board 

 

We discussed the process of transcendence and transformation. We conceptualised it as ‘heroic journeys,’ 

meaning that empowerment involves overcoming obstacles and limitations building inner and outer 

resources to gain greater self-determination and autonomy at individual and collective levels. 

 

In Workshop 2, we discussed the ‘critical moments’ as they would structure the ‘heroic journeys’ from 

Workshop 1 – self-discovery, initiation, transformation, and reflection – concerning dimensions of power 

and ways to empowerment (Figure 4). The following insights arose:  

(1) Self-discovery – of one’s power. Creating the conditions to build Power within. Focus on gifts, 

difference, passion, and purpose. We are exploring dissonance with self and its relation to systemic 

conditions. It involves self-examining currently held beliefs about personal power, systemic 

circumstances, and our personal view on them, understanding our story and recognising  

our disempowerment.  

 



116 
 

(2) Initiation – Validation of interdependency. Creating the conditions to build Power. Focus on 

overcoming internal challenges and attainable goals within the community. Testing and learning 

participatory and relational practices and exploring consensus and dissonance. It involves leaving 

the comfort zone, navigating the unfamiliar, taking small risks and understanding the value of 

collaboration: accepting guidance and valuing others who are different from us.  

 

(3) Transformation – Moving from will to action, creating the conditions to build Power. Having built 

inner power, we can face external challenges via collective mobilisation and action. As the most 

significant fears are exposed and confronted, a vision of life or revival emerges from the triumph. 

There is usually a reward gained through overcoming one’s fears. It feels like a rebirth that marks  

a clear separation between the old and new ways of being.  

 

(4) Reflection – Internalising effects of action and repositioning. Creating the conditions to build  

Power over. Evaluation of learning, methods, new positionality, and identification of personal and 

collective challenges. A period of reflection, recollection, and internalisation of events. This space  

is where hopes have materialised, evidencing those other ways. 

“... it is important to understand what people will volunteer their time for and what 

their interests are, their stories and background, and what are their political 

narratives and how hero[sic] journey can help them unpack the political narrative 

that allows them to dissipate the public life.” (Participant WS2, community organiser) 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



117 
 

 

 

Figure 5: Workshop 2 – identifying ‘key moments’ of the Heroic Journeys framework. 

 

In Workshop 3, we prototyped the framework as an accessible tool to organise and facilitate eliciting 

individual/community needs, values and stories through structured conversations (Figure 4).  

“[As] we create the framework … we need to look at the probing questions … to start them on 

the journey of self-empowerment and transformation … to think about the logic between the 

questions for someone who is trying to get to [their] higher-self alongside others, I think that is 

the work of us … What probing questions can we sequentially ask to have them think about what 

matters to them, and also how they can create those powerful friendship groups that can help 

them along the way?” (Participant WS3, designer) 

Avelino (2021) suggests that asking questions facilitates a critical analysis of power, allowing ‘inner stories’ 

of empowerment to surface, be acknowledged and externalised. Building on this approach, we generated 

empirical questions to systematically explore power dynamics in processes of social change, where each 

stage of the heroic journey becomes a lens to examine a specific aspect of power and empowerment. 

The final, refined outcome can be seen in Figure 6.  



118 
 

 

Figure 6: Heroic Journeys, a Design for Empowerment conceptual framework. 

 

Concluding remarks 

This paper contributes to strengthening the approaches, language, and reporting structure of 

empowerment in design for social change. We argue that design-led social change projects that 

intentionally and openly engage in power redistribution are considered political activity towards enhancing 

individual and community agency (Jason et al., 2019). As such, our activity is not value-free. As we 



119 
 

collaborate with communities at the grassroots level, methods for planning and evaluating social design 

projects are necessary, particularly for reporting empowerment-focused interventions’ impact on 

individuals and communities. Designers also collaborate with other disciplines – such as activists and 

community organisers – that share similar goals. Therefore, it is essential to establish a common  

ground to enhance interdisciplinary collaboration.  

 

While empowerment cannot be designed, we can intentionally set the conditions and adopt best practices.  

To this end, we drew on principles, language and conceptualisations from relevant broader literature and 

summarised them to inform our proposed Design for Empowerment principles. To make these concepts 

actionable, we co-developed Heroic Journeys, a conceptual framework, through participatory and 

interdisciplinary knowledge sharing. 

