©Haramaya University, 2022 ISSN 1993-8195 (Online), ISSN 1992-0407(Print) East African Journal of Sciences (2022) Volume 16(2): 171-186 Licensed under a Creative Commons *Corresponding author: teshome.geremew@astu.edu.et Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. Knowledge, Attitude, and Management Practices of Stakeholders towards Fungal Invasion and Mycotoxin Contamination of Wheat and Maize in Ethiopia Teshome Geremew Biru* and Zerihun Belay Gemta Department of Applied Biology, School Applied Natural Science, Adama Science and Technology University, P. O. Box 1888, Adama Ethiopia Abstract Background: Filamentous fungi cause deterioration in grain quality and release harmful mycotoxins. Cereals are vulnerable to fungal invasion and mycotoxin contamination starting from the field to post- harvest storage and processing. However, information is limited on the fungal invasion of cereals and mycotoxin contamination in Ethiopia. Objective: The study was aimed at determining the knowledge, attitude, and management practices of respondents towards fungi and their mycotoxin contaminations. Materials and Methods: A total of 438 participants were sampled from four top wheat and maize producing Zones (Bale, West Arsi, East Shoa, and West Shoa) from Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. Descriptive analysis, mean ranking, and test of significances were used to analyze the data. Results: Based on the results obtained, the overall mean score level of knowledge of respondents towards fungal invasion and mycotoxin contamination was very low (1.81). The highest mean score level of knowledge towards fungal invasion and mycotoxin contamination was 2.54 for respondents working as agricultural experts and the minimum score (1.31) was obtained for respondents with elementary educational background. A significant difference in mean knowledge level (P < 0.01) was observed on the questions related to fungi and their mycotoxins among farmers, agricultural experts, merchants, teachers and other participants. The overall mean attitude level of respondents was 4.16. The highest mean attitude level (4.49) was obtained for teachers and the lowest mean attitude level (3.94) was obtained for respondents with elementary education background. The overall mean practice level of respondents towards reducing fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination was low (1.9). A comparison of mean practice levels base on occupation type showed significant (P < 0.01) differences among the various occupation types. Conclusion: The study revealed knowledge about fungi and mycotoxin contamination is generally very low among farmers. This signals the need for providing training for farmers at all levels on toxin producing fungi and the danger of their mycotoxins present to humans and animals. Keywords: Attitude; Cereals; Knowledge; Occupation type; Respondents 1. Introduction Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) are important sources of carbohydrate and constitute the dominant portion of staple cereals in Ethiopia both in urban and rural areas (Sheehy et al., 2019). These cereals are vulnerable to fungal invasion and mycotoxin contamination starting from the field to post-harvest storage and processing until being served on a table (Ünüsan, 2019; Leite et al., 2020). The majority of the farmers in the country are way back from good agricultural practices, and the crops produced are highly subjected to fungal invasion and mycotoxin contamination (Haftom Kebede et al., 2020). Beside the poor agricultural practice, the fungi take advantage of the warm climatic condition of the country to invade the grains and release their toxic secondary metabolites into the grains (Temba et al., 2021). These aforementioned conditions are aggravated by the lack of awareness about the conditions favoring fungal growth and proliferation. mailto:teshome.geremew@astu.edu.et Teshome and Zerihun East African Journal of Sciences Volume 16(2): 171-186 172 Fungal invasion on wheat and maize reduces the visual quality of the grain and results in a deteriorated price of the grain. Fungal invasion before harvest could unstoppably lead to post-harvest grain deterioration, quality loss, price reduction, and consumer health hazards (Schmidt et al., 2016). This grain quality loss and health hazards are many-fold in developing countries like Ethiopia where