




































Ecology, Economy, and Society–the INSEE Journal 7(2): 121-128, July 2024 

INSIGHTS FROM THE FIELD 
 

Legacy Waste Remediation in Karnataka: Field 
Assessments and the Promise of  Biomining 
Technology 
 
Kiran D. A, Pushkara S. V, Jitvan R, Ramaraju H. K 
 
1. INTRODUCTION 

India’s solid waste problems are compounding due to inadequate eco-
friendly treatment. Many old dumpsites are releasing toxins that pose 
environmental and health risks. The Ministry of  Housing and Urban Affairs 
(MoHUA) recognizes unlined dumpsites as sources of  air and water 
pollution. The Swachh Bharat Mission has mandated small cities to clear 
old dumpsites by March 31, 2023, and larger cities by March 31, 2024 
(MoHUA 2021). In 2020, it reported an annual loss of  1,250 hectares of  
land due to waste disposal (SBMU 2020). As per the Central Pollution 
Control Board (CPCB) report on solid waste management, India generates 
1.6 lakh tons per day (TPD) of  solid waste, with 1.52 lakh TPD of  it 
collected at 95.4% efficiency. Of  this, 50% (0.79 lakh TPD) is treated and 
18.4% (0.3 lakh TPD) is landfilled. The number of  dumpsites in India 
exceeds landfills. Further, several states lack landfill sites (CPCB 2020). 

 

 

 

                                                           
 School of Systems and Infrastructure (SSI), Indian Institute for Human Settlements, No. 
197/36, 2nd Main Road, Sadashivanagar, Bengaluru, India 560 080 (IIHS); 

dakiran07@gmail.com  

 SSI, IIHS, Bengaluru, India; pushkarasv@iihs.co.in  

 SSI, IIHS, Bengaluru, India; jramesh@iihs.ac.in  

 Department of  Civil Engineering, Dayananda Sagar College of  Engineering, Shavige 
Malleshwara Hills, K S Layout, Bengaluru, India. hkramaraju@gmail.com  

Copyright © D.A., S.V., R and H.K. 2024. Released under Creative Commons Attribution © 
NonCommercial 4.0 International licence (CC BY-NC 4.0) by the author.  

Published by Indian Society for Ecological Economics (INSEE), c/o Institute of  Economic 
Growth, University Enclave, North Campus, Delhi 110007.  

ISSN: 2581–6152 (print); 2581–6101 (web).  

DOI: https://doi.org/10.37773/ees.v7i2.1185  

mailto:dakiran07@gmail.com
mailto:pushkarasv@iihs.co.in
mailto:jramesh@iihs.ac.in
mailto:hkramaraju@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.37773/ees.v7i2.1185


Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [122] 

2. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (SWM) IN KARNATAKA 

Karnataka has 316 urban local bodies (ULBs) and 66 Class I and Class II 
towns. Around 310 ULBs have a door-to-door collection system, wherein 
the segregation rate is 78%. The state has 221 landfill sites for waste 
disposal, of  which 52 are operational, and 191 existing dumpsites. The total 
solid waste generation in the state is approximately 11,085 TPD, of  which 
approximately 10,198 TPD is collected, 6,817 TPD is treated, 1,250 TPD is 
landfilled, and 3,018 TPD is unattended waste (Singh 2023). Moreover, 216 
composting plants, 15 biogas, and 217 refuse-derived fuel 
(RDF)/pelletization plants have been set up in the state. Around 221 
regional/individual landfill sites have been identified and 52 landfill sites 
have been constructed. House-to-house collection is carried out by ULBs, 
and the system has a 98% coverage percentage (CPCB 2020). 

Many ULBs collect mixed waste and transport it to landfill sites or 
processing facilities. Many urban areas face two primary challenges in solid 
waste management (SWM): the management of  daily waste generation and 
the handling of  accumulated waste in locations originally distant from cities 
but now encroached upon due to urban expansion. 

