




































 

Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal 3 (1): 69–98, January 2020 

 
RESEARCH PAPER 
 

Adaptation Measures to Combat Climate Change 
Impacts on Agriculture: An Empirical Investigation in 
the Chambal Basin 
 

Ganesh Kawadia  and Era Tiwari   
 
Abstract: This study is based on the empirical investigation of the climate change 
adaptation measures adopted by the farmers in the Chambal basin. The adaptation 
measures were analysed after investigating the nature and impact of climate change 
in the region. Four representative districts were selected using control sampling. A 
representative sample of farmers was selected through stratified snowball sampling 
technique. Descriptive statistics and case study methods were used for results and 
analysis. Detailed irrigation profiles of the farmers were traced. The moisture index 
was calculated based on secondary data. A sampling survey method of investigation 
was used in the study. This paper also presents the context of maladaptation of 
monoculture in the region and severe groundwater depletion associated with this 
practice. The study directs policy to strengthen water-harvesting measures in the 
region to facilitate the adaptation measures for coping with the effects of climate 
change on agriculture. 

Keywords: Climate Change, Agriculture, Adaptation, Water Harvesting, 
Maladaptation 

 

1. INTRODUCTION 

A consistent shift in the weather of a region over a long period is termed as 
climate change. It includes many variables like temperature, rainfall, rate of 

                                                           
 Former Professor and Head; School of Economics Devi Ahilya University, Indore; Former 
Professor; School of Data Science and Forecasting; Devi Ahilya University, Indore, M.P. 
452010; ganesh.kawadia@gmail.com  

 Assistant Professor (Economics) in Department of Banking, Economics and Finance; 

Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, U.P. 284128; tough.era@gmail.com   

Copyright © Kawadia and Tiwari 2020. Released under Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial 4.0 International licence (CC BY-NC 4.0) by the author.  

Published by Indian Society for Ecological Economics (INSEE), c/o Institute of Economic 
Growth, University Enclave, North Campus, Delhi 110007.  

ISSN: 2581-6152 (print); 2581-6101 (web). 

DOI: https://doi.org/10.37773/ees.v3i1.89 

https://doi.org/10.37773/ees.v3i1.89


Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [70] 

 

evaporation, wet day frequency, etc. The Bruntland Report states that 
climate change was identified as a crucial problem bearing on our survival 
long back (WCED 1987). According to the Fourth Assessment Report of 
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2007), large scale 
variations in average temperatures and precipitation in the coming decades 
will have a significant impact on ecosystems, related livelihood options, and 
overall human well-being. Agriculture as a managed ecosystem gets affected 
by climate change most significantly. Productivity, crop-duration and even 
selection of crops to be grown in a region depend upon temperature 
coupled with duration and spatial distribution of rainfall. Hence, changes in 
average climatic conditions along with the occurrence of extreme climatic 
events will have a significant impact on the agricultural sector, which, in 
turn, may have critical implications for food security. However, the effects 
in different regions around the globe will differ significantly. Consequently, 
region-based research on the interactions between climate change and 
agricultural performance has gained momentum. Climate change adaptation 
and mitigation, therefore, is now an important area of research in social 
sciences as well as physical sciences. 

The real challenge of climate change is to minimize its risks through 
adaptations, which is a process of adjustment to actual or expected climate 
change and its effects. In human systems, adaptation seeks to moderate or 
avoid harmful activities and exploit beneficial opportunities. These 
adaptations have to take place at all levels from changes in global systems to 
changes at national and regional levels through adaptations made by local 
communities and individuals. The development of adaptation strategies 
needs to recognise the appropriate mix of actions at different levels. 
Agriculture is one of the most important sectors to be severely impacted by 
climate change and thus an inquiry into the adaptation measures in this 
sector in relation to climate change is a must. It is all the more significant to 
be carried out on a regional basis as the regional climate has peculiarities 
that govern crop selection and irrigation management at the most basic 
level. This study is an attempt to fulfil this objective in the Chambal basin, 
which has faced significant changes in climatic and cropping patterns in the 
decades following the construction of Gandhi Sagar Dam on the Chambal 
river. 

 

 

 



[71] Ganesh Kawadia and Era Tiwari 

 

2. NATURE OF CLIMATE CHANGE, ITS IMPACT ON 
AGRICULTURE, PERCEIVING THE CHANGE, AND 
ADAPTATIONS MADE: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE 

2.1. An Assessment of Risk and Vulnerability due to Climate Change 

In some natural systems, human intervention may facilitate adjustment to 
the expected climate and its effects (IPCC 1996). In human systems, 
adaptation seeks to moderate or avoid harmful activities and exploit 
beneficial opportunities. Adaptations take place at all levels from changes in 
global systems to changes at national and regional levels through changed 
practices of local communities and individuals. The development of 
adaptation strategies needs to recognise the appropriate mix of actions at 
different levels. Agriculture is inherently sensitive to climatic conditions and 
is among the most vulnerable sectors to the risks and impacts of global 
climate change (Parry and Carter 1989; Reilly and Schimmelpfenning 1999). 
Studies show that without adaptation, climate change is generally 
problematic for agricultural production and agricultural economies and 
communities; but with adaptation, the vulnerability can be reduced and 
there are numerous opportunities to be realised (Rosenzweig and Hillel 
1995; Mendelsohn 1998).  

Studies on climate change trends have already shown that climate variation 
is a reality for India but its impact on society as well as its social and 
economic consequences are yet to be fully understood. Also, there is 
neither a consensus on the definition of vulnerability to climate change nor 
a full, regionally nuanced mapping of impacts of variables available. It is 
only when we have a better understanding of what constitutes vulnerability 
to climate change and what are its region-specific impact, that we can 
determine proper adaptation strategies. In this context, one study has found 
that the states of Bihar, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya 
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka have the lowest 
adaptive capacity (O'Brien et al. 2004). The areas of greatest climate-
sensitivity are Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh using current 
climatological data. To identify and assess crop adaptation, there is a 
pressing requirement for more observational field studies to achieve 
detailed knowledge about how crops respond to climate change. In another 
study, it was found that a 2°C temperature rise and 7 per centages increase 
in rainfall would lead to an almost 8 per cent loss in farm net revenue 
(Kumar and Parikh 2001). The regional differences are significantly large 
with northern and central Indian districts along with coastal districts 
bearing a relatively large impact. It has been observed that during the past 
25 years, significant changes in climate are observed over different regions 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [72] 

 

of the country (Sinha, Singh and Rai 1998). For example, many parts of 
northern India show an increase in minimum temperature by about 1°C in 
the rabi cropping season. However, mean temperatures are misleading as 
some of the individual regions could exhibit a large variation with a larger 
impact on rabi production. 