manual harvesting and threshing of grains are widely practiced (Wondimeneh Taye et al., 2018). Fungi are a highly diverse group of organisms capable of colonizing diverse substrates and impart their mycotoxins to the substrate (Leite et al., 2020). Mycotoxins are fungal secondary metabolites that are toxic to human and animal cells of which the dominant mycotoxins are produced by fungi belonging to the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria (Geremew Teshome et al., 2016; Escriva et. al, 2017). The major mycotoxins based on their occurrence and impact on human and animal health comprises aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, deoxynevalinone, citrinine, and patuline (Schmidt et al., 2016). Among these mycotoxins aflatoxins are the most carcinogenic of all naturally occurring fungal secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus (Temesgen Asefa et al., 2020). Ochratoxins are mainly produced by a diverse group of filamentous fungi among the genus Aspergillus including Aspergillus westerdijkiae, Aspergillus ochraceus, and Aspergillus steynii, and by the genus Penicillium (P. notatum) (Geremew Teshome et al., 2016; Escriva el al., 2017). Ochratoxins exerts nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, genotoxic, immunosuppressive, and carcinogenic effects on animal cells (IARC, 1993; Sorrenti et al., 2013). Fumonisins are produced by Fusarium verticillioides and F. proliferatum, and Penicillium fumonisins (Deepa et al., 2016) targeting kidneys and liver (Ünüsan, 2019). These mycotoxins have ever raised human and animal health concerns due to their wider occurrence in different agricultural products. Fungal toxins can occur in different cereal grains like maize, sorghum, wheat, rice, barley, and oat and animal feeds (Ogunade et al., 2018). The toxin-producing fungi possibly get access to the cereals during pre-harvest, during harvest, or post-harvesting during storage and processing. Once toxin producing fungi get access to the grains or any other product destined for human consumption dietary exposure to mycotoxin will follow (Atongbiik et al., 2017). Food processing practices like grinding, juice extraction, fermenting, roasting, boiling, could not result in the complete removal of mycotoxins from the food commodities (Pallarés et al., 2019). Several reports showed the dietary exposure of human to different mycotoxins trigger acute or chronic toxicity (Pallarés et al., 2019; Vin et al., 2020). In developing countries where the poor agricultural practice coupled with food insecurity, the already disadvantageous communities consume low-quality cereals and become more vulnerable to mycotoxin dietary exposure. Fungal invasion and preventive measures against their mycotoxins are based on the understanding of the prevailing environmental conditions for the proliferation and spread of the fungi and their spores. Ethiopian wheat and maize producing farmers have some indigenous knowledge on how to protect their crops from insect and pest infestation during pre- and post-harvest processing (Duressa Tarekegn 2018; Birhanu Hiruy and Emana Getu, 2018). However, it was hypothesized that the farmers might have no adequate knowledge of the nature of toxin producing fungi, mycotoxins and their health impacts, and the prevention mechanism to fungal invasion. It was speculated that lack of understanding of these fungi and mycotoxins leads to the consumption of wheat and maize invaded by the fungi. Thus, the main objective of this study was to investigate the knowledge, attitude, and practices of stakeholders towards fungi and mycotoxins in maize and wheat. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the variable most affecting the practice of participants in reducing fungal invasion and mycotoxin contamination in wheat and maize production. 