 

Limitations and future work 

The framework development is rooted in practice (co-developed with social design practitioners and 

community organisers working on the ‘frontlines’). Thus far, the framework has been shared with an 

international design community through a conference workshop (Santamaria, Kuzmina & Petersen, 2021) 

and the Service Design & Education Network Seminar (2022). The audience recognised that power can be 

one of the most uncomfortable and complex topics to address in social design projects. As a narrative, 

symbolic structure, The Heroic Journeys framework resonates with human experiences of growth, 

integration, and change. It can facilitate the exploration of complex and interrelated dimensions of power 

and empowerment. Participants identified its potential for mapping power dynamics, challenging the 

designer’s role as a facilitator of pre-determined outcomes, eliciting diverse stories and supporting 

empowering vision-building within design practices. However, as the next step, it is essential to implement 

the framework across diverse live projects and contexts to evaluate its applicability, adaptability and impact 

on reporting design-led empowerment. 

 

Future exploration includes integrating Design for Empowerment principles with other frameworks, such  

as the Theory of Change, to create a more comprehensive approach that leverages narrative, qualitative 

procedural, and logical methods while ensuring rigorous evaluation and impact measurement. The goal is 

to establish a community of practice dedicated to Design for Empowerment, fostering the exchange and 

development of methodologies, strategies, and experiences from diverse perspectives  

and paradigms. 

 