 

3. STATUS OF LEGACY WASTE IN KARNATAKA 

Legacy waste—or historic waste—typically refers to old solid waste found 
in landfills or dumpsites. It includes a mixture of  partly or fully 
decomposed biodegradable waste, plastics, textiles, metals, glass, and other 
materials. In Karnataka, ULBs have achieved significant success in door-to-
door waste collection. However, many ULBs struggle with implementing 
waste segregation at the source. Additionally, ULBs lack the manpower and 
financial resources to operate composting facilities, which means fresh 
waste arrives at landfills and dumpsites as mixed waste. This complicates 
the process of  on-site segregation and increases its cost. Due to insufficient 
investment in waste processing technologies and management of  facilities, 
waste accumulates at these sites. ULBs are frequently confronted with the 
challenge of  overflowing dumpsites. This dilemma compels them to make a 
crucial choice: either address the accumulated waste backlog by acquiring 
new land for dumping operations or continue using existing dumpsites 
despite reaching capacity. However, acquiring new land for waste disposal 
comes at a significant financial cost, deterring most ULBs from this option. 
Consequently, they are left with the unsustainable practice of  dumping in 
their already brimming dumpsites. This reliance on outdated disposal sites 
has led to a widespread problem of  land scarcity, further complicating the 
waste management crisis faced by ULBs. Waste burning is a prevalent 



[123] D.A., S.V., R and H.K. 

occurrence at dumpsites, often attributed to either human activities or 
climate variations. This contributes to air pollution and diminishes the 
overall volume of  waste. Figure 1 shows the burning of  legacy waste at a 
dumpsite. 

Figure 1: Burnt Legacy Waste at a Dumpsite 

Source: Authors 

While ULBs have allocated ample resources for waste collection and 
transportation, waste processing remains neglected. Most ULBs have made 
investments in essential infrastructure, such as composting sheds, 
weighbridges, and power and water connections for designated waste 
processing facilities. However, there is a noticeable lack of  resources in 
terms of  equipment, manpower, vehicles, and funding for the processing of  
fresh waste. Consequently, legacy waste has accumulated in dumpsites, with 
approximately 2.1 crore tonnes of  legacy waste in the state occupying an 
estimated 2,000 acres of  land. Of  this, around 1.07 crore tonnes of  legacy 
waste can be found in Bengaluru’s dumpsites, with the remainder scattered 
across other ULBs. ULBs are obligated to address this legacy waste in 
accordance with National Green Tribunal guidelines. Thus far, they have 
prepared detailed project reports for managing this legacy waste, which 
have received state approval and are currently in the tendering stage. As of  
2023, biomining operations have been initiated in cities such as Hosadurga, 
Mangaluru, and Shivamogga. 

 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [124] 

4. FIELD STUDY 

The present study examined 20 dumpsites across the state of  Karnataka, 
including those in major cities and towns. The average area of  the 
dumpsites was recorded to be around 13.6 acres. These dumpsites have 
operated for 15 to 25 years on average, accumulating unprocessed mixed 
waste in substantial mounds. Physical analysis was conducted by sampling 
100 kg at each site to determine the legacy waste composition. Results 
showed that the samples were composed of  65% bio soil/soil-like 
materials, 25% RDF, 9% inert, and less than 1% recyclables. The average 
volume and area of  legacy waste across all 20 sites was estimated to be 
about 58,147 cubic meters and 6.42 acres, respectively. Thus, the legacy 
waste from all sites amounted to 11,04,798.84 cubic meters and covered an 
area of  129 acres. Figure 2 shows the legacy waste segregated during 
physical analysis. 