2. Material and Methods 2.1. Study Locations, Participants, and Design A total of 438 participants were selected based on quota sampling from top maize and wheat-producing zones of Oromia regional state (Figures 1, 2 and 3). Seven top wheat and maize producing districts were selected based on their production potential and the respondents included were farmers, agricultural experts (AEs), merchants, teachers, and other consumers. The participants in the study districts were drawn from eight towns and 16 rural villages based on quota sampling techniques. Zonal administrations, districts, and villages were selected based on maize and wheat production potential. The study was designed to obtain a better composition of participants from all sampling districts. Teshome and Zerihun Fungal and Mycotoxin Contamination of Wheat and Maize 173 Figure 1. Absolute location map of West Shoa Zone, Oromia National Regional State of Ethiopia. Figure 2. Absolute location map of East Shoa Zone, Oromia National Regional State of Ethiopia. Teshome and Zerihun East African Journal of Sciences Volume 16(2): 171-186 174 Figure 3. Absolute location map of East Show, Bale and West Arsi Zones of Oromia National Regional State of Ethiopia. Sixteen interview administrators with a minimum academic qualification of diploma were recruited and trained for two days on how to perform a survey and administer interview questions. A simple manual was prepared for the interview administrator and pretested during the time of selecting respondents. The survey was conducted from 20 January to 4 February 2018. A team consisting of three individuals (two trained interview administrators and one agricultural extension worker as a village guide) with all the necessary facilities was deployed to every district. Sampling of the respondents was based on the quota method and once the quota was allocated, interview administrators began from the center of the village and proceeded towards the east side of the village by sampling every third household. In case, a household head was not available for the interview, the next household was sampled and the procedure continued eastwards until all the targeted households were interviewed. Once eastward households were all interviewed, the same procedure was followed starting from the center to the west, north, and south until the required respondents were obtained. 2.2. Administering Questionnaires Three categories of questionnaires were prepared to capture knowledge, attitude, and practice of respondents. The first category contained knowledge-related questions, the second category contained attitude-related and the third category contained practice-related questions. A team containing two individuals per village administered the questionnaires. A principal investigator and a co- investigator were assigned to supervise the interview administration process. All the questionnaire administrators were trained and their competence in questionnaire administration skills was deemed satisfactory based on a pretesting exercise. Before administering the questioners, verbal consent was obtained using a standardized consent script. The questionnaires were administered in local languages (Afaan Oromo or Amharic). The completed questionnaires were manually checked for clarity and completeness and coded before being entered into Epi Info. The data were exported to Microsoft excel and analyzed using R Statistical software and SPSS V20. 2.3. Data Analysis For statistical evaluation of the data R statistical software version 3.0.3, SPSS version 20, and Microsoft Excel were used. Pearson correlation analysis was performed to see the relationship between socio-demographic factors and mean knowledge level. Descriptive analysis was carried out to summarize the socio-demographic characteristics Teshome and Zerihunn Fungal and Mycotoxin Contamination of Wheat and Maize 175 of the respondents based on frequency distribution and percentages. Mean ranking analysis was used to understand the stakeholders’ knowledge, attitude and management practice level towards fungal invasion and mycotoxin contamination. Kruskal Wallis test (α = 0.05) was performed to examine significant differences between the mean knowledge, attitude, and practice levels of the respondents. 3. Results 3.1. Socio-demographic Characteristics of the Respondents The results of the socio-demographic characteristics showed that 75% of the respondents were male and 25% were female (Table 1). One hundred and forty-one (32.2%) of the participants were aged between 31 to 40 years. One hundred and thirty-three (30.4%) of the respondents were in the age group of 21 to 30 years. The remaining 93 (21.2%) and 58 (13.2%) of the participants were aged between 41 and 50, and above 50 years, respectively. Some 13 (3%) of the participants were between the age of 18 and 20 years. Three hundred and seventy-five (85%) of the respondents were married and the remaining 47 (10.7%), nine (2.1%), and seven (1.6%) were single, widowed, and divorced, respectively. 