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	https://www.designforsocialchange.org/journal/index.php/DISCERN-J
	ISSN 2184-6995
	This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
	Heroic Journeys: on design for empowerment and narratives  of social change
	Laura Santamaria, Ksenija Kuzmina
	Published online: November 2024
	To cite this article:  Santamaria, L., Kuzmina, K. (2024). Heroic Journeys: on design for empowerment and narratives  of social change. Discern: International Journal of Design for Social Change, Sustainable Innovation  and Entrepreneurship, 5(2), 103...
	Heroic Journeys: on design for empowerment and narratives of social change
	Laura Santamariaa, Ksenija Kuzminab
	aRoyal College of Arts, School of Communication, London, UK. laura.santamaria@rca.ac.uk
	bLoughborough University London, Institute for Creative Futures, London, UK. k.kuzmina@lboro.ac.uk
	Abstract
	Can empowerment be designed? Designers often claim to empower the people and communities they work with, yet there is little critical discourse on how empowerment is defined, facilitated and achieved  in social design projects. This paper draws on soc...
	Keywords: Design for empowerment, Power analysis, Change narratives, Design projects
	Introduction Empowerment is a foundational concept in design for social change, where projects aim to co-create solutions to social issues, reduce inequalities, and enhance quality of life. These projects are often considered vehicles for individual a...
	However, while all social change work is inherently political, not all is genuinely empowering. The design literature reflects this disparity, with some instances where empowerment is grounded in political theories of change, particularly those centre...
	Moreover, the planning and reporting of empowerment often fail to reflect its complex developmental  and political nature (Avelino, 2021). For instance, frameworks like the Theory of Change, widely adopted  in design for social change (Simeone et al.,...
	In this paper, we revitalise the discourse on empowerment in design for social change, placing its  inherently political nature at the forefront. We advocate for a deliberate, open and strategic positioning when projects aim to foster and articulate e...
	First, we briefly present the historical roots of empowerment theory and its fundamental principles.  We review foundational social and political theory concepts, which are being adopted for empowerment research and practice in community development a...
	In sum, we propose a novel design for empowerment approach that positions social design as a form  of political activity focused on empowerment processes, understood as journeys of transcendence (of the psychological and systemic barriers) implied in ...
	On power and empowerment
	The broader literature from community psychology, political theory and psychology offers conceptualisations and language on empowerment that can inform social design.  Empowerment theory The concept of empowerment has its roots in the 1960s and 1970s,...
	1. Enhancing possibilities: Empowerment expands individuals’ and communities’ capacity  to take action and effect change. An increase in personal, interpersonal, and political power.
	2. Community focus: Where mediating structures, like community organisations, play a critical  role in facilitating empowerment.
	3. Reflexivity: Developing a critical awareness of personal values and the socio-political environment, understanding and shifting power dynamics to gain equity and justice.
	4. Emphasis on language and narratives: Personal and communal narratives are potent resources. Empowerment-oriented language can shift perspectives, revealing fresh solutions.
	5. Operative principle: Fostering self-efficacy and community change, promoting environments where individuals feel capable and supported in action.
	Further, Zimmerman (2000) usefully organised empowerment processes and outcomes at three levels: individual, organisational and community (Table 1). Thus, Empowerment Theory provides a robust framework for organising knowledge, ensuring its relevance ...
	Table 1:  Empowerment levels of analysis (Zimmerman, 2000).
	Power analysis
	Empowerment Theory holds that power is dynamic and expandable (Rappaport, 1987). Therefore, identifying power dynamics within a specific context is essential both before and during interventions aimed at redistributing or shifting power. In this secti...
	Power, a complex and historically contested concept, is difficult to define. More recently, political theorists such as Lukes (2005), Haugaard (2021) and Gaventa (2021) have argued that it is more beneficial to integrate theories into ‘dimensions’ thr...
	For example, the literature shows that conceptualisations such as ‘power over’, ‘power to’, ‘power with’ and ‘power within’ developed and refined by scholars in the fields of social and political theory are increasingly being adopted by various discip...
	Lukes’ ‘three dimensions of power’ – visible, hidden and invisible – is a helpful typology for analysing power in political decision-making and democratic participation (Lukes, 2005; Gaventa, 2006). Visible power refers to the formal rules, structures...
	The importance of narratives in empowerment and change
	The psychology and political science literature underscores the critical link between narratives and empowerment. Narratives are essential for sensemaking, allowing us to internalise and externalise change experiences (Nardon & Hari, 2021). Sharing st...
	Finally, storytelling’s impact surpasses intellectual arguments or theoretical transformation models (Alho, 2023). Narratives carry transformative power: to engage, mobilise, and spread alternative values and views that challenge the status quo discou...
	In Table 2, we summarise the dimensions of power discussed in this section, along with the corresponding pathways to empowerment proposed in the broader literature. These insights can inform and structure efforts toward empowerment in design for socia...
	Table 2:  Dimensions of power and practices towards empowerment.
	Frameworks such as Just Associates’ Power Matrix (Miller et al., 2006), the Powercube (Gaventa, 2021) and Collins’ (2000) Matrix of Domination are good examples of theory-informed tools that have adopted these concepts. They are used for power analysi...
	Figure 1: Powercube.net, a resource for understanding power relations in social change.
	Towards design for empowerment We now discuss the dimensions of power and ways to empowerment derived from broader literature (Table 2) in correlation to the design for social change praxis focused on empowerment. Insights of our analysis are then pre...
	Empowerment in design for social change Seminal literature in design for social change discusses self-empowerment and the professional assistance that enables individuals and communities to overcome feelings of powerlessness and lack of influence. It ...
	Another significant body of work examines how design fosters participation in agonistic pluralism (Di Salvo, 2012), a democratic approach emphasising dissensus over consensus (Mouffe, 2002). By facilitating ‘lively agonistic encounters’ among diverse ...
	Still, some social design studies question the transferability of the democratically driven approaches to power and empowerment in non-Western contexts (Kraff, 2019) or where it could threaten the survival of marginalised communities (Gautam & Tatar, ...
	Finally, social designers claim self-empowerment by reflecting on their practice, such as embracing an alternative view to the pre-established aim of building ‘power with’ in each project (Popplow, 2021) and frameworks to explore positionality (Noel, ...
	Despite the undeniable intentions of ‘designing for empowerment’ being expressed in many ways within design for social change, such discussions remain rare. Notably, many claims of empowerment in design literature lack theoretical grounding and consis...
