







































Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal 8(2): 97-104, July 2025 

 

INSIGHTS FROM THE FIELD  
 

Every Drop Counts: Gendered Impacts of  Solar 
Pumps, Within and Outside Rural Households in 
Chhattisgarh 
 

Mugdha Khandelwal   
 
1. INTRODUCTION  

In February 2025, I visited several remote tribal villages in Korba district, 
Chhattisgarh, to conduct a survey and explore aspects of  solar photovoltaic 
(SPV) pump adoption. These villages were located in densely forested, hilly 
terrain. Residents often experienced power outages lasting several days and 
unstable mobile networks. They predominantly lived in kutcha houses (made 
of  mud and bamboo thatch or a tile roof). As in most parts of  rural India, 
their lives and livelihoods revolved around the monsoons (rain-fed 
agriculture) and seasonal manual labour. On my way to Pahargaon in Pali 
block, I came across a public handpump—one of  several sources of  
potable water, including nalas (streams), kuis (small wells), and dhodhi kuas 
(natural pits). Women and young girls were waiting in a serpentine queue, 
holding utensils of  various shapes and sizes. A brief  conversation with 
them revealed that they had walked distances of  between half  a kilometre 
and one and a half  kilometres to collect water. This kind of  time and 
labour-intensive, gendered drudgery is quite common, not just in India but 
across the entire Global South. 

In the basti (hamlet) in Pahargaon, I met many women from households 
that had adopted SPV pumps. Unlike the handpump group that I had 
encountered earlier, these women had access to a stable source of  water 
close to their homes. They reported that they could complete household 
chores more comfortably because of  the time and energy they saved by not 
having to travel long distances to collect water. Their homes were usually 

 
 Doctoral Candidate, Department of  Economics, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025; 
mugdha2206492@st.jmi.ac.in  

Copyright © Khandelwal 2025. Released under Creative Commons Attribution © 
NonCommercial 4.0 International licence (CC BY-NC 4.0) by the author.  

Published by Indian Society for Ecological Economics (INSEE), c/o Institute of  Economic 

Growth, University Enclave, North Campus, Delhi 110007.  

ISSN: 2581–6152 (print); 2581–6101 (web).  

DOI: https://doi.org/10.37773/ees.v8i8.1671  

mailto:mugdha2206492@st.jmi.ac.in
https://doi.org/10.37773/ees.v8i8.1671


 Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [98] 

 

adjacent to the field where the SPV pumps were installed for irrigation. 
However, the water from these pumps was also used for drinking, bathing, 
cooking, and washing clothes, among other purposes. 

Signs of  irrigation using SPV pumps are clearly visible to any visitor to 
Pahargaon. Wheat, urad (black gram), and matar (peas) are sown during the 
rabi season and are part of  double-cropping cycles. Additionally, most 
households are also engaged in vegetable cultivation—a welcome shift in 
cropping patterns compared to the pre-SPV pump period, when farmers 
primarily relied on mono-cropping of  paddy (particularly during the kharif  
season) due to limited or no access to irrigation. These crops and vegetables 
are primarily used for self-consumption. They reduce the household 
expenditure on food, and the surplus produce is sold in the market to 
generate additional income. The SPV pumps have significantly transformed 
and eased the daily lives of  all the households that have adopted them, 
reducing the drudgery of  agricultural and domestic work. Although both 
men and women are involved in agricultural work, it is mostly women who 
are responsible for domestic chores. Such a gendered division of  labour is 
the widely prevalent norm in rural India. 

Several studies have documented improvements in livelihoods and income 
resulting from the adoption of  SPV pumps (Burney et al. 2010; Suman 
2018; ICA–IIEC 2022; Rahman and Jain 2022; Buisson et al. 2024; Sunny et 
al. 2023; Bassi 2017; Shah 2009). However, the contribution of  solar pumps 
in reducing the drudgery of  those engaged in household work has received 
limited attention. Similarly, the gendered impact of  piped water connections 
is well-known. While piped water connections are centralized, requiring a 
minimum scale of  operations and involving substantial expenditure for 
their construction and maintenance, SPV pumps do not require the first 
two of  these requirements. Furthermore, in Chhattisgarh, the prohibitively 
high upfront cost of  SPV pumps (typically ranging between INR 3.5 lakh 
and INR 5 lakh, depending on capacity and specifications) is addressed 
through the 90%–95% subsidy provided under the state government’s Saur 
Sujala Yojana (Chhattisgarh State Renewable Energy Development Agency 
2025). The scheme is implemented through the state’s renewable energy 
development agency, making SPVs both affordable and sustainable1 for 
small and marginal farmers. The out-of-pocket expenditure for beneficiaries 

 
1 In the surveyed districts, piped water coverage remains low. Although, taps were 
installed under the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) over a year ago, water supply has not yet 
commenced. Such gaps between infrastructure provision and service delivery 
highlights the continued reliance on traditional water sources, thereby underscoring 
the importance of SPV pumps for both domestic and agricultural needs. 



