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East Afr. J. Biophys. Comput. Sci. (2022), Vol. 3, Issue. 2, 40-47 
 

 

 

 

*Corresponding author: 

  Email: mereba480@gmail.com,  +251 916 83 24 19 https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/eajbcs.v3i2.1S 

 
 

 

 

Ovine Eimeria infection, OPG and determinants in and around Gondar town, Ethiopia 

Senait Belay1 and Desie Sheferaw*1 
 

1Hawassa University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, P.O.Box 005, Hawassa, Ethiopia; 
 

 

 

KEYWORDS:  

Eimeria;  

Gondar; 

OPG; 

Prevalence;  

Sheep; 

Ethiopia 

 

 

 

 

 

ABSTRACT 

The study aimed to assess the prevalence of ovine Eimeria infection, assess the putative 

risk factors, and the intensity of infection. A cross-sectional study design was employed 

and the study was carried out from November 2017 to May 2018. A total of 422 sheep 

were selected by systematic random sampling technique, and from these animals, faecal 

samples were collected and examined for Eimeria oocysts. Of the selected and examined 

sheep 132 (31.3%, 95% CI=26.8-35.7) were found infected by Eimeria species. Eimeria 

infection prevalence was significant (P <0.05) higher in lambs/young than the adult, in 

females than males, and in poor body condition than in medium body condition sheep. 

Moreover, the prevalence of Eimeria infection was significantly (P <0.05) higher in sheep 

with soft faeces than in normal faeces sheep and semi-intensive than extensive sheep 

production. The intensity of Eimeria species infection was influenced by the age, sex, 

body condition, fecal consistency, and production system of sheep (P< 0.05). The overall 

mean Oocysts per gram of faeces was 2390.6 (95% CI=2007.5-2773.8). The mean OPG 

was significantly higher in lambs, with poor body conditions and female sheep. In 

addition, it was higher in sheep with soft faeces and an extensive production system. In 

conclusion Eimeria species infection was an important problem of sheep production in the 

study area. Generally, this study's results provided useful information to design and 

implement appropriate control strategies. Finally, it is recommended that further study 

identify the species of Eimeria circulating in the areas. 

  

 

INTRODUCTION 

Ethiopia is home to a large and diverse livestock 

resource (Gizaw et al., 2010); and the country 

has around 17 million sheep (CSA, 2021). This 

means sheep represent an important segment of 

the livestock system in the country. Sheep are 

important sources of income for the agricultural 

communities, represent one of the country’s 

major sources of foreign currency through the 

export of skins and meat, and are a source of 

animal protein. They also play a major role in 

the food supply and social well-being of rural 

communities living in conditions of extreme 

poverty, which is the particular case in parts of 

Ethiopia (Dagnew et al., 2017; Gizachew et al., 

2014). The major constraints for sheep 

production in Ethiopia are feed shortage, 

grazing land limitation, problems related to 

Veterinary Services, and diseases (Welday et 

al., 2019; Kenfo et al., 2018; Nigussie et al., 

2013).  

According to Gizaaw et al. (2013), one of the 

research gaps is sheep diseases, of which 

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Hawassa University

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East Afr. J. Biophys. Comput. Sci. (2022), Vol. 3, No. 2, 40-47 
 

41 

parasites are among the most important 

diseases. Among parasitic diseases, Coccidiosis 

is an important protozoan parasitic infection that 

is responsible for low productivity, impaired 

growth, and mortality in sheep populations 

(Ayana et al., 2009). It is caused by a protozoan 

parasite of the genus Eimeria that affects young 

animals in particular (Hendson and Agnes, 

2002). They are highly species-specific, 

meaning the species of Eimeria that infect sheep 

will not infect goats or cattle and vice versa 

(Constable et al., 2017; Aitken, 2007). 