	While recognising the various forms of power is crucial for understanding dynamics and guiding design interventions, the design literature lacks theory-based tools for comprehensive power analysis. The methodologies that are significantly lacking are ...
	Design for empowerment principles
	Drawing from design and broader literature, we propose four principles that position Design for Empowerment as a political activity and provide guidelines for best practices. These principles are grounded in Empowerment Theory values—enhancing possibi...
	DfE 1. Implementing power analysis to inform strategies
	There is a need to understand power distribution in the project context to set empowerment goals and report on the nature and level of change. This involves acknowledging our positionality and identifying the power dynamics at play through critical di...
	DfE 2. Setting clear empowerment aims and goals
	Empowerment approaches stress the importance of community focus, where mediating structures (like community organisations) play a critical role in facilitating empowerment (Rappaport, 1987). This means exercising transparency and accountability in set...
	DfE 3. Focusing on human development: the empowerment process is a journey of transcendence
	We conceptualise the empowerment process as a journey of transcendence by which individuals and communities are supported to overcome physical and psychological obstacles. Developing ‘power within’  is prioritised as a necessary condition for building...
	DfE 4. Adopting empowerment language and narrative methods as catalysts of change
	Communal narratives and personal stories are powerful resources that significantly impact human behaviour (Rappaport, 1995). Narratives provide valuable insights into how people understand unfolding events, enabling individuals and groups to articulat...
	While the principles presented above help us to organise knowledge, we align with McGee and Pettit’s (2019) view that theory often remains inaccessible and of little practical use to those working on the frontlines of social change and the need to int...
	Accordingly, we engaged in participatory research through a series of workshops (Figure 2) to co-develop an accessible framework grounded in Design for Empowerment principles to support the empowerment process in social design projects in a manner tha...
	Figure 2: Heroic Journeys framework development.
	Methodology Abiding by DfE 4 (adopting narrative devices), our starting point was identifying a relevant narrative device reflecting the DfE principles and values. We were inspired by the familiar narrative structure of the Hero’s Journey, popularised...
	Table 3: Overview of research participants.
	Over a year, we conducted three online co-creation workshops with 16 participants (Table 3). Each workshop, involving 5-10 participants (with some participants attending more than one workshop highlighting their investment in the topic), focused on id...
	Figure 3: Workshop 1 – playing with metaphors of a ‘superhero.’
	Building on the participants’ worldviews and lived experiences (Reason & Bradbury, 2001), each workshop attended to develop a particular aspect of the framework whilst contributing to its evolution.
	In Workshop 1, we explored the use of language, expanding the meaning of heroes and heroism as it relates to the context of community work and social change. In Workshop 2, we built on the emerging concept of ‘heroic journeys’ by envisioning and captu...
	Framework co-development process
	The first workshop aimed to critically reflect on the Hero’s Journey as the foundational structure  and basic concepts concerning empowerment. The traditional notion of a ‘hero’ as patriarchal, male  and characterised by physical strength and bravery ...
	“The idea of a hero or superhero, such as a professional hero, can be damaging. Push people into this position to save the world. Still, at the same time, we are not protecting them because they are invincible… which they are not… this is different to...
	The idea of collective heroism also emerged, highlighting ‘the hero-ship of peer groups and the power  of the collective and multiple heroes’ (participant WS1, designer) such as movements, organisations or communities that collaborate to tackle challe...
	Figure 4: Workshop 1 Miro board
	We discussed the process of transcendence and transformation. We conceptualised it as ‘heroic journeys,’ meaning that empowerment involves overcoming obstacles and limitations building inner and outer resources to gain greater self-determination and a...
	In Workshop 2, we discussed the ‘critical moments’ as they would structure the ‘heroic journeys’ from Workshop 1 – self-discovery, initiation, transformation, and reflection – concerning dimensions of power and ways to empowerment (Figure 4). The foll...
	(1) Self-discovery – of one’s power. Creating the conditions to build Power within. Focus on gifts, difference, passion, and purpose. We are exploring dissonance with self and its relation to systemic conditions. It involves self-examining currently h...
	(2) Initiation – Validation of interdependency. Creating the conditions to build Power. Focus on overcoming internal challenges and attainable goals within the community. Testing and learning participatory and relational practices and exploring consen...
	(3) Transformation – Moving from will to action, creating the conditions to build Power. Having built inner power, we can face external challenges via collective mobilisation and action. As the most significant fears are exposed and confronted, a visi...
	(4) Reflection – Internalising effects of action and repositioning. Creating the conditions to build  Power over. Evaluation of learning, methods, new positionality, and identification of personal and collective challenges. A period of reflection, rec...
	“... it is important to understand what people will volunteer their time for and what their interests are, their stories and background, and what are their political narratives and how hero[sic] journey can help them unpack the political narrative tha...
	Figure 5: Workshop 2 – identifying ‘key moments’ of the Heroic Journeys framework.
	In Workshop 3, we prototyped the framework as an accessible tool to organise and facilitate eliciting individual/community needs, values and stories through structured conversations (Figure 4).
	“[As] we create the framework … we need to look at the probing questions … to start them on the journey of self-empowerment and transformation … to think about the logic between the questions for someone who is trying to get to [their] higher-self alo...
	Avelino (2021) suggests that asking questions facilitates a critical analysis of power, allowing ‘inner stories’ of empowerment to surface, be acknowledged and externalised. Building on this approach, we generated empirical questions to systematically...
	Figure 6: Heroic Journeys, a Design for Empowerment conceptual framework.
	Concluding remarks
	This paper contributes to strengthening the approaches, language, and reporting structure of empowerment in design for social change. We argue that design-led social change projects that intentionally and openly engage in power redistribution are cons...
	While empowerment cannot be designed, we can intentionally set the conditions and adopt best practices.
	To this end, we drew on principles, language and conceptualisations from relevant broader literature and summarised them to inform our proposed Design for Empowerment principles. To make these concepts actionable, we co-developed Heroic Journeys, a co...
	Limitations and future work
	The framework development is rooted in practice (co-developed with social design practitioners and community organisers working on the ‘frontlines’). Thus far, the framework has been shared with an international design community through a conference w...
	Future exploration includes integrating Design for Empowerment principles with other frameworks, such  as the Theory of Change, to create a more comprehensive approach that leverages narrative, qualitative procedural, and logical methods while ensurin...
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