Figure 2: Segregated Legacy Waste for Physical Analysis  

 

Source: Authors 

4.1 A CASE STUDY OF DODDABALLAPURA 

Doddaballapura, which is a city located 40 km from the state capital 
Bengaluru and falls under the Doddaballapura City Municipal Council 
(CMC), underscores the current scenario in ULBs dumpsites. The city 
generates 36 TPD of  municipal solid waste (MSW), mainly from 29,138 
households; CMC collects 35 TPD, processes 9 TPD on-site, and dumps 



[125] D.A., S.V., R and H.K. 

the remaining 27 TPD at its 16-acre dumpsite located 4 km away from the 
city. At the time of  the field study, 4.16 acres of  the dumpsite were filled 
with legacy waste. 

The volume of  the waste present at the site was estimated using drone 
technology by capturing 200–300 high-resolution images during multiple 
flights over the site. This data was then processed to create an ortho and 
elevation map to categorize waste into mounds or blocks. As per the drone 
survey conducted in August 2023, the dumpsite contained approximately 
51,190 cubic meters of  MSW, which is equivalent to 43,512 tonnes, with a 
density of  0.85 tonnes per cubic meter. 

To understand the physical characteristics of  the waste, a characterization 
study was conducted at the dumpsite by sampling 100 kg of  waste from 
various locations and segregating it by type. The weights of  the segregated 
materials were recorded, revealing that 64% of  the waste was bio soil, 
26.8% was RDF, 1.2% was recyclables, and 8% was inert, including 6.5% 
large stones. Additionally, a chemical analysis was performed by a National 
Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories (NABL)–
accredited laboratory to determine the nitrogen, phosphorus, and 
potassium (NPK) content in bio soil samples and the calorific value of  
RDF material. The NPK values in the bio soil samples (1.2%:0.5%:0.6%) 
did meet fertilizer control order (FCO) standards for city compost 
(0.8%:0.4%:0.4%). The organic carbon content met the requirements, but it 
was observed that the samples had high moisture. The calorific value of  the 
RDF material was measured to be 2,684 Kcal/kg. 

In Doddaballapura, the quantity of  waste collected and dumped at the 
sample dumpsite far exceeded its processing capacity, creating a crisis of  
rapid waste accumulation. This has created a situation of  overflow, as the 
site does not have sufficient land for waste storage. ULBs such as the 
Doddaballapura CMC must address this crisis by either finding new 
dumping grounds or clearing the accumulated waste at the existing site 
through biomining. Procuring additional land is challenging due to high 
costs, including land prices and operational expenses, which strain the 
limited budgets of  ULBs. 

 

5. DUMPSITE REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGY 

Bioremediation or biomining refers to the practice of  excavating legacy 
waste dumped at the dumpsite and forming it into windrows for aerobic 
respiration, which takes place when biowaste is exposed to air. The 
windrows are also sprayed with bio-culture to make the process quicker and 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [126] 

more effective. After the legacy waste has been stabilized, the materials are 
then passed through a screening process via screening machines such as 
Trommel sieves. Depending upon the material type and size, they are 
segregated into inert, recyclables, RDF, and bio soil or soil-like materials.  

If  the bio soil meets the FCO requirements for city compost, it may be 
packaged and sold as compost for consumption. If  not, it should be 
processed further to enhance its nutritional value before being sold. 
Currently, bio soil is typically used to fill low-lying areas. Since it contains 
heavy metals that can leach into the soil and contaminate the underlying 
strata, bio soil should be disposed of  carefully. Materials such as low-grade 
plastics and rags can be baled into smaller compact portions that can be 
sent to cement factories that utilize these materials as RDF in their kilns. 
Inert materials such as rocks and stones may be utilized in filling up low-
lying areas or may be landfilled. The recyclable portions, which consist of  
hard plastics and metal, may be sold as scrap. 

All in all, most of  the materials recovered from the bioremediation process 
are utilizable. By the end of  the operations, if  designed well and performed 
correctly, most of  the legacy waste accumulated at the dumpsite is cleared 
off. Subsequently, additional fresh waste received by the dumpsite is 
processed as soon as it is received on-site, thus reducing the probability of  
waste accumulation at the dumpsite area. 