Coccidiosis in sheep was reported in various 

parts of the world (Khan et al., 2011; Bukar, 

2007; Toulah, 2007). Also reported from 

Ethiopia (Lakew and Seyoum, 2016; Ayana et 

al., 2009), but in the country, there are some 

areas with limited information about the 

prevalence of Eimeria species infection in the 

sheep. There is no study of Eimeria species 

infection prevalence of sheep in and around 

Gondar. Therefore, the aims of this particular 

study were to estimate the prevalence of 

Eimeria species infection, to identify the 

putative risk factors and to assess the intensity 

of infection in sheep in and around Gondar. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Study Area 

This study was carried out in and around 

Gondar town (Azezo, Tseda, Maksegnit, 

Angereb, Ayra and Fenter Kebeles) from 

November 2017 to May 2018. Gondar town is 

located in Amhara regional State, North-West 

Ethiopia.  The study area is located at an latitude 

and longitude of 12.30 - 13.80 °N, 35.30 - 

35.7°E; and its altitude is on average about 2220 

meters above sea level. The mean annual 

rainfall and temperature of the area were 

1172mm and 19.7oC, respectively (National 

Meteorological Agency, 2017).  

Study animals 

The study animals of the study were sheep flock 

reared under an extensive and semi-intensive 

management system. All grazing age groups, 

local breed,, and both sexes of sheep were 

considered for the study (Breed information was 

obtained with personal communication with the 

owners).  

Study design  

Across sectional study design was employed to 

estimate the prevalence of Eimeria infection of 

sheep in and around Gondar town. During this 

study faecal consistency, age, sex and body 

condition of the sheep, the hygienic status of the 

animal house and management system were 

considered as potential risk factors (independent 

variables) for Eimeria infection (dependent 

variable) of sheep. The study animals were 

divided into three age groups, namely: lamb 

(less than 6 months old), young (6-12 months 

old), and adult (over 12 months old) as 

described by ESGPIP (2009) and Gatenby et al. 

(1991). Faecal consistency was examined and 

classified as normal (Formed pellets), soft 

(Pellets not formed) as described by (Platzer et 

al., 2005).  Body conditions of the study 

animals were scored as poor, medium, and good 

as described by Russel (1991). 

Sample size determination & sampling 

techniques  

The required sample size for this study was 

computed by considering 50% prevalence of 

ovine Eimeria spp. infection, to obtain the 



East Afr. J. Biophys. Comput. Sci. (2022), Vol. 3, No. 2, 40-47 
 

42 

maximum sample size. The formula described 

by Thrusfield (2018) was used to compute the 

sample size required for the study. The study 

considered a 95% confidence interval and 5% 

absolute precision. Therefore, 384 sheep were 

required for the study; but 422 animals were 

selected and studied. A systematic random 

sampling method was used to select the study 

animals from the target sheep flock. 

Study methodology  

Faecal sample collection  

Faecal samples, about 10gm, were collected 

directly from the rectum of the sheep by using 

arm-length plastic gloves, and placed in screw 

capped universal sample bottle. Each samples 

was labeled with the necessary information 

about the animal and the sample (i.e. age, sex, 

faecal consistency and body condition score) 

were recorded on the format prepared for this 

study. Moreover, the hygienic status of the 

animal and the management system was 

carefully observed. Finally, the samples were 

packed in icebox with ice packs and transported 

to the parasitological laboratory of the Faculty 

of Veterinary Medicine, Gondar University. The 

samples were kept in refrigerator at 4ºC until 

examined. Collected samples were examined 

within 24 hours for the presence or absence of 

Eimeria oocysts as described previously (Taylor 

et al. 2016; Zajac and Conboy, 2011). 

Qualitative and Quantitative faecal examination 

From the collected faecal samples, 3gm was 

weighed and properly mixed with 42ml flotation 

fluid (Saturated salt solution). Then sieved by 

tea strainer and filled to test tube, and then 

centrifuged at 1,500 rpm for 3 minutes. The 

sample taken out of the centrifuge and the 

supernatant was examined for Eimeria oocysts 

under 10X and 40X microscopic magnifications 

as described by Urquhart et al. (1996). Those 

faecal samples positive in the qualitative 

examination were subjected to quantitative 

examination. For this examination, McMaster 

egg counting technique (Urquhart et al., 1996; 

MAFF, 1986) was used to determine the number 

of oocysts per gram of faeces and assess the 

intensity of infection.  