2.2 Exploring Perceptions about Climate Change in Agricultural 
Systems 

As the impacts of climate change on agriculture are severe, it is important 
to take appropriate actions to minimise the losses. The foremost 
requirement for taking an action is to accurately assess the nature of change 
in the climatic events. In this context, existing research suggests that the 
formation of environmental perceptions is most of the time a local 
phenomenon rather than a global phenomenon (Magistro and Roncoli 
2001). It is usually associated with personal experiences about changes in 
temperature, precipitation and observation of crop-responses to the 
environment. In developing countries ‗farm surveys‘ and ‗focus group 
discussions‘ are the preferred mode of research in identifying farmers‘ 
perceptions of climate change and the factors that shape them. A study on 
climate change in the Western Himalayas of India (Vedwan and Rhoades 
2001) compared farmers‘ perceptions with ‗locally idealised traditional 
weather cycles‘. Several studies indicate that socio-economic and 
demographic factors are most important in determining farmers‘ 
perceptions. In a survey-based study of the Sekyedumase district in the 
Ashanti region in Ghana, 180 farmers were queried about their perceptions 
of changing climate in terms of changes in temperature, rainfall and area 
covered by vegetation in the past 20 years (Fosu-Mensah, Vlek and 
MacCarthy 2012). They were also queried about their major adaptations to 
climate change and the barriers they faced. Household characteristics, years 
of farming experience, size of landholdings and their access to extension 
services along with credit services were major explanatory variables. Age of 
the head of the farming household, which is usually a proxy for the farmer‘s 
experience, was found to be one of the most important factors in shaping 
the perceptions about climate change (Diggs 1991). Extensive field-based 
studies of African small-holding farming systems have shown that the level 
of formal education of farmers is positively associated with their ability to 
perceive correctly climate-related changes (Mustapha, Sanda and Shehu 
2012). Access to banking services and information about climate change 
through extension-services plays an important role in enhancing farmers‘ 
understanding of climate change and appropriate adaptation measures 
(Maddison 2007). Farmers with a higher level of income were also found to 
be more perceptive of changes in climate (Semenza et al. 2008). Finally, a 



[73] Ganesh Kawadia and Era Tiwari 

 

cross-sectional analysis of farmers in Kyuso district in Kenya, Africa, found 
that joint family households were less perceptive of climate change as such 
families are more inclined to engage in non-farm activities as well 
(Ndambiri et al. 2012). A comprehensive strategy that seeks to improve 
food security in the context of climate change may include a set of 
coordinated measures related to agricultural extension, crop diversification, 
integrated water and pest management, and agricultural information 
services. Some of these measures may have to do with climatic changes and 
others with economic development. Indeed, studies indicate that farmers 
perceive that the climate is changing and also adapt to reduce the negative 
impacts of climate change (Thomas et al. 2007; Ishaya and Abaje 2008; 
Mertz et al. 2009). Studies further show that the perception or awareness of 
climate change (Semenza et al. 2008; Akter and Bennett 2011) and taking 
adaptive measures (Maddison 2007; Hassan and Nhemachena 2008) are 
influenced by different socio-economic and environmental factors.  

Adaptation to climate change is a two-step process; the first step requires 
the farmers to perceive a change in climate and the second step requires 
them to act through adaptation (Maddison 2007). Studies of perceptions of 
climate change, both in developing (Vedwan and Rhoades 2001; Hegeback 
et al. 2005; Thomas et al. 2007; Ishaya and Abaje 2008; Gbetibouo 2009; 
Mertz et al. 2009) and developed (Diggs 1991; Leiserowitz 2006; Semenza et 
al. 2008; Akter and Bennett 2011) nations show that the majority of 
population have already perceived climate change and they are adapting to 
it in various manners (Falco, Veronesi and Yesuf 2011). There are different 
ways of adapting to climate change in agriculture (Bradshaw, Dolan and 
Smit 2004; Kurukulasuriya et al. 2004; Mertz et al. 2009) and different 
factors affect the use of any of these adaptation methods (Deressa et al. 
2009). For instance, it has been shown that better access to markets, 
extension and credit services, technology, farm assets (labour, land and 
capital) and information about adaptation to climate change, including 
technological and institutional methods, affect adaptation to climate change 
(Hassan and Nhemachena 2008). Changing cropping calendars and pattern 
will be the immediate best available option with available crop varieties to 
adapt to the climate change impact (Rathore and Stigler 2007). The options 
like introducing new cropping sequences, late or early maturing crop 
varieties depending on the available growing season, conserving soil 
moisture through appropriate tillage practices and efficient water harvesting 
techniques are also important. Developing heat and drought-tolerant crop 
varieties, by utilizing genetic resources that may be better adapted to new 
climatic and atmospheric conditions, should be the long-term strategy. 
Genetic manipulation may also help to exploit the beneficial effects of 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [74] 

 

increased CO2 on crop growth and water use (Rosenzweig and Hillel 1995). 
One of the promising approaches would be gene pyramiding to enhance 
the adaptation capacity of plants to climate change inputs (Mangala 2007). 

2.3. Adaptation Strategies  

Adaptations to climate change impacts are not new phenomena. Natural 
and socio-economic systems have been continuously and autonomously 
adapting to a changing environment throughout history. Adaptation to 
climate change and variability (including extreme events) at national and 
local levels is regarded as a pragmatic strategy to strengthen capacity to 
lessen the magnitude of climate change impacts that are already occurring 
and could increase gradually (or suddenly) and may be irreversible. 
Adaptation can be anticipatory, where systems adjust before the initial 
impacts take place, or it can be reactive, where change is introduced in 
response to the onset of the impacts. Climate change adaptations in 
agricultural practices often have synergy with sustainable development 
policies and may explicitly influence social, economic and environmental 
aspects of sustainability. Many adaptations have co-benefits (improved 
efficiency, reduced costs, environmental co-benefits) as well as trade-offs 
(e.g. increasing other forms of pollution) and balancing these effects will be 
necessary for successful implementation of climate change adaptation and 
mitigation in the agricultural sector (IPCC 2014).  

Farmers generally adapt swiftly to avert their agricultural production losses. 
In India, adaptations in farm practices (changing the sowing dates, adopting 
different crop varieties and improving water supply) have been seen to 
reduce the adverse impacts of climate change (Kumar and Parikh 2001). 
Adaptation measures could be simple ones like shifting planting calendars 
or changing crops, or more costly ones like investing in protective 
infrastructures such as damming rivers to provide assured water supply for 
irrigation. Farm-level resource management innovations such as the 
development of irrigated drainage systems, land contouring, reservoirs and 
recharge areas, and alternative tillage systems are also used to minimise the 
impact of climate change on agriculture (Easterling 1996). A comprehensive 
strategy that seeks to improve food security in the context of climate 
change may include a set of coordinated measures related to agricultural 
extension, crop diversification, integrated water and pest management, and 
agricultural information services. Some of these measures may have to do 
with climatic changes and others with economic development. Studies have 
indeed indicated that farmers perceive that the climate is changing and also 
adapt to reduce the negative impacts of climate change (Thomas et al. 2007; 
Ishaya and Abaje 2008; Mertz et al. 2009). From United Nations Framework 



[75] Ganesh Kawadia and Era Tiwari 

 

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC 1992) to India‘s National 
Communications (MoEF 2004) river basin specific impacts of various 
climate change scenarios and vulnerability to droughts and floods have been 
estimated at the catchment, sub-catchment and watershed levels, as well as 
for administrative units such as districts.  