[99] Khandelwal 

 

ranges from INR 7,000 to INR 20,000, depending on the pump capacity 
and the social category of  the applicant, in addition to a processing fee of  
INR 3,000 and INR 4,800 (for 3 HP and 5 HP pumps, respectively).  

 

2. THE STUDY AREA 

Figure 1: Location Map of  the Study Area 

Source: Author’s compilation 
Note: The left panel shows a district-level map of  Chhattisgarh state, and the right 
panel shows the five blocks that were studied within the Korba district. 

Chhattisgarh’s demographic is predominantly rural, with agriculture being 
the primary occupation for approximately 70% of  its population. SPV 
pumps are promoted in the region through the state’s Saur Sujala Yojana, 
launched in 2016 by the Chhattisgarh Renewable Energy Development 
Agency (CREDA).2 In 2025, Chhattisgarh reported the highest number of  
SPV pump adoptions (119,282 pumps) across all states (MoSPI 2025). 

 
2 CREDA is the state’s nodal agency for promoting non-conventional and 
renewable energy sources. It was formed in 2001 by the Department of Energy, 
Government of Chhattisgarh. The parent (amended) policy can be accessed at 
https://creda.co.in/Image/Saur%20Sujala%20Yojana_11ece56ffb70baef9225b42e
99c9ac7b.pdf. Farmers owning more than one acre of land are eligible for the 
scheme and can receive a subsidy of up to 95%. 

https://creda.co.in/Image/Saur%20Sujala%20Yojana_11ece56ffb70baef9225b42e99c9ac7b.pdf
https://creda.co.in/Image/Saur%20Sujala%20Yojana_11ece56ffb70baef9225b42e99c9ac7b.pdf


 Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [100] 

 

I conducted the survey between January and March 2025. My primary 
objective was to identify the drivers for and barriers to the adoption of  SPV 
pumps in two selected districts of  the state—one of  which was Korba. 
Data was collected through semi-structured interviews, covering over 100 
beneficiaries of  subsidies for SPV pumps from all five blocks of  the district 
(Figure 1).  

The interview schedules were prepared to capture a variety of  information. 
The direct questions concerned the direct impact of  irrigation on shifts in 
agricultural practices, livelihood opportunities, and changes in income, if  
any. The indirect questions captured the qualitative and mostly invisible 
intra-household impacts, such as changes in dietary diversity or time use 
(Kabeer 1999; Meinzen-Dick et al. 2014). As a woman myself, I was able to 
gain access to the inside of  households and witness some of  these changes 
firsthand. This also facilitated more intense interactions with women in the 
(women-only) safe spaces within households. This is particularly significant 
in the context of  discussing gender segregated work in rural India. I used 
open-ended questions and the case study method to document the 
experiences of  women from households with SPV pumps. Responses were 
also collected from women belonging to households without SPV pumps. 
The responses from these two different types of  respondents helped me 
identify the impact of  SPV pumps on women’s daily lives. 

 

3. TRACKING THE GENDERED CO-BENEFITS OF SPV 
PUMPS 

Figure 2 illustrates the framework that connects the causal variables and 
their respective impacts. This is based on my experience conducting a field 
survey in Korba district. The figure shows SPV pump adoption as the 
exposure (treatment) variable and women’s empowerment as the outcome 
variable. The term “empowerment” is used here as a broad construct, with 
economic (thinnest arrow) and non-economic (thicker arrows) dimensions. 
The outcome results from three intermediate paths or outputs—reduced 
drudgery, improved health, and greater engagement in economic 
activities—that originate from improved access to water. 