Data management and analysis 

Collected data were entered into a Microsoft 

Excel spreadsheet, cleaned, coded, and then 

summarized by descriptive statistics like 

percentages or proportion and mean. The 

prevalence of Eimeria infection was computed 

by dividing the number of positive animals by 

the total number of animals examined and 

multiplied by 100. The association of the 

various risk factors considered for this study 

was analyzed by univariable logistic regression 

analysis. Those non-collinear factors with a p-

value of ≤ 0.25 in the univariable logistic 

regression analysis were further analyzed by 

multivariable logistic regression analysis. The 

dependability of the fitted model was further 

evaluated using the receiver operating 

characteristic curve (ROC). Finally, the model 

fitness was assessed by the Hosmer-Lemeshow 

goodness fit test as described by Dohoo et al. 

(2009). The mean number of oocysts per gram 

of faeces was computed by considering those 

sheep positive in the qualitative examination for 

oocysts. Oocysts per gram of faeces was 

determined and then after, to normalize the data 

were log-transformed (log10+1). The transformed 

data were analyzed by using a t-test for the 

existence of associations between oocysts per 



East Afr. J. Biophys. Comput. Sci. (2022), Vol. 3, No. 2, 40-47 
 

43 

gram of faeces (OPG) and the risk factors were 

analyzed by paired t-test. For the data analysis, 

STATA 14.2 software (Stata Corp 4905 

Lakeway Drive, College Station, Texas 77845 

USA) was used.  

RESULTS  

Qualitative faecal examination results 

From a total of 422 examined sheep 132 

(31.3%, 95% CI=26.8-35.7) were infected by 

Eimeria species. The association of risk factors 

for infection of sheep by Eimeria species was 

shown in table 1.   

 

Table- 1: Results of Lgistic regression analysis of risk factrs for Eimeria infection in sheep in 

and around Gondar 

 

Variable 

 

Category 

 

No. 

examined 

     Prevalence Univariable Multivariable 

No. (%) 

positive 

95% CI OR P-value OR 95% CI P-value 

Age Lamb 96 56 (58.3) 48.4-68.3 6.3 ≤0.001 5.4 3.2-11.9 ≤0.001 

 Young 151 44 (29.1) 21.8-36.4 1.8 0. 022 2.8 1.3-4.2 0.005 

 Adult 175 32 (18.3) 12.5-24.0 Rf. - Rf - - 

Sex Male 237 96 (19.5) 13.7-25.2 Rf. - Rf - - 

 Female 185 36 (40.5) 34.2-46.8 2.8 ≤0.001 3.8 1.7-4.9 ≤0.001 

Faecal 

consistency 

Normal 242 56 (23.1) 17.8-28.4 Rf. - Rf. - - 

Soft  180 76 (42.2) 35.0-49.5 2.4 ≤0.001 5.7 2.6-7.1 ≤0.001 

BCS Poor 147 73 (49.7) 41.5-57.8 3.6 ≤0.001 2.2 1.1-3.0 0.030 

 Medium 275 59 (21.5) 16.6-23.3 Rf. - Rf - - 

Managemen

t  system 

Extensive 244 43 (17.6) 12.8-22.4 Rf. - Rf - - 

Semi-intensive 178 89 (50.0) 42.6-57.4 4.7 ≤0.001 5.7 2.6-7.1 ≤0.001 

Total   422 132 (31.3) 26.8-35.7  - - - - 

BCS= Body condition;  NB. OR= Odds ratio; CI= Confidence interval; Rf=Reference category 

 

All the independent variables were non-

collinear [gamma value (γ) value fall between -

0.6 and +0.6], and the univariable analysis p-

value was <0.25.  Hence, all the risk factors 

were subjected to multivariable analysis. The 

final model had Hosmer-Lemeshow χ2 (8) = 

13.66, P= 0.091, and ROC= 0.7621 that there is 

no significant difference between the observed and 

predicted values. 