While such exercises are useful given the multiple pressures that act on 
water resources, integrated watershed modelling might be more appropriate. 
A pathbreaking study examined the current adaptation strategies of 
stakeholders in the Cauvery delta of Tamil Nadu and argued that the 
responses to climatic and non-climatic pressures have largely been ad hoc 
and hence could be inadequate and unsustainable in the long term 
(Janakarajan 2010). Finally, in context to efficient natural resource 
management, conservation agriculture offers resource-poor farmers a set of 
possible options to cope with and adapt to climate change (Thomas et al. 
2007). Improved water management will represent the key adaptation 
strategy in both irrigated and dryland agriculture. Emphasis will also be 
given to crop production systems located in delta regions to sustain high 
production potential under sea-level rise (Wassmann and Dobermann 
2007). Based on fieldwork in Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan, effective ways 
to make farmers more adaptive to climate change were suggested (MSSRF 
2008). The recommendations include specific changes in traditional water 
management practices such as harren in Rajasthan, establishing small farm 
networks that enable farmers to share knowledge on-farm management 
practices, utilising weather data from simple meteorological stations 
operated by farmers and use of some new farming techniques such as 
systems of rice-intensification.  

2.4. Costs and Limits of Adaptation  

There is an array of factors that limit adaptations by ecosystems, 
communities and individuals. There are cost considerations and threshold 
limits that may primarily be categorised in four sets – ecological, physical, 
economic and technological (Adger et al. 2009). A farmer may practically 
abandon farming due to limits to adaptation with respect to water 
resources. It is, thus, especially important to understand social limits to 
adaptation because this may put the responsibility on governance to work 
proactively for mitigation strategies. If the capacity to adapt is considered 
unlimited, a key rationale for reducing greenhouse gases is weakened (Dow 
et al. 2013). A linked consideration, where adaptation is well within the limit, 
is ‗willingness to adapt‘, which is influenced by individual characteristics and 
perceptions about climate change impacts (Pannell et al. 2006). Finally, the 
barriers to adaptations are the obstacles which can be overcome by 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [76] 

 

concerted effort, creative management or changed thinking (Moser and 
Ekstrom 2010). However, adaptation is not an easy process. Any failed 
decision in adaptation, with respect to objective, results in ‗maladaptation‘. 
The problem of increasing vulnerability from action taken for adaptation is 
termed as ‗maladaptation‘ (Barnett and O‘Neill 2010). Maladaptation also 
occurs when the negative impacts caused by adaptation are as serious as the 
climate change adaptation being avoided (Scheraga and Grambsch 1998). 
This may put whole systems at risk and may lead to its breakdown, and thus 
needs to be analysed in every adaptation situation. 

 

3. ABOUT THE STUDY AREA 

The study area considered here is the catchment area of Chambal river in 
the state of Madhya Pradesh – the entire geographical area drained by the 
river and its tributaries and characterized by all run-off being conveyed to 
the same outlet. It is also known as catchment basin, drainage area or 
drainage basin. Chambal river, a principal tributary of Yamuna, originates in 
the Vindhyan ranges near Mhow in Indore district of Madhya Pradesh. The 
river flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar 
Pradesh. The basin is roughly rectangular, with a maximum length of 560 
km in the northeast-southwest direction. Broadly, its catchment area is 
termed as Malwa Region. It is located in the south-western part of the 
Madhya Pradesh and generally slopes towards the North. It is spread across 
45,628 square km. The catchment mainly covers the districts of Indore, 
Dewas, Ujjain, Dhar, Mandsaur, Ratlam, Neemuch and Shajapur. Rainfed 
farming of grains, pulses (moong, black gram and pigeon pea) and 
groundnut is a traditional practice. In the rabi season, wheat and gram are 
cultivated mostly under irrigated condition. The natural vegetation 
comprises of tropical dry and moist deciduous forests. However, rich 
farmers grow rice, wheat and gram and, sometimes cotton using irrigation 
facilities.  

The catchment area of the Chambal river shows severe effects of climate 
change. This area was once known for its good climate and abundant food, 
water and employment opportunities (in the folk idiom it is defined as pag 
roti dag neer). It is now facing severe water shortage and extreme weather 
conditions (Gupta and Kawadia 2003). Agriculture is primarily rainfed and 
the region does not have adequate mechanism to use surface water for 
agriculture. As a result, farmers are forced to exploit ground water for the 
domestic as well as for agricultural purposes. No proper facilities to 
recharge groundwater are developed. As water withdrawal from the ground 
is much more than the recharge (Gupta, Kawadia and Attari 2007), it has 



[77] Ganesh Kawadia and Era Tiwari 

 

created conditions of deforestation and desertification in the area. The area 
thus presents a good case study for climate change adaptation practices. 

 

4. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 

1) To understand the nature of climate change and its impact on 
agriculture in the Chambal river catchment area. 

2) To present an overview of the adaptation measures in the area. 

3) To discuss maladaptations and its implications for the region.  

4) To direct policy for strengthening specific adaptations. 

 

5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY  

The study has followed the sample survey method of investigation. Of the 
eight districts in the Chambal catchment, Indore, Dewas, Mandsaur and 
Neemuch districts were selected in controlled sampling following expert 
advice. These four districts provided adequate representation of different 
agro-climatic and farming systems in the study region. A representative 
sample of 470 farmers was finally selected from 28 villages of these districts 
through stratified snowball sampling techniques in the agricultural year 
2014-2015. The farm household survey was conducted in two steps, a field 
pre-test and actual data collection. As indicated above, the study made use 
of controlled sampling — only those agricultural households were surveyed 
that got subsidy from the Government for rainwater harvesting specifically 
to overcome the shortage of water due to climate change. Enumerators 
conversant with local language and traditions in the study area were 
engaged to conduct the field survey. Each survey schedule had 70 
questions. A farm household was the unit of analysis. Moisture index was 
calculated based on centurial data of precipitation and potential 
evapotranspiration (India Water Portal 2016) to determine the ‗aridity‘ 
status of all the districts in the study area. A seven-year moving average was 
used to smoothen the fluctuations. Linear regression was used to find the 
equation and trend line. The study also made use of descriptive statistics 
and case study method for analysis and presentation of results. 