3.2. Knowledge of Respondents towards Fungi Invasion and Mycotoxin Contamination on Wheat and Maize The overall mean score level of knowledge of respondents towards fungal invasion and mycotoxin contamination was very low (1.81) (Table 2). The highest mean score level of knowledge towards fungal invasion and mycotoxin contamination was 2.54 for respondents working as agricultural experts and the minimum score (1.31) was obtained for respondents with the background of elementary education (Figure 4). No significant difference was observed in the level of knowledge between males and females (P > 0.05) (Table 3 Table 1. Socio-demographic profile of the respondents in the four administrative Zones of Oromia National Regional State during the 2018 cropping year. Variable Variable class Frequency Percent Gender Male 327 74.7 Female 111 25.3 Total 438 100 Age <20 13 3 21-30 133 30.4 31-40 141 32.2 41-50 93 21.2 51 and above 58 13.2 Total 438 100 Marital status Divorced 7 1.6 Married 375 85.6 Single 47 10.7 Widowed 9 2.1 Total 438 100 Educational status No education 98 22.4 Grade 1-4 64 14.6 Grade 5-8 118 26.9 Grade 9-12 73 16.7 Diploma and above 85 19.4 Total 438 100 Occupation 1. Farmers 236 53.9 2. Merchant 53 12.1 3. Agricultural Expert 19 4.3 4. Teacher 18 4.1 5. Other 112 25.6 Total 438 100 Teshome and Zerihun East African Journal of Sciences Volume 16(2): 171-186 176 Table 2. Mean knowledge level of respondents in four administrative zones of Oromia National Regional State during the 2018 cropping year. Statements capturing knowledge of respondents Responses Standard deviation 1(no) 2(not sure) 3(yes) Mean Number % Number % Number % Have you ever heard about the name fungi/mold 108 24.7 49 11.2 281 64.2 2.39 0.86 Have you heard of the word mycotoxin 362 82.6 23 5.3 53 12.1 1.29 0.67 Have you heard of the word Afflation 270 61.6 25 5.7 43 9.8 1.25 0.62 Have you heard of the word Ochratoxin 422 96.3 0 0.0 16 3.7 1.08 0.38 Have you heard of the word Fumonisin 394 90.0 26 5.9 18 4.1 1.14 0.45 Have you heard about mycotoxins occurrence in maize 298 68.0 5 1.1 135 30.8 1.63 0.92 Have you heard about mycotoxins occurrence in wheat 288 65.8 37 8.4 113 25.8 1.60 0.87 Do you know that mycotoxins can cause disease 129 29.5 67 15.3 242 55.3 2.26 0.88 Do you know that mycotoxins can cause stunting 184 42.0 144 32.9 110 25.1 1.83 0.80 Do you know that mycotoxins can cause cancer 203 46.3 157 35.8 78 17.8 1.71 0.75 Do you know that mycotoxins can suppress immunity 160 36.5 149 34.0 129 29.5 1.93 0.81 Do you know that mycotoxins can harm livestock 224 51.1 91 20.8 123 28.1 1.77 0.86 Do you know that mycotoxins survive cooking temperature 198 45.2 127 29.0 113 25.8 1.81 0.82 Do you know that mycotoxins accumulate in animal products 205 46.8 127 29.0 106 24.2 1.77 0.81 Do you know that the ware houses hold be checked frequently 141 32.2 21 4.8 276 63.0 2.31 0.93 Do you know that wheat and maize should be free from mites and insects 154 35.2 8 1.8 276 63.0 2.28 0.95 Do you know that mycotoxin can cause stomachache 146 33.3 48 11.0 244 55.7 2.22 0.93 Do you know that mycotoxins can cause headache 205 46.8 104 23.7 129 29.5 1.83 0.86 Do you know that mycotoxins can cause fever 204 46.6 121 27.6 113 25.8 1.79 0.83 Do you know that mycotoxins can cause vomiting 174 39.7 105 24.0 159 36.3 1.97 0.87 Do you know that molds are harmful to human and animals 141 32.2 56 12.8 242 55.3 2.23 0.91 Mean and Standard Deviation 1.81 0.15 Teshome and Zerihunn Fungal and Mycotoxin Contamination of Wheat and Maize 177 Table 3. Knowledge of respondents by gender and occupation types in four administrative zones of Oromia National Regional State during the 2018 cropping year. Statements capturing knowledge of respondents Gender Occupation Male Female Farmers Agricultur al experts Teachers Merchants Others Have you ever heard about the name fungi/mold 2.45 2.24 2.06 3.00 2.89 2.83 2.72 Have you heard of the word mycotoxins 1.32 1.23 1.15 2.58 1.56 1.30 1.34 Have you heard of the word Aflation 1.28 1.17 1.11 2.53 1.44 1.19 1.33 Have you heard of the word Ochratoxin 1.10 1.00 1.03 1.63 1.11 1.00 1.09 Have you heard of the word Fumonisins 1.15 1.11 1.08 1.74 1.28 1.09 1.17 Have you heard about mycotoxins occurrence in maize 1.61 1.68 1.48 2.79 1.89 1.94 1.55 Have you heard about mycotoxins