Quantitative faecal examination result  

The minimum and maximum numbers of 

Oocysts per gram of faeces (OPG) were 300 and 

12,500, respectively. The overall mean OPG of 

faeces was 2390.6 Oocysts/gram of faeces 

(Table 2). 

 

 

 



East Afr. J. Biophys. Comput. Sci. (2022), Vol. 3, No. 2, 40-47 
 

44 

Table- 2: Mean OPG and t-test analysis of risk factors for intensity of Eimeria species infection  

Risk factors and its levels No 

examined 

No 

positive 

Mean 

OPG 

95% CI t-value P-value 

Sex *Female 237 96 2618.9 2146.4-3091.3 4.95 ≤0.001 

*Male 185 36 1781.9 1172.0-2391.9 Rf.  

Age -Lamb 96 56 3294.8 2638.3-3951.3 8.01 ≤0.001 

-Young 151 44 1920.5 1324.7-2516.2 2.44 0.015 

-Adult 175 32 1454.7 914.8-1994.6 Rf.  

Body condition *Poor 147 73 3266.6 2714.7-3818.4 7.12 ≤0.001 

*Medium 275 59 1306.8 931.1-1682.5 Rf.  

Faecal consistency -Soft 180 76 3008.7 2462.5-3554.9 4.84 ≤0.001 

-Normal 242 56 1551.8 1107.0-1996,6 Rf.  

Management 

system  

*Extensive 244 43 2061.6 1421.5-2701.8 Rf  

*Semi-intensive 178 89 2549.6 2067.9-3031.2 7.62 ≤0.001 

Overall 422 132 2390.6 2007.5-2773.8   

 

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 

The prevalence of Eimeria species infection of 

sheep in and around Gondar was 31.3%. All risk 

factors considered during this study for Eimeria 

species infection of sheep were significantly (p< 

0.05) influencing infection of sheep by Eimeria 

species.  Lamb and young sheep were 5.4 and 

2.8 times more likely to be exposed to Eimeria 

species infection than the adult sheep, 

respectively. Similar observations were reported 

from various areas of the world (Elkhatam et al., 

2020; Etsay et al., 2020; Paul et al., 2020; 

Kiltuet al., 2016; Nourollahi-Fard et al., 2016; 

Lakew and Seyoum, 2016; Wang et al., 2010; 

Maingi and Munyua, 1994; Kanyari, 1993). 

Infection of sheep followed by the development 

of species-specific immunity, and so, sheep 

infected and immune to one species of Eimeria 

may not be re-infected again by the same 

species of Eimeria. This difference might be 

related to earlier infection and the development 

of immunity in adult sheep (Matos et al., 2018; 

Constable et al., 2017; Rehman et al., 2011; 

Yakhchali and Golami, 2008). The other 

justification could be there is no active 

immunity to Eimeria species in younger naïve 

sheep (Paul et al., 2020). 

This study showed that Eimeria infection was 

significantly (P< 0.05) higher in female sheep 

than in male sheep as also reported by various 

authors (Elkhatam et al., 2020; Etsay et al., 

2020; Paul et al., 2020; Sharma et al., 2017; 

Kiltu et al., 2016; Khan et al., 2011; Rehman et 

al., 2011; Sharma et al., 2009; Yakhchali and 

Golami, 2008), which reported sex influences 

the prevalence of ovine Coccidiosis. This might 

be attributed to sex-related factors including the 

physiological stress encountered by the ewe (i.e. 

pregnancy; lambing, and suckling the newborn 

lamb), which was the reason for the ewe being 

more susceptible to Eimeria infections (Heidari 

et al., 2014; Lopes et al., 2013). 