 

 

 

 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [78] 

 

6. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 

6.1. Nature of Climate Change in the Chambal Basin 

6.1.1. Precipitation and Moisture Index 

Agriculture in Madhya Pradesh has remained rainfed and will continue to 
be so for the next few decades. The state is dependent on rainfall for its 
water requirements. The total rainfall in the state varies from 60 cms, over 
the extreme north and western parts, to 120 cms over the central, eastern 
and southern parts of the state. Therefore, significant climatic aberrations 
or changes will have a certain impact on the agricultural output of the state. 
Global warming and shift in precipitation zones would cause drought, 
exposing the vulnerability of the countries affected. Monitoring the 
occurrence of droughts is helpful in various disciplines like administration, 
planning, agriculture and hydrology to take remedial measures. Drought is a 
period of drier than normal conditions that result in water-related problems. 
Agricultural drought occurs when soil moisture and rainfall are inadequate 
during the growing season to support healthy crop maturity and cause 
extreme crop stress and wilt. The drylands of the world are increasingly 
subject to desertification due to climate change and recurrent droughts. It is 
thus extremely important to analyse the trend of climate change in the 
Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh and to know whether it is being 
significantly encroached by desert from the neighbouring state of Rajasthan. 
For this, the study makes use of Moisture Index/ Drought Index/ Aridity 
Index (Thornthwaite and Mather 1955). The aim is to analyse the 
phenomenon of drought occurrence, or gradual desertification, in the 
catchment area of Chambal river basin, that is, the eight districts of Indore, 
Dewas, Dhar, Shajapur, Ujjain, Mandsaur, Ratlam and Neemuch. The study 
further attempts to empirically investigate whether these districts have 
experienced climate change over a century. Then a time-series based linkage 
was tried to be established between climate change pattern and drought 
occurrence. For climate change analysis, moisture index was calculated 
based on the centurial data of precipitation and potential evapotranspiration 
(India Water Portal 2016). Computation of Moisture Index or MI 
(Thornthwaite and Mather 1955) was simplified using annual average data 
(Krishnan 1992) as 

MI = [(P-PE)/PE]*100 

where;  

P = Precipitation;  

PE = Potential Evapotranspiration 



[79] Ganesh Kawadia and Era Tiwari 

 

Table 2: District categorisation as per moisture index 

District Value of average 
moisture index 

Climate 
zone 

Nature of trend 

Indore -67.61 Arid No Change 

Dewas -61.18 Arid No Change 

Dhar -68.45 Arid Increasing Trend* 

Mandsaur -59.97 Semi-arid No Change 

Neemuch -63.05 Arid No Change 

Ratlam -61.29 Arid No Change 

Shajapur -58.26 Semi-arid No Change 

Ujjain -60.73 Arid No Change 

Source: Authors 
Note: * denotes that results are significant at 5% level of significance 

Table 1: Moisture index value per zone 

Value of moisture 
index 

Climate zone 

< - 66.7 Arid 

- 66.7 to - 33.3 Semi-arid 

- 33.3 to 0 Dry sub-humid 

0 to +20 Moist sub-humid 

+ 20.1 to 99.9 Humid 

100 and More Per-humid 

Source: Thornthwaite and Mather (1955) 

The values of the index correspond to the humidity or aridity in an area. If 
value of the index is positive, it indicates humid atmospheric conditions; 
negative index value represents dry climate conditions. Table 1 depicts 
corresponding moisture index and the climate zone of the eight districts. 

Moisture is thus most inadequate 
in arid zones followed by semi-
arid and dry sub-humid regions. 
From moist and sub-humid 
zones onwards, the moisture is 
adequate for normal crop 
production. The eight districts of 
Chambal basin have been 
categorised into their prevailing 
climate zone on the basis of 
average moisture index obtained 

from the climate data spanning almost over a century (table 2). The trend is 
also identified with the help of regression equation and trend line (figure 1). 
As per Thornthwaite moisture index calculation six of the eight districts fall 
in the arid zone, the remaining two are semi-arid. There has been no 
significant change in the moisture index trend for the districts as per the 
centurial climate data. Only the Dhar district is depicting a significant 
increasing trend in the moisture index. This means that currently the district 
is under ‗arid‘ zone but gradually it will move in the ‗semi-arid‘ zone. Apart 
from Dhar, there are two more districts in the semi-arid zone, namely 
Mandsaur and Shajapur. One can conclude that no efforts have been made 
to shift the area from arid to semi-arid or humid zones. 

 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [80] 

 

 

Figure 1: Moisture index of all districts 

 
Dewas 

 
Indore 

 
Dhar 

 
Mandsaur 

 
Neemuch 

 
Ratlam 

 
Shazapur 

 
Ujjain 

 
Source: Authors 

Note:  — Moisture index;           Linear Trend (moisture) index  



[81] Ganesh Kawadia and Era Tiwari 

 

6.1.2. Comment on Special Characteristics of Dhar District  

As per moisture index, only Dhar district has shown a significant increasing 
trend. This means that currently the district is under ‗arid‘ zone but 
gradually it will move in the ‗semi-arid‘ zone. This can be well understood 
in the backdrop of special focus Dhar has received in the past as a drought-
prone district. Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development (IMSD) 
study was initiated in the year 1987 (Rao, et al. 1995) with specific reference 
to find scientific and lasting solution to mitigate droughts. Droughts have 
been a recurring feature in Indian agriculture from 1991 to 2000, and also 
earlier. Thus, some special districts were selected for systematic 
investigation. A specific study was carried out in the districts of Jhabua and 
Dhar, in Madhya Pradesh, using Composite Land Development Sites 
(CLDS) approach for forest and wasteland development and soil and water 
conservation in 1995 (IMSD 1995). This was followed by specific 
suggestions and treatments. Further, monitoring was done by Space 
Application Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad (Dasgupta, Dhinwa and Rajawat 
2015). This was done through visual interpretation and analysis of temporal 
images of the region from 1991 to 2013. The study had revealed that there 
is a substantial increase in the area of irrigated agricultural land with 
increase in number of check dams along with the stream channels. This has 
helped Dhar district‘s transition from arid zone towards semi-arid zone. It, 
thus, becomes clear that for non-arable soil conservation, rainwater 
harvesting and management of lands for fodder, fruit and fuel-wood 
production in the watershed perspective are the core strategies for fighting 
drought in the arid zones of India. As various water harvesting measures 
were adopted in Dhar district, the result came out in the form increased 
agricultural productivity. Thus, watershed development programmes were 
seen to have a positive impact in combating desertification. We, therefore, 
need to employ more of such techniques in the remaining arid zones to 
prevent them from getting gradually converted into deserts and to ensure 
food-security. 

6.1.3. Temperature and Pattern of Precipitation  

If sufficient water is available, then the temperature is the most important 
factor determining farm productivity in a region. The higher temperature 
eventually reduces crop yields, while encouraging weed and pest 
proliferation. Farmers‘ responses about a general change in temperature 
over time were traced. This reflected the change in seasonality, distribution, 
amount and intensity of temperature over time. As can be seen in table 3, 
around 78 per cent of farmers in the survey reported an increase in 
temperature of the study region. Changes in the precipitation patterns 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [82] 

 

Table 4: The sample distribution of 
farmers based on their observations 
about changes in precipitation 

Response about 
average precipitation 

Number of 
farmers 

(i) Increase  10 (2.13) 

(ii) Decrease 50 (10.64) 

(iii) No change 328 (69.77) 

(iv) No response on 
temperature 

82 (17.45) 

Total 470 (100.00) 

Note: Figures in the parentheses show 
percentages. 