occurrence in wheat 1.60 1.59 1.50 2.47 1.89 1.68 1.58 Do you know that mycotoxins can cause disease 2.31 2.10 1.97 2.84 2.56 2.45 2.62 Do you know that mycotoxins can cause stunting 1.84 1.79 1.72 2.37 2.28 1.92 1.86 Do you know that mycotoxins can cause cancer 1.70 1.76 1.56 2.37 1.94 1.85 1.82 Do you know that mycotoxins can suppress immunity 1.94 1.90 1.74 2.63 2.50 1.89 2.14 Do you know that mycotoxins can harm livestock 1.78 1.73 1.58 2.74 2.17 1.83 1.90 Do you know that mycotoxins survive cooking temperature 1.83 1.73 1.68 2.16 2.00 1.96 1.90 Do you know that mycotoxins accumulate in animal products 1.79 1.73 1.60 2.68 2.11 1.91 1.88 Do you know that the warehouse should be checked frequently 2.38 2.11 2.04 2.74 2.50 2.58 2.63 Do you know that cereals should be free from mites and insects 2.34 2.11 1.99 2.68 2.39 2.64 2.63 Do you know that mycotoxins can cause stomachache 2.30 2.00 1.92 2.95 2.61 2.36 2.61 Do you know that mycotoxins can cause headache 1.85 1.77 1.67 2.63 2.28 1.87 1.92 Do you know that mycotoxins can cause fever 1.80 1.78 1.67 2.42 2.11 1.81 1.89 Do you know that mycotxins can cause vomiting 2.00 1.87 1.76 2.58 2.28 2.08 1.89 Do you know that molds are harmful to human and animals 2.28 2.08 1.92 2.89 2.78 2.57 2.20 Mean 1.84 1.74 1.63 2.54 2.12 1.94 1.94 Teshome and Zerihun East African Journal of Sciences Volume 16(2): 171-186 178 Comparison of mean knowledge level among the participants with various occupational types indicated that agricultural expertise has a higher knowledge level (2.54), and farmers have the lowest mean knowledge level (1.63) (Table 3). A significant difference in mean knowledge level (P < 0.00) was observed on the question related to fungi and their mycotoxins. Post hock test using kruskalmc test revealed the determining factors were higher education level and being an expert in the agricultural area. In this study, the knowledge level of respondents towards fungi and mycotoxin showed increasing with a better improved educational level (Figure 4). However, the difference in mean knowledge level is not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Figure 4. Median knowledge level of respondents by Educational background (Box = interquartile range, bold lines = median values, lower and upper hinges = lower and higher values). 3.3. Attitude of Respondents on Fungi Invasion and Mycotoxin The attitude of respondents towards reducing fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination in wheat and maize was presented in Table 4. The overall mean attitude level of respondents (4.16) showed the participants had a favorable attitude towards fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination in wheat and maize. The highest and the lowest mean attitude level, 4.49 and 3.94 (Table 5) were obtained from teachers and elementary educational background, respectively. No significant differences in attitudinal levels was observed between male and female (P > 0.77), among occupation type (P > 0.53), and educational background (P > 0.59). The majority of the respondents (97.3%) had a favorable attitude in response to the first two questions synthesized to capture the attitude of the responses (Table 4). However, all respondents did believe in consuming or selling moldy wheat and maize. Additionally, all respondents had no favorable attitude towards testing maize and wheat for mycotoxin (Table 4). Teshome and Zerihunn Fungal and Mycotoxin Contamination of Wheat and Maize 179 Table 4. Attitude of respondents towards fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination in wheat and maize in four administrative zones of Oromia National Regional State during the 2018 cropping year. Note: 1 = Strongly disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Neutral; 4 = Agree; and 5 = Strongly agree. Table 5. The attitude of respondents in relation to gender, occupation, and educational background in four administrative zones of Oromia National Regional State during the 2018 cropping year. Statements to capture respondents attitude Responses Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree Mean Standard deviation No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % I believe cereals should be stored in dry and clean storage material 1 0.2 9 2.1 2 0.5 112 25.6 314 71.7 4.66 0.62 I believe that cereals should be transported appropriately packed and don’t be re-wet 6 1.4 11 