An outcome always appears after the output; yet, the lag between the two 
can be considerable (White 2009). In Figure 2, the thicker the arrow, the 
greater the lag. With SPV pump adoption, an immediate increase in rest and 
leisure time among women is observed. However, improvements in health 
(higher food consumption is a confounder here) occur with some lag. Not 
having to travel far to fetch water led to less pain and fatigue, as reported by 
many respondents. This is curative in nature, somewhat restoring the 



[101] Khandelwal 

 

deterioration in health. Health improvements can occur only subsequently, 
similar to the growth of  an economic system, which develops only after it 
becomes stable. 

Figure 2. Causal Diagram: The Gendered Impacts of  SPV Pump Adoption 

SPV pump adoption

Ease of availability of reliable water supply

Increase in crop cycles

Higher crop output

Increase in 

household income 

Increase in self-

consumption

Increase in 

marketed output

Saving of time from 

fetching water 

Reduction of 

drudgery

Improved health

Increased participation in 

economic activities on the farm

Empowerment

Increase in rest 

and leisure time

 

Source: Author’s illustration 

Meanwhile, participation in farm activities is dependent on many other 
factors, including social norms that govern women’s engagement outside 
their homes. Some women respondents began using the time saved from 
not fetching water to cultivate vegetables for their own consumption and 
then sell the surplus produce locally. For instance, Asha Devi3 from Jemra, 
Pali block shared: “When we did not have a pump, I used to constantly 
worry about fetching water before doing anything else. It was the first task 

 
3 All respondent names have been changed in the paper to maintain anonymity. 



 Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [102] 

 

of  the day. Now, I have sufficient time to grow vegetables and rest” 
(translated from Chhattisgarhi into English by author). Likewise, Manoj 
Kurre from Laad, Poundi Uproda block, compared his pre- and post-SPV 
pump days: “Earlier, I used to travel three kilometres with my mother to 
Hasdeo River to wash clothes. We have a small wooden well in our home 
for drinking and other domestic uses. Our family is grateful for this 
scheme—it has truly improved our lives” (translated from Chhattisgarhi 
into English by author). Similarly, Rajesh Markam’s wife from Pahargaon, 
Pali block, recounted: “Fetching water was our primary chore every 
morning and evening, whether from the river or the handpump. I used to 
have back pain and swollen legs. Now, I feel more relaxed. I can help in the 
fields, and my husband has time to engage in MNREGA or other wage 
labour work” (translated from Chhattisgarhi into English by author). 
 
Figure 3. Women Travelling Long 
Distances to Draw Water in Laad 
village, Poundi Uproda Block (18 
February 2025) 

Figure 4. A Farmer Using an SPV Pump 
in Their Field in Jemra village, Pali Block 
(21 February 2025) 

  

Source: Photographs captured by author 

 

4. CONCLUSION 

All these responses, albeit anecdotal, categorically point to greater 
availability of  time. These case studies also reveal the multifaceted impacts 
of  SPV pumps in Chhattisgarh’s remote and tribal regions—transforming 
livelihoods, empowering women, reducing their drudgery, and generating an 
oft-neglected co-benefit: reshaping men and women’s time-use patterns. 
The transformative potential of  this intervention is tremendous. Most 
importantly, it is virtually costless (from the perspective of  the beneficiary), 



[103] Khandelwal 

 

not just compared to other electricity- or diesel-fuelled irrigation options, 
but also in absolute terms due to the substantial government subsidy. 

While several infrastructure and groundwater-related issues, such as low 
borewell water levels, borewell collapse, inadequate casing, theft of  pipes, 
cables, and panels, and panel damage have been reported by respondents, 
given the variety of  benefits, the advanced social position of  its 
beneficiaries, and its cost-saving potential and environmental sustainability, 
this intervention can be a key instrument in facilitating a truly just energy 
transition. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: I would like to express my sincere gratitude 
to my supervisor, Prof. Nandan Nawn, for his constant guidance and 
support. I am also thankful to CREDA for providing the data and to the 
respondents who generously shared their time, experiences, and 
perspectives with me, making this research possible. I gratefully 
acknowledge the financial support provided by the Indian Council for 
Social Science Research (ICSSR) for this research.  

Ethics Statement: I hereby confirm that this study complies with 
requirements of ethical approvals from the institutional ethics committee 
for the conduct of this research.  

Data Availability statement: The data used to support this research 
cannot be shared openly to protect the privacy of study participants and is 
stated in the paper. 

Conflict of Interest Statement: No potential conflict of interest was 
reported by the author. 

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