Table 3: The sample distribution of 
farmers based on their observations 
about changes in temperature 

Response about 
change in temperature 

Number of 
farmers 

(i) Increase  364 (77.47) 

(ii) Decrease 62 (13.18) 

(iii) No change 29 (6.17) 

(iv) No response on 
temperature 

15 (3.18) 

Total 470 (100.00) 

Note: Figures in the parentheses show 
percentages. 

increase the likelihood of crop failures in the short term and production 
decline in the long term. Agriculture will be adversely affected not only by 
an increase or decrease in the 
overall amounts of rainfall but also 
by shifts in the timing of rainfall. It 
is thus extremely important that 
farmers‘ reporting about the 
changing trends of precipitation 
are analysed. In the sample, close 
to 70 per cent of farmers did not 
see a major change in 
precipitation, however, 11 per cent 
observed a clear decrease (table 4).  

6.1.4. Extreme Events  

With climate change, extreme 
weather occurrences have become 
more common and frequent. 
Longer and hotter heat waves, 
greater incidence of droughts, 
intense precipitation, heavy rains 
and floods have now become usual 
occurrences. It is important to 
know how farmers perceive the 
occurrence of such events in their 
regions. They were asked to give 
their observations of whether the 
occurrence of a particular climate-
event has increased, decreased or has remained constant in terms of its 
frequency and intensity in their region. The events on which their responses 
were gathered were drought, flood, hailstorm, heat-waves, cold-waves and 
frost.  

As can be seen in table 5, more than 70 per cent of the surveyed farmers 
observed that heat waves, frost and cold wave occurrences have increased. 
About 56 per cent surveyed farmers observed increase in hailstorms. About 
47 per cent of the farmers observed increase in droughts. About 70 per cent 
farmers there had been no significant change in the incidence of floods. 
Factors affecting farmers‘ perceptions were also explored. Farmers with a 
higher educational level, a higher income level and joint family mode of 
living were able to perceive climatic changes more correctly (Kawadia and 
Tiwari 2017). 



[83] Ganesh Kawadia and Era Tiwari 

 

Table 6: The sample distribution of 
farmers based on their observations about 
change in crop yield  

Change in crop yield Number of 
farmers 

(i) No change 10 (2.13) 

(ii) Significant increase 50 (10.64) 

(iii) Significant decrease 328 (69.78) 

(iv) Minor variation 82 (17.45) 

Total 470 (100.00) 

Note: Figures in the parentheses show 
percentages. 

Table 5: The sample distribution of farmers based on their observations 
about occurrence of extreme events 

Major contingency 
Number of farmers 

Increased Constant Decreased 

Drought 220 (46.81) 95 (20.21) 115 (32.98) 

Flood 13 (2.77) 328 (69.78) 129 (27.45) 

Hailstorm 264 (56.17) 178 (37.87) 28 (05.96) 

Heat waves 350 (74.47) 109 (23.19) 11 (02.34) 

Cold waves 330 (70.21) 117 (24.89) 23 (04.89) 

Frost 335 (71.28) 104 (22.13) 31 (06.59) 

Any other outbreaks 184 (39.15) 284 (60.42) 02 (00.43) 

Note: Figures in the parentheses show percentages. 

6.2. Impact of Climate Change on the Agricultural System of the 
Chambal Basin  

Crop growth simulation assessments in dryland or rainfed agriculture in 
tropical stations indicate yield reduction of some crops even with a minimal 
increase in temperature. If there is also a significant decrease in rainfall, 
tropical crop yields would be even more adversely affected. Some studies 

indicate that climate change 
would lower incomes of the 
vulnerable populations and 
increase the absolute number of 
people at risk of hunger. Climate 
change, mainly through 
increased extremes and 
temporal/spatial shifts, would 
worsen food security in some 
parts of the globe. This study 
attempts to analyse how farmers 
of the Malwa region respond to 
the change in their crop yield 

due to change in climatic conditions. Our survey found that 70 per cent of 
farmers reported a significant decrease in farm yield (table 6).  

The greatest impact of climate change was observed in case of availability of 
water, which affects the entire farming community — irrigation systems are 
affected and so also are the crops dependent on irrigation, while at the same 
time global warming increases the demand for water in irrigation. As it is 
important to trace whether farmers have perceived the change in climate 
correctly or not, farmers were queried on the change in frequency of 
irrigation required for their crops. As can be seen in table 7, around 60 per 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [84] 

 

Table 7: Sample distribution of farmers 
based on their observations about the 
extent of change in their irrigation 
frequency 

Extent of change in 
irrigation-frequency 

Number of 
farmers 

(i) No change 55 (11.70) 

(ii) Marginal 137 (29.14) 

(iii) One and a half times 78 (16.60) 

(iv) Double 175 (37.23) 

(v) More than double 25 (5.32) 

Note: Figures in the parentheses show 
percentages. 

Table 8: Sample distribution of farmers 
on the basis of their observations about 
increase in pest attack and diseases in 
crops 

Response about 
increase in pest attack 
and diseases in crops 

Number of 
farmers 

No 129 (27.45) 

Yes 341 (72.55) 

Total 470 (100) 

Note: Figures in the parentheses show 
percentages. 

cent of farmers reported greater than marginal increase in the irrigation 
frequency. Close to 40 per cent farmers in the sample reported 100 per cent 

increase in irrigation frequency 
over previous values. Climate 
change also encourages the 
spread of pests and invasive 
species and has already increased 
the geographical range of some 
diseases. In essence, it is altering 
the distribution pattern of animal 
and plant pests and diseases. The 
change in temperature, moisture 
and atmospheric gases accelerate 
growth rates of plants, fungi and 
insects, which alters the 

interaction between pests, their 
natural predators and hosts. In 
this regard, it is important to 
trace the farmers‘ response on 
whether there is an increase in 
pest attack and disease outbreak 
in crops in recent years. The 
survey found that 73 per cent of 
farmers confirmed the increase 
in pest attacks and occurrence of 
crop diseases due to climate 
change (table 8). 

6.3. Adaptation Strategies in the Chambal Basin  

Chambal basin primarily has rain-fed agriculture and groundwater level in 
the region has been continually on decline. As a result, climate change 
pressure of increased irrigation requirements on the available water 
resources has increased manifold. Improved water management is thus one 
of the most important long-term adaptation as well as protection options 
that region must pursue. A wide range of adaptation measures have been 
highlighted in this regard like improving water distribution strategies; 
changing crop and irrigation schedules; using rainwater more effectively; 
water recycling and the conjunctive use of groundwater. In this respect 
some major strategies were identified from the literature. These are: (i) 
planting trees (ii) soil conservation (iii) different crop varieties (iv) early and 



[85] Ganesh Kawadia and Era Tiwari 

 

Table 9: The sample distribution of 
farmers based on their adaptation 
strategies to fight climate change 

Adaptation strategies 
Number of 

farmers 

Water harvesting 395(84.02) 

Irrigation management 272(57.87) 

Early and late planting 205(43.62) 

Planting trees 119(25.32) 

Different crop varieties 114(24.25) 

Soil conservation 61(12.98) 

No Adaptation 16(3.40) 

Note: Figures in the parentheses show 
per centages. 

late planting / changing plant dates (v) water harvesting / improved water 
management. 