A significantly higher (P< 0.05) prevalence of 

Eimeria infection was found in semi-intensive 

than extensive production systems of sheep, 

which is also reported in various areas of the 



East Afr. J. Biophys. Comput. Sci. (2022), Vol. 3, No. 2, 40-47 
 

45 

world (de Macedo et al., 2020; Lakew and 

Seyoum, 2016; Kanyari, 1993). In an extensive 

management system, animals are freely moving 

in larger areas, and hence, the chance of 

infection is decreased as compared to the semi-

intensive management system. It is known that a 

semi-intensive management system (i.e. where 

high animal population density occurs) 

contributed to the propagation of Eimeria 

species (de Macedo et al., 2020). As the flock 

size of sheep increases, there is greater 

contamination of feeding and watering troughs 

(Yakhchali and Rezaei, 2014). Hence, 

confinement was found to contribute to high 

prevalence (Kanyari, 1993).  

In this study, a significant association was 

documented between body condition score and 

Eimeria infection. Similarly, Lakew and 

Seyoum (2016) and Khan et al. (2011) reported 

a higher infection rate in sheep with poor body 

condition scores. The poor body condition in 

sheep might be due to the immunosuppressive 

effect of concurrent disease problems and/or 

nutritional scarcity. All these can negatively 

influence the animal feed intake and weaken the 

immunity, and the sheep become highly 

susceptible and get infected (Constable et al., 

2017). 

During this study, a significant (P< 0.05) 

association of Eimeria species infection was 

observed in sheep with soft faecal consistency 

than the normal faeces. This finding is in a 

general agreement with reports from various 

parts of the world (Khodakaram-Tafti and 

Hashemnia, 2017; Lakew and Seyoum, 2016; 

Yakhchali and Rezaei, 2014; Yakhchali and 

Golami, 2008). Infection by most of the 

pathogenic Eimeria species leads to the 

destruction of intestinal epithelial cells and 

induces enteritis followed by diarrhea 

(Constable et al., 2017; Chartier, and Paraud, 

2012; Wang et al., 2010; Urquhart et al., 1996).  

The mean oocysts count from infected animals 

was 2390 OPG (range 300 to 12,500). The mean 

was meaningfully higher (p< 0.05) in lamb and 

young, female, and poor body condition sheep. 

In addition, it was statistically significant (p< 

0.05) in sheep with soft faecal consistency and 

semi-intensively managed (Table 2). Higher 

oocyst counts were reported in lamb and/or 

young sheep (Chartier and Paraud, 2012; Arslan 

et al., 1999; Maingi and Munyua, 1994; 

Kanyari, 1993) and the semi-intensive 

production systems (Chartier and Paraud, 2012) 

from various areas. The negative association 

between OPG and the age of sheep was a result 

of acquired immunity (Kanyari, 1993). Factors 

inducing stress, for example, increased number 

of animals in an area like in the semi-intensive 

production system, and loss of body condition 

might increase the oocysts output.   

In a nut shell, the present study revealed that the 

prevalence of Eimeria species infection in sheep 

is higher. And it was significantly associated 

with various host-related (i.e. Age, sex, body 

condition, and faecal consistency) and 

environmental factors (i.e. Production system).  

So, this result provided useful information to 

design and implement appropriate control 

strategies. Finally, it is recommended that 

further to study identify the species of Eimeria 

circulating in the areas. 

Limitation of the study 

The major limitation of the study was lack of 

facilities for Eimeria spp. identification. 



East Afr. J. Biophys. Comput. Sci. (2022), Vol. 3, No. 2, 40-47 
 

46 

List of Abbreviations 

CSA: Central Statistical Authority; OPG: 

Oocysts per gram of faeces; ROC: Receiver 

operating characteristic curve.  

Acknowledgment 

The authors were grateful to the Faculty of 

Veterinary Medicine, Gondar University, for 

providing access to the laboratory service. 

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