2.5 6 1.4 144 32.9 271 61.9 4.51 0.77 I believe that moldy cereals should not be consumed or soled 27 6.2 104 23.7 12 2.7 125 28.5 170 38.8 3.7 1.35 I believe that testing maize and whet for mycotoxin is important 47 10.7 37 8.4 28 6.4 184 42 142 32.4 3.77 1.28 Mean and Standard deviation 4.16 0.36 Statements to capture respondents attitude Gender Occupation Educational background Male Female Farmers Agri. experts Teachers Merchants Others No education Elem. Junior High school Diploma and above I believe cereals should be stored in dry and clean storage material 4.69 4.58 4.67 4.84 4.56 4.42 4.76 4.74 4.57 4.70 4.73 4.58 I believe that cereals should be transported appropriately packed and don’t be re-wet 4.57 4.33 4.52 4.53 4.44 4.36 4.58 4.53 4.48 4.42 4.63 4.53 I believe that moldy cereals should not be consumed or soled consumed or soled 3.68 3.77 3.68 3.95 4.39 3.47 3.71 4.10 3.38 3.60 3.66 3.68 I believe that testing maize and whet for mycotoxin is important 3.78 3.75 3.60 4.21 4.56 3.89 3.87 3.69 3.34 3.66 3.90 4.08 Mean 4.18 4.11 4.12 4.38 4.49 4.03 4.23 4.27 3.94 4.10 4.23 4.22 Teshome and Zerihun East African Journal of Sciences Volume 16(2): 171-186 180 3.4. Management Practice of Respondents towards Fungi Invasion and Mycotoxin The result indicated in Table 6 showed the management practice of the respondent applied to minimize fungal invasion and mycotoxin contamination of wheat and maize. The overall mean management practice level of respondents towards reducing fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination was low (1.9) (Table 6). The mean practice level obtained for males (1.94) was slightly higher than the mean practice level obtained for females (1.84) (Table 7). However, there was no significant (P > 0.05) difference between the mean practice levels obtained for males and females. Mean practice level to reduce fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination obtained for agricultural experts, merchants, teachers, and farmers were 2.35, 2.15, 2.13, and 1.73, respectively (Table 7). Comparison of mean practice levels based on occupation types showed significant (P < 0.01) differences among the various occupation types. Comparison of mean management practice levels base on the educational background (Figure 5), also showed significant differences among respondents with various educational backgrounds. The mean values of the practice levels were positively correlated with increasing education levels (Figure 5). The highest (2.2) and the lowest (1.34) mean practice levels were obtained for respondents with higher educational levels than diploma and elementary education levels respectively. Teshome and Zerihunn Fungal and Mycotoxin Contamination of Wheat and Maize 181 Table 6. Management practice of applied by respondent households to minimize fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination in wheat and maize. Practice of respondents to reduce fungal infection Responses 1(no) 2(not sure) 3(yes) Mean Standard deviation Number % Number % Number % Protect wheat and maize from contamination by soil and animal excreta 160 36.5 101 23.1 177 40.4 2.04 0.88 Use moldy wheat and maize at home 259 59.1 142 32.4 37 8.4 1.49 0.65 Check quality before buying for visible mold overgrowth 111 25.3 87 19.9 240 54.8 2.29 0.85 Check regularly the storage for insect, rodents, and dampness at home or warehouse 94 21.5 115 26.3 229 52.3 1.97 0.80 Check the storage temperature 160 36.5 130 29.7 148 33.8 1.97 0.87 Use moldy grains for making traditional beverage/Tella/ 231 52.7 119 27.2 88 20.1 1.67 0.79 Store inadequately dried grain 337 76.9 5 1.1 96 21.9 1.45 0.83 Place grains on bare soil ground 256 58.4 20 4.6 62 14.2 1.33 0.71 Keep wheat and maize in humid leaky soil 339 77.4 6 1.4 63 14.4 1.30 0.71 Eat foods with visible mold over growth 346 79.0 0 0.0 92 21.0 1.42 0.82 Early planting 182 41.6 58 13.2 198 45.2 2.20 0.95 Crop rotation 176 40.2 31 7.1 231 52.7 2.13 0.96 Proper soil nutrient management 183 41.8 44 10.0 221 50.5 2.06 0.95 Varity selection 190 43.4 31 7.1 217 49.5 2.06 0.96 Irrigation 294 67.1 79 18.0 65 14.8 1.48 0.74 insecticides 185 42.2 21 4.8 232 53.0 2.11 0.97 Timing of harvest 170 38.8 23 5.3 245 55.9 2.11 0.97 Hand sorting 189 43.2 41 9.4 208 47.5 2.17 0.96 Adequate/rapid drying 127 29.0 3 0.7 308 70.3 2.41 0.91 avoiding of floor contact 152 34.7 20 4.6 266 60.7 2.26 0.94 Rodent