The farmers were thus queried about their chosen adaptation strategy to 
protect crop against climate change. Table 9 explains the various adaptation 
practices used by the farmers of the region. They are not mutually exclusive 
as farmers are practicing multiple adaptation techniques simultaneously as 
per their need and suitability.  

6.3.1. Water Harvesting / Improved Water Management 

Water harvesting was found to be the most popular adaptation strategy 
followed by the farmers of the Chambal basin. It is adopted by 84 per cent 
of the sampled farmers. It has specifically become popular since the launch 
of ambitious schemes like Khet Talab Yojana and Balram Taal Yojana. Water 
harvesting can be defined as a range of techniques for collecting rainwater. 

Water harvesting is 
economically beneficial for local 
farmers as it is the only feasible 
method of farming on degraded 
land devoid of other means of 
water for irrigation. It is also 
significant as a sustained source 
of irrigation for Rabi crops. 
Furthermore, it helps 
significantly in the recharge of 
groundwater resources of the 
region, adds greenery and in this 
way acts as a positive externality 
towards the overall ecology.  

6.3.2. Irrigation Management 

Improving the use of irrigation is generally perceived as an effective means 
of smoothing out yield volatility in rainfed systems. It has the potential to 
improve agricultural productivity through supplementing rainwater during 
dry spells and lengthening the growing season (Orindi and Eriksen 2005). 
Overall, improving the use of irrigation aids in averting the crop losses in 
areas subjected to recurrent cycle of drought.  

Around 58 per cent of the sample farmers used this method to fight climate 
change (Table 9). The farmers use plastic pipes for transporting water from 
the reserve to the farm. They also use sprinklers for efficient use of the 
available water. The government subsidy for proper water management has 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [86] 

 

played a major role in the adaptation of water harvesting and conservation 
measures (Orindi and Eriksen 2005). 

6.3.3. Early and Late Planting / Changing Plant Dates 

Altering the length of the growing period and varying planting and 
harvesting dates are among the crop management practices used in 
agriculture (Orindi and Eriksen 2005). This includes early and late planting 
options as a strategy to fight harmful effects of changing climate. The 
strategy helps to protect sensitive growth stages of crops by ensuring that 
these critical stages do not coincide with very harsh climatic conditions such 
as mid-season droughts. Early and late planting comes third in the sequence 
of importance among major adaptation strategies. This adaptation is 
followed by 44 per cent of the farmers surveyed (table 9). The Malwa region 
is now strictly following soybean-wheat annual crop cycle. As soybean is a 
Kharif crop and its growth cycle is strictly regulated by rainfall, changes in 
precipitation cycle certainly change its sowing and harvesting dates for the 
farmers. For example, many farmers have started opting now for the 95-60 
soybean varieties instead of the regular variety of soybean planted earlier. 
Wheat can be sown only after the harvesting of soybean in Rabi season; 
therefore, wheat planting dates also change accordingly. Farmers are 
practicing early sowing date and quicker maturing variety of soybean so that 
they can use soil moisture following the rainy season for the next crop like 
wheat, gram, mustard and other crops of Rabi sessions. The monsoon 
season in the region normally extends up to the end of September or some 
time to the early October. This provides enough moisture for the 
cultivation of the next crop. This has not only increased the cropping 
intensity but made the Malwa the bowl of wheat and soybean. 

6.3.4. Plantation  

Planting trees or afforestation, in general, provides a particular example of a 
set of adaptation practices that are intended to enhance productivity in a 
way that often contributes to climate change mitigation through enhanced 
carbon sequestration. It also has a role to play in strengthening the system‘s 
ability to cope with adverse impacts of changing climate conditions. It also 
contributes to temperature stabilization in the region. The farmers of the 
region thus follow tree plantation, particularly along the water harvesting 
structures. Almost 25 per cent of the sampled farmers undertake tree 
plantation as a method to avert climate change impact (table 9). This has 
increased the vegetation cover in the region.  

 

 



[87] Ganesh Kawadia and Era Tiwari 

 

6.3.5. Crop Diversification Varieties  

Switching over to varieties that are early maturing and drought tolerant 
and/or resistant to temperature stresses, the farmers save their crops from 
rainfall fluctuations as well as add variety (Orindi and Eriksen 2005). There 
is evidence that growing different crop varieties on the same plot or on 
different plots reduces the risk of complete crop failure as different crops 
are affected differently by climate events, and this in turn gives some 
minimum assured returns for livelihood security. The pattern of crop 
diversification and its emerging trends in the Malwa region have already 
been discussed in detail in a previous chapter. In the survey, approximately 
24 per cent of the farmers favoured adoption of different crop varieties and 
25 per cent support planting of trees on their fields as an essential strategy 
to ward-off negative impacts of climate change (table 9). Nihaal Singh 
Tomar from Harnawada village in Dewas district succinctly mentioned that 
the only way to ensure sustained production in the wake of climate change 
was to make a pond in the field to capture rainwater and to plant trees in 
the field. 

6.3.6. Soil Conservation  

The adoption of practices and technologies that enhance vegetative soil 
coverage and control soil erosion are crucial to ensuring greater resilience of 
production systems to increased rainfall events, extended intervals between 
rainfall events, and potential soil loss from extreme climate events. 
Improving soil management and conservation techniques assist in restoring 
the soil while also capturing soil carbon and limiting the oxidation of 
organic matter in the soil. Soil conservation automatically gets ensured by 
following all the above-mentioned strategies; however, soil conservation 
issue was highlighted by only around 13 per cent of the sampled farmers 
(table 9). Only a minuscule 3 per cent of the farmers said that they were not 
going for any specific adaptation strategy (table 9). This makes it clear that 
almost all the farmers of the Chambal basin are aware of the negative 
impact climate change has on the production trends and taking appropriate 
mitigative steps. 

6.4. Irrigation Profile of the Farmers 

The beneficial adaptation in the fight against these problems is to work on 
optimum irrigation and better rainwater harvesting facilities. In this study, 
the emphasis was laid on knowing the irrigation profile of the surveyed 
farmers, that is the sources used for irrigation, for example, tube-well, pond, 
well, etc. This has been shown in table 10. 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [88] 

 

Table 10: Representation of Irrigation Profile of Farmers 

Source of irrigation   Tube-well Pond Well 

Number of farmers 177 307 219 

Total number of source 347 357 317 

Average number of source per farmer 1.96 1.16 1.45 

Average investment per source (in Rs.) 220288.18 263674.35 385063.09 

Average investment per farmer (in Rs.) 441849.71 299003.27 610325 

Average water withdrawal/ hour per 
source 

6.81 6.74 4.42 

Average water withdrawal/ hour per 
farmer 

13.74 6.81 6.48 

Source: Authors 

A majority of the farmers in the survey sample use pond as their major 
source of irrigation (65 per cent), followed by well (47 per cent) and tube-
well (25 per cent). This shows that importance and usage of ponds has 
greatly accelerated in recent times and has reduced farmers‘ dependence on 
groundwater resources. Thus, rainwater harvesting as an adaptation has 
lived up to the expectations of the farmer. Farmers from Harnawada village 
in Dewas district emphasise that since the ponds have been constructed in 
the village on the fields of the farmers, it is symbolic death of the tube-well. 
Villagers testify decline in the use of tube-wells since the adoption of rain-
water harvesting techniques, which, according to the farmers, has helped 
them significantly in retaining the soil moisture after the rains. This 
indicates that rainwater harvesting is not only ecologically beneficial but also 
cost-effective in terms of per unit water consumption. 