As per Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0 guidelines, ULBs receive ₹550 per 
metric tonne of  legacy waste from the central government, with states 
contributing two-thirds of  the project funding. As per CPCB (2019), 
cleared legacy waste dumps cannot be inhabited for 15 years. Afterwards, 
settlements may be allowed, provided that emissions and leachate quality 
meet standards and the soil is stable.  

 

6. CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARD 

Karnataka’s legacy waste composition is approximately 65% bio soil or soil-
like materials, 25% RDF, 9% inert, and less than 1% recyclable materials. 
Our chemical analysis found that most of  the bio soil samples do not meet 
the FCO standards required for it to be utilized as city compost. To meet 
these standards, bio soil must be enriched through additives. ULBs such as 
the Doddaballapura CMC—whose dumpsites mostly receive mixed waste 
and are rapidly reaching dumping capacity limits—are common across the 
country. Waste is generally dumped at these sites without processing. 
Further, many dumpsites have a limited processing capability, which is 
inadequate to service the quantity of  fresh waste received at the dumpsite 



[127] D.A., S.V., R and H.K. 

per day. Bioremediation, while not a “cure-all” solution, may prove to be a 
viable option to reclaim land that is occupied by accumulated waste, which 
can vacate space for ULBs to set up waste processing units and process 
fresh waste as soon as it arrives. This will curtail the need to procure new 
land every time the dumpsite reaches its maximum capacity. This will also 
allow ULBs to recover a part of  the operational costs through the sale of  
end products such as compost and recyclables. 

To address the waste management challenges, the Swachh Bharat Mission 
2.0 initiated by the Government of  India aims to make all cities clean and 
garbage-free, emphasizing 100% scientific processing of  municipal solid 
waste by adopting suitable technologies such as composting and biogas 
generation. This mission mandates “100% scientific waste management, 
including safe disposal in proper landfills” and the remediation and 
transformation of  all existing dumpsites into green zones (SBMU 2021).  

Across India, ULBs are obligated to adhere to the Solid Waste Management 
Rules of  2016, which mandate effective MSW management. These rules 
require ULBs to address open dumpsites by taking necessary actions for 
remediating legacy waste through bioremediation or biomining.  

Ethics Statement: I hereby confirm that this study complies with the 
requirements of ethical approvals from the institutional ethics committee 
for the conduct of this research.  

Data Availability Statement: The data used in this paper is available from 

the corresponding author on reasonable request.   

Conflict of  Interest Statement: No potential conflict of  interest was 

reported by the author. 

REFERENCES 

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). 2019. Guidelines for Disposal of  Legacy Waste 
(Old Municipal Solid Waste). New Delhi: Ministry of  Environment, Forest and 
Climate Change. 

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). 2020. Annual Report on Solid Waste 
Management (2020-21), CPCB, Delhi. 
https://cpcb.nic.in/uploads/MSW/MSW_AnnualReport_2020-21.pdf  

Ministry of  Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA). 2021. Swachh Bharat Mission, 
Urban (SBMU) 2.0: Making Cities Garbage Free. 2021. New Delhi: Ministry of  
Housing and Urban Affairs.  

Singh, Richa. 2023. Methane Emissions from Open Dumpsites in India: Estimation and 
Mitigation Strategies. New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment.  

https://cpcb.nic.in/uploads/MSW/MSW_AnnualReport_2020-21.pdf


Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [128] 

Swachh Bharat Mission Urban (SBMU). 2020. Guidance on Efficient collection and 
transportation of  municipal solid waste. Central Public Health and Environmental 
Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO). Accessed June 24, 2022. 
https://smmurban.com/uploads/files/cr3h4k6v_ywpnx5.pdf.  

Swachh Bharat Mission Urban (SBMU). 2021. Operational Guidelines October 
2021, Ministry of  Housing and Urban Affairs, Government of  India. Accessed 
May 11, 2022. https://sbmurban.org/.     

https://smmurban.com/uploads/files/cr3h4k6v_ywpnx5.pdf
https://sbmurban.org/