control 177 40.4 19 4.3 242 55.3 2.15 0.97 Winnowing 189 43.2 37 8.4 212 48.4 2.05 0.96 Mean and Standard deviation 1.91 0.10 Teshome and Zerihun East African Journal of Sciences Volume 16(2): 171-186 182 Table 7. The practice of respondents to reduce fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination based on gender and occupation. Practice of respondents to reduce fungal infection Gender Occupation Male Female Farmers AE Teachers Merchants Others Protect wheat and maize from contamination by soil and animal excreta 2.1 1.9 1.8 2.3 2.0 2.1 2.4 Use moldy wheat and maize at home 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.7 2.0 1.5 1.5 Check quality before buying for visible mold overgrowth 2.3 2.2 2.0 2.6 3.0 2.5 2.6 Check regularly the storage for insect, rodents, and dampness at home or warehouse 2.4 2.2 2.1 2.5 3.0 2.6 2.6 Check the storage temperature 2.0 1.9 1.9 2.1 2.0 2.1 2.1 Use moldy grains for making traditional beverage/Tella/ 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.8 2.0 1.8 1.7 Store inadequately dried grain 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.9 1.0 1.8 1.4 Place grains on bare soil ground 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.8 1.0 1.5 1.3 Keep wheat and maize in humid leaky soil 1.3 1.4 1.2 2.0 1.0 1.6 1.3 Eat foods with visible mold overgrowth 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.6 1.0 1.5 1.6 Early planting 2.1 2.0 1.9 2.4 2.0 2.2 2.2 Crop rotation 2.2 2.0 1.9 2.6 2.0 2.3 2.4 Proper soil nutrient management 2.1 2.0 1.9 2.5 2.0 2.3 2.2 Varity selection 2.1 1.9 1.9 2.5 2.0 2.2 2.3 Irrigation 1.5 1.5 1.3 2.2 2.0 1.6 1.5 Insecticides 2.1 2.0 1.9 2.6 3.0 2.2 2.4 Timing of harvest 2.2 2.0 1.9 2.7 3.0 2.6 2.4 Hand sorting 2.1 2.0 1.8 2.7 2.0 2.5 2.1 Adequate/rapid drying 2.5 2.2 2.1 2.9 2.6 2.8 2.8 Avoiding of floor contact 2.3 2.2 2.0 2.8 3.0 2.7 2.5 Rodent control 2.2 2.0 1.9 2.8 3.0 2.4 2.5 Winnowing 2.1 1.9 1.8 2.5 2.0 2.4 2.2 Mean 1.9 1.9 1.7 2.4 2.1 2.2 2.1 Note: AE = Agricultural experts. Teshome and Zerihunn Fungal and Mycotoxin Contamination of Wheat and Maize 183 Figure 5. Management practice of respondents towards minimizing fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination in relation to the educational background (Box = interquartile range, bold lines = median values, lower and upper hinges = lower and higher values). 4. Discussion The results of this study have demonstrated that the participants have a low mean knowledge level towards fungi and their mycotoxin. The majority of the respondents had little or no knowledge about the fungal invasion and their mycotoxins contamination in maize and wheat. This can be interpreted as a lack of awareness about fungi and their mycotoxin leads to a strong assumption that the community is at risk of fungal- derived mycotoxins. The result of this study is in line with the previous report from Malawi (Matumba et al., 2016) that revealed the lack of information on the health implication of fungal contamination and their mycotoxins in moldy foods and feedstuffs. A study from Malaysia (Sabran et al., 2012) also revealed a low level of respondents' knowledge regarding fungi and aflatoxin contamination in food commodities. A study by Matumba et al. (2016) showed that 98% of respondents were unaware of mycotoxin contamination in different fermented foods. However, the study reported by Mohd Azaman et al., 2016 indicated that a specific group of population linked with peanut-based productions has adequate knowledge, favorable attitude, and high hygiene practices towards aflatoxins contamination in peanut- based products with mean scores greater than average. It seems that most of the awareness creation activities in most parts of the world were associated with the risk of well-known aflatoxin contamination in peanut products (Mohd Azaman et al., 2016; Kibret Belayhun et al., 2019). The critical shortage of knowledge about fungi and mycotoxin underscores the need for awareness creation and education for the public in the study area. Analysis of the socio-demographical background of the respondents showed a better understanding of fungal infection and their mycotoxins as educational level increase. The most vulnerable portion of the population was the least educated group with little or no knowledge of fungi and mycotoxins. Mycotoxin studies focusing on Africa highlighted that due to