6.5. Tracing Farmers’ Responses on Effectiveness of Varied 
Adaptations (Case Studies) 

The farmers of Indore district are the main beneficiaries of recently 
launched Balram Taal Yojana. Semaliya Raimal and Kampel villages are 
good examples of excellent work in water harvesting. Yashwant Patel from 
Semaliya Raimal underlined the importance of the Yojana and its benefits to 
people when he said that it has helped the villagers in maintaining the stock 
of water in their fields, enhanced profits significantly, and fulfilled their 
irrigation needs. Krishnapal Singh Daangi from the same village added that 
rainwater harvesting has made him self-reliant as it improved his farm 
production by leaps and bounds. Vishnu Daangi, another farmer, said that 
as the area sub-soil is full of stones, tubewell-recharge is not good even 
when the region has abundant rains. In such situations, rainwater harvesting 
is a blessing. Dilip Patel states that because of water harvesting he has 
stopped borrowing for agricultural needs as it has made taking two-three 



[89] Ganesh Kawadia and Era Tiwari 

 

crops in year possible and is thus increasing his total income. Kansingh 
Daangi, also a farmer, said water harvesting brought him an overall better 
life as it made it possible for him to make a pakka house and send his kids 
to good schools for education. 

In Shadadev, a village adjacent to Semaliya Raimal, farmer Pawan Singh 
describes the advantages of water harvesting. He says that before they 
began water harvesting, they were compelled to do irrigation by drawing 
water directly from Shipra. As it was an illegal practice, farmers were fined 
Rs. 20,000 to Rs. 25,000. But after farmers started rainwater harvesting, 
irrigation difficulties are sorted. The farmers‘ experiences from Kampel 
village have also been on similar lines. Sunil Nimadia states that rainwater 
harvesting ensures available water is conserved and it also helps recharge 
water table. Other villages of Indore district where water harvesting has 
been carried out substantially are Paaliya, Faraspur, Rawad, Balodatakun, 
Atawada, Nevary, Matabarodi and Kadwaali Bujurg. Farmers responses 
from these villages have been on similar lines. They have also reported 
increased water level, tubewell recharge, less dependence on rainfall, a 
greater area for crop production, sustained irrigation facility for Rabi crops 
and last but not the least enhanced socio-economic status with better 
educational facilities for education for their children. 

Arjun Singh from Pedmi village, Indore district, explains that in his area 
Kumbi, Beed are big Naalas but there is no dam on them. If stop dams are 
made on them, wastage of water can be minimised. Mahendra Singh 
Chouhan from Mhowgoan village gives an overview of different adaptation 
measures by saying that adaptation, in essence, is a long-term process with 
many benefits. It includes a wide range of measures like those of plantation, 
construction of ponds, soil conservation, soil testing, save water campaign, 
etc. These contribute to farming as well as to the environment.  

Dewas district is a pioneer in water harvesting activities in the Chambal 
basin. Tonk Khurd Tehseel is world-famous for the ponds being 
constructed here under the ambitious Khet Talab or Rewa Sagar Yojana. 
Jujhaar Singh Tomar from Harnawada village says that there has been a 
great increase in the yield of wheat and gram in the area along with a 
substantial increase in green cover since the practice of rainwater harvesting 
began. He suggests more investment in water harvesting and tree 
plantations. Forak Singh Tomar from the same village urges that the 
Government increase subsidy on the construction of pond in the field from 
Rs. 80,000 to Rs. 200,000. Mansingh Tomar says that there has been a 200 
per cent increase in production from his field due to rainwater harvesting. 
All the farmers say that tree plantation in their fields was the next best 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [90] 

 

adaptation measure after rainwater harvesting. Sheshnarayan Patel from 
Gorwa village also stated his production got doubled. Water harvesting is 
extremely important for water conservation and ecology. Varied types of 
animals and plants are now noted in the village. Deers are now easily visible 
in the area. Vishnu from the same village drew attention to soil 
conservation as a result of water harvesting activities. Uday Singh Khiswi, 
also from Gorwa, said improved situation encourages him for hard work as 
water harvesting has made it possible to expect sure returns from farming. 
He further says that the Government should ban deep tube-wells in the 
area and encourage construction of ponds instead.  

The districts of Mandsaur and Neemuch are in the vicinity of Gandhi Sagar 
Dam and Retam Barrage. These two districts have seen substantial work in 
water harvesting and well-recharge activities. Villages of Kachnara, 
Borkhedi and Haripura were covered in Mandsaur district. Gobar Singh 
from Kachnara says that rainwater harvested is also used to recharge wells.. 
Kishan Singh says that well-recharge has helped him get additional income 
from production of fruits like mangoes, papaya and pomegranate in his 
fields. Madho Singh Borona from the same village emphasises improved 
crop yield due to water harvesting. He suggested that water can be 
transferred from one dam to another by linking them with canals. Earlier 
the region was continuously under drought. Now, the farmers are 
prosperous, while earlier they used to work as daily wage labourers. The 
farmers from Borkhedi also told a similar story. Kamal Singh Shamsawat 
from the village says his farm production has increased to a great extent as 
he now gets three crops in a year. Under Kapildhara scheme, 28 wells have 
been constructed and all farmers have been provided with Kisan Credit 
Cards. The construction of Retam Barrage in the year 2000 has benefitted 
the farmers. The water supply is now ensured for a fee charged based on 
irrigated land in hectare. He also emphasised soil conservation as a major 
adaptation measure in saving agriculture from the harmful impacts of 
climate change. Hiralal Ojha and Deepsingh Sattawat also cited the 
advantage of building dam; they said, they have started sugarcane farming 
because of it. They have also started cultivating coriander. They also 
supported soil conservation and plantation of trees. Ramcharan Rewari 
from Haripura said that water harvesting has considerably increased his 
basket of production, which now includes wheat, coriander, gram, isabgol, 
flaxseed, mustard, fenugreek etc. He supported soil conservation and 
proper soil testing as the major method of adaptation apart from water 
harvesting and implementation of new and improved methods of irrigation.  

Finally, concerning efficacy of various adaptation measures, this study 
examines the farmers‘ response in Neemuch district. The villages covered 



[91] Ganesh Kawadia and Era Tiwari 

 

here included Barlai, Hatunia, and Pipliya Ghota. Rahul Patidar from Barlai 
says that he has now an orange orchard of his own due to water harvesting. 
He also favoured plantation of trees as an adaptation measure. Vishnu 
Prasad Patidarhas says that he could grow a variety of crops like orange, 
garlic, wheat, coriander and fenugreek only because of water harvesting. 
Shambhulal Patidaar said that water harvesting is giving him an annual 
return of at least four lakh rupees through improved farm productivity. He 
emphasised organic farming and plantation of trees as an adaptation 
measure. 

In the village of Hatunia, there are around 280 to 300 ponds. Here, 
tubewells and hand-pumps are not successful. Farmers are engaged in 
agricultural activities only because of water harvesting. Satyanarayan from 
this village supports construction of more ponds as well as plantation of 
trees as the main adaptation measure to sustain in the face of climate 
change. Villagers from Pipliya Ghota also mainly follow water harvesting, 
seek enhancement of subsidy for that, plantation of trees and soil 
conservation as adaptation measures for changing climate. 

6.6. Maladaptation: Soybean and Wheat based Monoculture  

A ‗maladaptation‘ is a trait that is (or has become) more harmful than 
helpful, in contrast to an adaptation, which is more helpful than harmful. 
So, farming practices that though have increased farmers‘ production and 
income in the short run but become a severe danger in the long run, if 
continued unabated, can be effectively called maladaptation. One such 
maladaptation in the Malwa region is ‗monoculture‘. Monoculture is the 
practice of producing a single crop over a long period in a certain area. The 
practice of monoculture gets usually stimulated by political and economic 
incentives. Specialisation brings obvious benefits to the economy of scale in 
terms of higher yields and easier mechanisation techniques; however, there 
are disadvantages associated with monocultures. Monocultures lead to 
easier spread of diseases and pests, thereby decreasing resilience to climate 
change variability that often induces additional stress on plants. 
Additionally, when the produced crop is negatively affected by changing 
weather or biophysical conditions, farm income may be severely affected. 
For these reasons, moving towards diversification reduces the risks of 
maladaptation (Lin 2011). The Malwa region is a classic text-book example 
of such kind of monoculture. The area, since 1980s, has become a 
specialised zone of soybean-wheat annual cycle-based production. Soybean 
plants usually grow at ambient temperatures between 15°C and 27°C, 
although temperature below 21°C and above 32 °C may reduce flowering. 
Temperatures exceeding 40°C (104°F) are detrimental to seed production. 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [92] 

 

Soybean is adapted to grow in a wide range of soils and climates but 
requires adequate soil moisture for germination and seedling establishment. 
Soybean has flourished well in the Malwa region with many growth 
conditions getting satisfied simultaneously.  

The soybean success story caught headlines not only regionally but also at 
the national level. The Malwa has practically given up on production of 
crops like maize, sugarcane and especially cotton after soybean success. 
However, this specialisation has reduced crop-diversification in the region. 
Also, this monoculture has been sustained by continuous groundwater 
exploitation. Since the 1980‘s the Malwa region has become increasingly 
tube-well dependent to sustain its crop-cycle. During the survey, it was 
found that villages like Jalodiya-Panth in Depalpur Tehsil of Indore district 
had as many as 500-600 tube wells with a depth ranging from 250 to 500 
feet. The whole region is sustained on irrigation from groundwater 
resources and in recent times hit severe water shortages, not only for 
irrigation but also for drinking purposes in the wake of its fast depletion. 

Hence, such a crop-cycle suffers a serious threat. The maladaptation thus 
needs to be balanced by a suitable adaptation that may ensure sustained 
water supply for irrigation. Besides, soybean-wheat crop cycle has high risks 
of infestation by widespread pests. Many farmers from the survey 
corroborated to such incidences. A farmer from Dhaturiya Village in Dewas 
district said that soybean crop in the district in recent times suffered from 
severe caterpillar attack and fungal attack. Soybean crop also suffered 
severely due to the acute shortage of rainfall during the growing stage. This 
was coupled with a rise in temperatures beyond 32°C, many a time crossing 
40°C, severely affecting the crop. Warm temperatures and high humidity 
are conducive for the fungus that leads to the development of soybean rust. 
Soybean gets totally destroyed in case of untimely torrential rains; this is 
known as jal jaana in the local language. Thus, both extreme drought 
conditions with high temperatures as well as torrential excessive rains are 
harmful to the crop. 

 

7. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS  

As per moisture index, six out of eight districts in the study region lie in the 
arid zone, clearly indicating a movement towards desertification of the 
region. Nature of climate change in the Chambal basin was also explored 
through farmers‘ observations about change in temperature, precipitation 
and occurrence of extreme events. Farmers reported an increase in 
temperature with a clear majority of around 73 per cent. They reported an 



[93] Ganesh Kawadia and Era Tiwari 

 

increase in the occurrence of heatwaves, cold waves, frost and droughts in 
the region. The decrease in precipitation was, however, noted by only a few 
farmers. There were thus indications of increasing aridity in the study-
region. The impact of the climatic change was analysed through farmers‘ 
responses about changes in crop-yields, the extent of change in irrigation 
frequency as well as the spread of pest-infestation and disease occurrence in 
plants. Around 70 per cent of farmers reported a decrease in crop yield, 
while close to 60 per cent of farmers reported greater than a marginal 
increase in irrigation-frequency. As much as 40 per cent of the total 
sampled farmers reported a 100 per cent increase in irrigation frequency. 
About three-quarters of the total sampled farmers reported an increase in 
pest attack and disease occurrence in crops.  

From the survey responses, the study considers crop diversification, 
changing plant dates, soil conservation and soil testing, increasing rainwater 
capture, construction of stop dams on nalaas, and tree plantations as the 
major adaptation strategies farmers perceive as appropriate for rain-fed 
agriculture. Water harvesting was found to be the most important 
adaptation measure followed by crop diversification. The case for water 
harvesting got established by the transition of Dhar district from the arid to 
the semi-arid zone as per moisture index-based analysis. It also became 
clear from the survey of the farmers that adaptation measures to climate 
change cannot be considered in isolation, but relative to the impacts of 
other exogenous sectoral changes. The issue of ‗maladaptation‘ of soybean-
wheat monoculture has accentuated the crisis in the region. This has 
severely resulted in groundwater depletion in the region and there has been 
thus overall damage to the ecosystem. Therefore, there are social costs as 
well as ecological limits to crop-based adaptations in the region. Hence, 
gross market and institutional failures that make farmers very vulnerable 
come at the forefront. In short, the key lesson to emerge is that the 
prioritisation of appropriate adaptation measures needs to be contextual 
and fit the capacity of local institutional and legal frameworks. Water 
harvesting measures should be specially strengthened by the policy in the 
study region to cope with changing climate and its effects on the 
agricultural sector. Mainstreaming adaptation strategies is thus to be 
considered as the most important policy intervention. 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This study is a part of a Major Research Project entitled ―A Study of 
Climate Change and Agriculture in the Catchment Area of Chambal River‖ 
funded by Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi 



Ecology, Economy and Society–the INSEE Journal [94] 

 

under Project Director Ganesh Kawadia. Era Tiwari was involved with the 
project in the capacity of Research Associate at School of Economics, Devi 
Ahilya University, Indore. Authors are thankful to ICSSR, New Delhi for 
their financial support [grant number 02/302/2011RP]. 

 

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