the poor socio-economic conditions, most Africans are forced to consume mycotoxin contaminated food products and subsequently suffer from related health complications (Geremew Teshome et al., 2016; Tola Marta and Kebede Bedaso, 2016; Haftom Kebede et al., 2020). The overall mean attitude level of respondents (4.16) obtained in this finding showed that the participants had a favorable attitude towards fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination in wheat and maize. The lowest mean attitude level (3.7) was obtained for a statement “moldy cereals should not be consumed or sold” Table 4. This shows that regardless of their knowledge about fungi and mycotoxins, the respondents are consuming and/or selling moldy cereals implying that ignorance about the risk of consuming moldy cereals. This can be interpreted as an important area of intervention to change the attitude Teshome and Zerihun East African Journal of Sciences Volume 16(2): 171-186 184 of the respondents. The result didn’t show any correlation of mean attitude level with an educational background or occupation (Table 5) and did not support the assumption “knowledge might influence awareness as well as attitude, and subsequently, behavioral action of individuals” (Mohd Azaman et al., 2016; Toh and Birchenough, 2000). This is an indication of the need for educational training intervention to farmers, agricultural experts, merchants, and another group of the community regarding fungi and their mycotoxins in Ethiopia. The previous report also revealed the positive impact of education and training to minimize the risks associated with consuming contaminated foods by fungi and mycotoxins (Matumba et al., 2016). Analysis of mean management practice level towards reducing fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination based on educational background indicated that the mean practice levels obtained were generally low (1.9). Positive correlation of mean management practice level with increased education level (Figure 5) reveals the positive impact of increased educational level to alleviate the problem associated with fungal contamination and their mycotoxins. The result of this study was in agreement with the finding of earlier investigators who have reported a positive correlation of practice with a better educational background from different countries (Sanlier, 2009; Mohd Azaman et al., 2016). 5. Conclusion The results of this study have revealed that knowledge about fungi and mycotoxin contamination is generally very low among farmers. This signals the need for providing training for farmers at all levels on toxin producing fungi and the danger of their mycotoxins present to humans and animals. Making all stakeholders aware about toxin producing fungi and their mycotoxins should be the primary intervention activity. Secondly, despite the favorable attitude obtained from the majority of the respondents, all respondents had an established perception that consuming or selling moldy wheat or maize is safe, which is a dangerous belief. Consumers have no information on safety the products they consume either. Therefore, research institutions, universities, health, and agricultural institutions should work towards changing this established perception, make people aware that there is a danger of consuming aflatoxins with moldy and ill-stored cereal grains. Third, the low mean practice level towards reducing fungal invasion and mycotoxin production in the wheat and maize grains suggests the community is at risk of mycotoxin health hazards. The analysis of knowledge, attitude, and practice obtained from teachers and agricultural experts showed higher level of ignorance of the less educated participants of the study than the more educated ones about the danger of consuming moldy cereal grains poses to health. This clearly shows that education is a key tool to minimize the likelihood of consuming or selling moldy cereal grains, which have finally contaminated with mycotoxins. Further studies need to be conducted in the future to elucidate the occurrence and consequences of mycotoxins in the various major staple cereal grains consumed in the country for developing management options to minimize health hazards. 6. Acknowledgments Thanks are due to Adama Science and Technology University for funding the research. 7. 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